Freedom of religion 46006 224962011 2008-07-11T05:31:05Z 209.55.90.197 /* Secular law */ {{Redirect4|Freedom of Worship|Freedom to Worship|the 1943 painting/poster|[[Freedom to Worship (painting)]]}} [[Image:Declaration of Human Rights.jpg|thumb|right|The ''[[Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen]]'' guarantees freedom of religion, as long as religious activities do not infringe on public order in ways detrimental to society.]] '''Freedom of religion ''' is the freedom of an individual or community, in public or private, to manifest religion or belief in teaching, practice, worship, and observance. It is generally recognized to also include the freedom to change religion or to not follow any religion. Freedom of religion is considered by many in many nations and people to be a fundamental [[human right]]. <Ref> {{cite web |url=http://usinfo.state.gov/dd/eng_democracy_dialogues/religion/religion_essay.html |title=The Evolution of Religious Liberty as a Universal Human Right |accessdate=2006-12-05 |last=Davis |first=Derek H. }}</Ref> In a country with a [[state religion]] freedom of religion is generally considered to mean that the government permits religious practices of other sects besides the state religion, and does not persecute believers in other faiths. Today there are concerns about the persecution of religious minorities in the [[Muslim world]] and in some [[Communism|Communist]] states such as [[China]] and [[North Korea]], as well as other forms of intolerance in other countries, for example banning the wearing of prominent religious articles such as the [[Hijab|Muslim veil]] in some contexts in European countries. <Ref>{{cite web|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/5414098.stm|title=The Islamic veil across Europe |accessdate=2006-12-02 |publisher=BBC News}}</Ref> Freedom of religion as a legal concept is related to, but not identical with, [[religious toleration]], [[separation of church and state]], or ''[[laïcité]]'' (a [[secular state]]). Where individuals and not governments are concerned, religious toleration is generally taken to refer to an attitude of acceptance towards other people's religions. Such toleration does not require that one view other religions as equally true; rather, the assumption is that each citizen will grant that others have the right to hold and practice their own beliefs. Against this backdrop proselytism can be a contentious issue, as it could be regarded as an offense against the validity of others' religious beliefs, including the belief in no religion at all. The [[Universal Declaration of Human Rights]] adopted by the fifty eight Member States of the [[United Nations General Assembly]] on [[December 10]] [[1948]], at the [[Palais de Chaillot]] in [[Paris]], [[France]] defines freedom of religion and belief as follows: "Everyone has the right to freedom of thought, conscience and religion; this right includes freedom to change his religion or belief, and freedom, either alone or in community with others and in public or private, to manifest his religion or belief in teaching, practice, worship, and observance." {{Status of religious freedom}} ==History of freedom of religion== Historically ''freedom of religion'' has been used to refer to the tolerance of different theological systems of belief, while ''freedom of worship'' was defined as freedom of individual action. Each of these have existed to varying degrees. While many countries have accepted some form of religious freedom, this has also often been limited in practice through punitive taxation, repressive social legislation, and political disenfranchisement. Compare examples of individual freedom in [[Italy]] or the [[Muslim]] tradition of [[dhimmi]]s, literally "protected individuals" professing an officially tolerated non-Muslim religion. ===Antiquity=== In [[Classical antiquity|Antiquity]] a [[syncretism|syncretic]] point-of-view often allowed communities of traders to operate under their own customs. When street mobs of separate quarters clashed in a [[Hellenistic]] or [[Ancient Rome|Roman]] city, the issue was generally perceived to be an infringement of community rights. The Greek-Jewish clashes at [[Cyrene]] provided one example of cosmopolitan cities as scenes of tumult. Some of the historical exceptions have been in regions where one of the revealed religions has been in a position of power: [[Judaism]], [[Zoroastrianism]], [[Christianity]] and [[Islam]]. Others have been where the established order has felt threatened, as shown in the [[trial of Socrates]] or where the ruler has been deified, as in Rome, and refusal to offer token [[sacrifice]] was similar to refusing to take an [[oath of allegiance]]. This was the core for resentment and the [[Persecution of Christians|persecution of early Christian communities]]. The first mother of religious freedom was established in the ancient [[Persian Empire]] by its founder [[Cyrus the Great]] in the 6th century BC, as stated in his [[Cyrus cylinder]]. Freedom of religious worship was established in the [[Maurya Empire]] of [[History of India|ancient India]] by [[Ashoka the Great]] in the 3rd century BC, which was encapsulated in the [[Edicts of Ashoka]]. ===Canada=== See: '''[[religious freedom in Canada]]''' ===Europe=== [[Image:CrossMenorahOxford 20051225KaihsuTai.jpg|thumb|right|The [[Christian cross|cross]] of the [[war memorial]] and a [[Menorah (Temple)|menorah]] for [[Hanukkah]] coexist in [[Oxford]].]] The Norman [[Kingdom of Sicily]] under [[Roger II of Sicily|Roger II]] was characterised by its multi-ethnic nature and religious tolerance. Normans, Jews, Muslim Arabs, Byzantine Greeks, Longobards and "native" Sicilians lived in harmony.<ref>[http://concise.britannica.com/ebc/article-9377080/Roger-II Roger II - Encyclopædia Britannica]</ref><ref>[http://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=9B0DE1D61331F935A15757C0A961948260&sec=&spon=&pagewanted=2 Tracing The Norman Rulers of Sicily]</ref> Rather than exterminate the Muslims of Sicily, Roger II's grandson Emperor [[Frederick II, Holy Roman Emperor|Frederick II of Hohenstaufen]] (1215—1250) allowed them to settle on the mainland and build mosques. Not least, he enlisted them in his — Christian — army and even into his personal bodyguards.<ref>[http://www.royalist.info/execute/biog?person=3527 Frederick II: A Medieval Emperor]</ref> The General Charter of Jewish Liberties known as the [[Statute of Kalisz]] was issued by the Duke of [[Greater Poland]] [[Boleslaus the Pious]] on [[September 8]] [[1264]] in [[Kalisz]]. The statute served as the basis for the legal position of Jews in Poland and led to creation of the [[Yiddish]]-speaking autonomous Jewish nation until 1795. The statute granted exclusive jurisdiction of [[Jewish]] courts over Jewish matters and established a separate tribunal for matters involving Christians and Jews. Additionally, it guaranteed personal liberties and safety for Jews including freedom of religion, travel, and trade. The statute was ratified by subsequent Polish Kings: [[Casimir III of Poland]] in 1334, [[Casimir IV of Poland]] in 1453 and [[Sigismund I of Poland]] in 1539. The first full religious freedom law (wich wasn't just a tolerance as in other countries) what had "act rank" created by [[Edict_of_Turda]] in [[Transylvania]] , and accepted by [[hungarian]] [[székely]] and saxon part of the [[diet]]. After the fall of the city of [[Granada]] Spain in 1492 the Muslim population was promised religious freedom by the [[Treaty of Granada]], but that promise was short-lived. In 1501 Granada's Muslims were given an ultimatum to either convert to Christianity or to emigrate. The majority converted, but only superficially, continuing to dress and speak as they had before and to secretly practice [[Islam]]. The [[Morisco]]s (converts to Christianity) were ultimately expelled from [[Spain]] between 1609 (Castile) and 1614 (rest of Spain), by [[Philip III of Spain#Expulsion of the Moors (1609–1610)|Philip III]]. The [[Roman Catholic Church]] kept a tight rein on religious expression throughout the [[Middle Ages]]. Jews were alternately tolerated and persecuted, the most notable examples of the latter being the expulsion of all [[History of the Jews in Spain|Jews]] from Spain in 1492. Some of those who remained and converted were tried as heretics in the [[Inquisition]] for allegedly practicing Judaism in secret. Despite the persecution of Jews, they were the most tolerated non-Catholic faith in Europe. However, the latter was in part a reaction to the growing movement that became the [[Reformation]]. As early as 1380, [[John Wycliffe]] in England denied [[transubstantiation]] and began his translation of the Bible into English. He was condemned in a [[Papal Bull]] in 1410, and all his books were burned. In 1414 [[Jan Hus]], a [[Bohemia]]n preacher of reformation, was given a safe conduct by the Holy Roman Emperor to attend the [[Council of Constance]]. Not entirely trusting in his safety, he made his will before he left. His forebodings proved accurate, and he was burned at the stake on [[July 6]] [[1415]]. The Council also decreed that Wycliffe's remains be disinterred and cast out. This decree was not carried out until 1428. [[Martin Luther]] published his famous 95 Theses in [[Wittenberg]] on [[October 31]] [[1517]]. His aim was to stop the sale of [[indulgence]]s and reform the Church from within, but this was not the result. In 1521 he was given the chance to recant at the [[Diet of Worms]] before [[Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor]], then only 19. After he refused to recant he was declared heretic. Partly for his own protection, he was sequestered on the [[Wartburg]] in the possessions of [[Frederick III, Elector of Saxony]], where he translated the [[New Testament]] into German. He was excommunicated by Papal Bull in 1521. The [[Protestant]] movement, however, continued to gain ground in his absence and spread to [[Switzerland]]. [[Huldrych Zwingli]] preached reform in [[Zürich]] from 1520 to 1523. He opposed the sale of indulgences, celibacy, pilgrimages, pictures, statues, relics, altars, and organs. This culminated in outright war between the Swiss [[cantons of Switzerland|canton]]s that accepted Protestantism and the Catholics. The Catholics were victorious, and Zwingli was killed in battle in 1531. The Catholic cantons were magnanimous in victory. In the meantime, in Germany [[Philip Melanchthon]] drafted the [[Augsburg Confession]] as a common confession for the Lutherans and the free territories. It was presented to Charles V in 1530. The defiance of Papal authority proved contagious, and in 1533, when [[Henry VIII of England]] was excommunicated for his divorce and remarriage to Anne Boleyn, he promptly established a state church with bishops appointed by the crown. This was not without internal opposition, and [[Thomas More]], who had been his prime minister, was executed in 1535 for opposition to Henry. In 1535 the Swiss canton of [[Geneva]] became Protestant, but the Protestants often proved as intolerant of differences of opinion as the Catholics. In 1536 the [[Bern]]ese imposed the reformation on the canton of [[Vaud]] by conquest. They sacked the cathedral in [[Lausanne]] and destroyed all its art and statuary. [[John Calvin]], who had been active in Geneva was expelled in 1538 in a power struggle, but he was invited back in 1540. [[Image:ReligiousFreedomStamp.jpg|thumb|left|200 px|A [[U.S. Postage Stamp]] commemorating religious freedom and the [[Flushing Remonstrance]].]] The same kind of seesaw back and forth between Protestantism and Catholicism was evident in England when [[Mary I of England]] returned that country briefly to the Catholic fold in 1553. However, her half-sister, [[Elizabeth I of England]] was to restore the [[Church of England]] in 1558, this time permanently. The [[King James Bible]] commissioned by King [[James I of England]] and published in 1611 proved a landmark for Protestant worship. However, intolerance of dissident forms of Protestantism continued, as evidenced by the exodus of the [[Pilgrims]] who sought refuge, first in the [[Netherlands]], and ultimately in America, founding the [[Plymouth Colony]] in [[Massachusetts]] in 1620. [[William Penn]], the founder of [[Philadelphia]] was involved in a case which had a profound effect upon future American law and those of England. In a classic case of [[jury nullification]] the jury refused to convict William Penn of preaching a [[Quaker]] sermon, which was illegal. Even though the jury was imprisoned for their acquittal, they stood by their decision and helped establish the freedom of religion. In the [[Holy Roman Empire]], [[Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor|Charles V]] agreed to tolerate Lutheranism in 1555 at the [[Peace of Augsburg]]. Each state was to take the religion of its prince, but within those states, there was not necessarily religious tolerance. Citizens of other faiths could relocate to a more hospitable environment. In 1558 the [[Transylvania]]n [[Diet (assembly)|Diet]] of [[Turda]] declared free practice of both the [[Roman Catholic Church|Catholic]] and [[Lutheranism|Lutheran]] religions, but prohibited [[Calvinism]]. Ten years later, in 1568, the Diet extended the freedom to all religions, declaring that "It is not allowed to anybody to intimidate anybody with captivity or expelling for his religion". The Edict of Turda is considered by mostly Hungarian historians as the first legal guarantee of religious freedom in the Christian Europe. In France, although peace was made between Protestants and Catholics at the [[Treaty of Saint Germain]] in 1570, persecution continued, most notably in the [[Massacre of Saint Bartholomew's Day]] on [[August 24]] [[1572]], in which many Protestants throughout France were killed. It was not until the converted Protestant prince [[Henry IV of France]] came to the throne that religious tolerance was formalized in the [[Edict of Nantes]] in 1598. It would remain in force for over 80 years until its revocation in 1685 by [[Louis XIV of France]]. Intolerance remained the norm until the [[French Revolution]], when state religion was abolished and all Church property confiscated. In 1573 the [[Warsaw Confederation (1573)|Warsaw Confederation]] formalized, in the newly formed [[Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth]], the freedom of religion that had a long tradition in the [[Kingdom of Poland (1385–1569)|Kingdom of Poland]]. The first extensive [[History of Jews in Poland|Jewish]] emigration from Western Europe to Poland occurred at the time of the [[First Crusade]] in 1098. Under [[Boleslaus III of Poland|Boleslaus III]] (1102&ndash;1139), the Jews, encouraged by the tolerant régime of this ruler, settled throughout Poland, including over the border into [[Lithuania]]n territory as far as [[Kiev]]. The [[Lipka Tatars|Tatars]] who settled in Lithuania, Ruthenia and modern-day eastern Poland were allowed to preserve their [[Islamic]] religion in exchange for military service. Bohemia (present-day [[Czech Republic]]) enjoyed religious freedom between 1436 and 1620, and became one of the most liberal countries of the Christian world during that period of time. The so-called [[Bohemia#Hussite Bohemia|Basel Compacts of 1436]] declared the freedom of religion and peace between Catholics and [[Utraquism|Utraquists]]. In 1609 Emperor [[Rudolf II]] granted Bohemia greater religious liberty with his Letter of Majesty. The privileged position of the Catholic Church in the [[List of rulers of Bohemia|Czech kingdom]] was firmly established after the [[Battle of White Mountain]] in 1620. Gradually freedom of religion in [[Czech lands|Bohemian lands]] came to an end and Protestants fled or were expelled from the country. A devout Catholic, Emperor [[Ferdinand II, Holy Roman Emperor|Ferdinand II]] forcibly converted Austrian and Bohemian Protestants. ===United States=== : ''See also: [[Freedom of Religion in the United States]]'' Some of the early colonies, although many of them were founded as a result of religious persecution, were not tolerant of dissident forms of worship. For example, [[Roger Williams (theologian)|Roger Williams]] found it necessary to found a new colony in [[Rhode Island]] to escape persecution in the theocratically dominated colony of Massachusetts. It was not until the 18th century that [[Age of Enlightenment|Enlightenment]] concepts of freedom of individual worship gained ground both in Europe and America. The modern legal concept of religious freedom as the union of ''freedom of belief'' and ''freedom of worship'' with the absence of any state-sponsored religion, originated in the [[United States of America]]. This issue was addressed by [[Thomas Paine]] in his pamphlet, [[Common Sense (pamphlet)|''Common Sense'']] (1776): : ''"As to religion, I hold it to be the indispensable duty of all government, to protect all conscientious professors thereof, and I know of no other business which government hath to do therewith…'' The [[Virginia Statute for Religious Freedom]], written in 1779 by [[Thomas Jefferson]], proclaimed: : ''"[N]o man shall be compelled to frequent or support any religious worship, place, or ministry whatsoever, nor shall be enforced, restrained, molested, or burthened in his body or goods, nor shall otherwise suffer, on account of his religious opinions or belief; but that all men shall be free to profess, and by argument to maintain, their opinions in matters of religion, and that the same shall in no wise diminish, enlarge, or affect their civil capacities." '' ===Asia=== Freedom of religion in the [[Indian subcontinent]] is exemplified by the reign of King Piyadasi (304 B.C to 232 B.C) ([[Asoka]]). One of King Asoka's main concerns was to reform governmental institutes and exercise moral principles in his attempt to create a [[Edicts of Ashoka|just and humane society]]. Later he promoted the principles of [[Buddhism]], and the creation of a just, understanding and fair society was held as an important principle for many ancient rulers of this time in the East. The importance of [[freedom of worship]] in India was encapsulated in an inscription of [[Asoka]]: {{Quotation|King Piyadasi (Ashok) dear to the Gods, honours all sects, the ascetics (hermits) or those who dwell at home, he honours them with charity and in other ways. But the King, dear to the Gods, attributes less importance to this charity and these honours than to the vow of seeing the reign of virtues, which constitutes the essential part of them. For all these virtues there is a common source, modesty of speech. That is to say, One must not exalt one’s creed discrediting all others, nor must one degrade these others Without legitimate reasons. One must, on the contrary, render to other creeds the honour befitting them.''}} Religious freedom and the right to worship freely was a practice that had been appreciated and promoted by most ancient India dynasties. This had been the underlying attitude of most rulers of [[India]] since this period from before 300 B.C. until 1200 AD. The initial entry of [[Islam]] into [[South Asia]] came in the first century after the death of the Prophet [[Muhammad]]. When around 1210 AD the [[Islamic empires in India|Islamic Sultanates]] invaded India from the north-east, gradually the principle of freedom of religion deteriorated in this part of the world. They were subsequently replaced by another [[Islamic]] invader in the form of [[Babur]]. The [[Mughal]] empire was founded by the Mongol leader [[Babur]] in 1526, when he defeated [[Ibrahim Lodi]], the last of the [[Delhi Sultanate|Delhi Sultans]] at the [[First Battle of Panipat]]. The word "Mughal" is the Indo-Iranian version of [[Mongol]]. ==Contemporary debates== The contemporary idea of religious freedom as a human right remains a contested topic. The major areas of debate are listed below. ===Islam=== Some Islamic theologians quote the [[Quran]] ("There is no compulsion in religion," Sura 2:257, and "Say: O you who reject faith, I do not worship what you worship, nor do you worship what I worship...To you be your religion, and to me be mine," Sura 109:1-6) to show scriptural support for religious freedom. However, other verses and the Hadith mandate severe treatment for unbelievers, which is reflected in the high levels of intolerance shown in many past and contemporary Islamic societies, and some Muslim scholars have disagreed with such ill-treatment. The slaughtering of Pagans, Christians and Jews was during the time of war (Battle of Badr) only against those who wish to harm the Muslims, and some Muslims have make this an excuse to the extend of executing apostates who leave Islam. In Sura 5:3, believed to be the last of God's revelation to Muhammad, is states that Muslims are to fear God and not those who reject Islam, and 53:39 every one is accountable only to one's own actions. Given that there is no clear evidence of indicating harm towards non-Muslims, it postulates that people are to be given religious freedom, even for the apostates, and every individual is answerable to God. In [[Iran]], the constitution recognizes four religions whose status is formally protected: Zoroastrianism, Judaism, Christianity, and Islam.<ref name="fdih1">{{cite web |date=2003-08-01 |title=Discrimination against religious minorities in Iran |author=International Federation for Human Rights |publisher=fdih.org |accessdate=2006-10-20 |url=http://www.fidh.org/IMG/pdf/ir0108a.pdf}}</ref> The constitution, however, also set the groundwork for the institutionalized [[persecution of Bahá'ís]],<ref name="ihrdc">{{cite web | author= Iran Human Rights Documentation Center |publisher=Iran Human Rights Documentation Center | title= A Faith Denied: The Persecution of the Baha'is of Iran | date= 2007 |accessdate=2007-03-03|url=http://www.iranhrdc.org/english/pdfs/Reports/bahai_report.pdf}}</ref> who have been subjected to arrests, beatings, executions, confiscation and destruction of property, and the denial of civil rights and liberties, and the denial of access to higher education.<ref name="fdih1" /> In [[Egypt]], a [[December 16]] [[2006]] judgment of the [[Supreme Constitutional Court of Egypt|Supreme Administrative Council]] created a clear demarcation between recognized religions — Islam, Christianity and Judaism — and all other religious beliefs;<ref name="middle_east_times">{{cite web |url=http://www.metimes.com/storyview.php?StoryID=20061220-033209-2100r |title=Egypt's Bahais denied citizenship rights |first=Joseph |last=Mayton|publisher=Middle East Times |date=2006-12-19 |accessdate=2007-01-23}}</ref><ref name="washingtontimes">{{cite web |title=Court denies Bahai couple document IDs |first=Sharon |last=Otterman |publisher=The Washington Times |date=2006-12-17 |accessdate=2007-01-23 |url=http://www.washingtontimes.com/world/20061217-122113-6320r.htm}}</ref> no other religious affiliation is officially admissible.<ref name="ahram">{{cite web |title=Rendered faithless and stateless |first=Gamal |last=Nkrumah |url=http://weekly.ahram.org.eg/2006/825/eg5.htm |publisher=Al-Ahram weekly |date=2006-12-21 |accessdate=2007-01-23}}</ref> The ruling leaves members of other religious communities, including Bahá'ís, without the ability to obtain the necessary government documents to have rights in their country, essentially denying them of all rights of citizenship.<ref name="ahram" /> They cannot obtain ID cards, birth certificates, death certificates, marriage or divorce certificates, and passports; they also cannot be employed, educated, treated in public hospitals or vote, among other things.<ref name="ahram" /> See [[Egyptian identification card controversy]]. ===Christianity=== [[Image:Worship-monument.jpg|left|thumb|215px|Part of the [[Oscar Straus (politician)|Oscar Straus]] Memorial in Washington, D.C. honoring the right to worship.]] The [[Roman Catholic Church]] affirmed religious freedom for all in the [[Second Vatican Council]] Declaration ''[[Dignitatis Humanae]]''. This was itself inspired by the work of the [[Jesuit]] theologian [[John Courtney Murray]]. Some Orthodox Christians, especially those living in [[democratic]] countries, support religious freedom for all, as evidenced by the position of the [[Ecumenical Patriarchate]]. Many Protestant Christian churches, including some [[Baptists]], [[Churches of Christ in Australia|Churches of Christ]], [[Seventh-day Adventist Church]] and [[Mainline (Protestant)|main line]] churches have a commitment to religious freedoms. The Mormons ([[Mormons|Latter-Day Saints]]) also affirm religious freedom. However others, such as African scholar Makau Mutua, have argued that Christian insistence on the propagation of their faith to native cultures as an element of religious freedom has resulted in a corresponding denial of religious freedom to native traditions and led to their destruction. As he states in the book produced by the Oslo Coalition on Freedom of Religion or Belief -- "Imperial religions have necessarily violated individual conscience and the communal expressions of Africans and their communities by subverting African religions."<ref> Mutua, Makau. 2004. Facilitating Freedom of Religion or Belief, A Deskbook. Oslo Coalition on Freedom of Religion or Belief. </ref> In fact, the fundamental Christian belief that non-Christians need to be converted to Christianity in order to be "saved" is an affront to the religious freedom of those who follow other faiths or identify as atheists. Because of this central belief, Christianity has been said to be inherently counter to religious freedom, and many Christians have denounced this proselytizing aspect of their faith.<ref>{{cite book |last=Bell |first=Rob |title=Velvet Elvis: Repainting the Christian Faith |publisher=Harpercollins |isbn= 978-0310273080}}</ref> ===Changing religion=== Among the most contentious areas of religious freedom is the "Right to Change" one's religion. Other debates have centered around restricting certain kinds of missionary activity by religions. Many Islamic states, and others such as China, severely restrict missionary activities of other religions. [[Greece]], among European countries, has generally looked unfavorably on missionary activities of denominations others than the majority church and proselytizing is constitutionally prohibited.<ref>[http://www.state.gov/g/drl/rls/irf/2005/51555.htm US State Department report on Greece]</ref> A different kind of critique of the freedom to propagate religion has come from non-Abrahamic traditions such as the African and Indian. African scholar [[Makau Mutua]] criticizes religious evangelism on the ground of cultural annihilation by what he calls "proselytizing universalist faiths."<ref>{{cite book |last=Mutua |first=Makau |title=Facilitating Freedom of Religion or Belief, A Deskbook |year=2004 |publisher= Oslo Coalition on Freedom of Religion or Belief}} </ref> {{Quotation|the (human) rights regime incorrectly assumes a level playing field by requiring that African religions compete in the marketplace of ideas. The rights corpus not only forcibly imposes on African religions the obligation to compete—a task for which as nonproselytizing, noncompetitive creeds they are not historically fashioned—but also protects the evangelizing religions in their march towards universalization … it seems inconceivable that the human rights regime would have intended to protect the right of certain religions to destroy others.}} Some Indian scholars{{Who|date=June 2008}} have similarly argued that the right to propagate religion is not culturally or religiously neutral. In [[Sri Lanka]] there have been debates regarding a bill on religious freedom that seeks to protect indigenous religious traditions from certain kinds of missionary activities. Debates have also occurred in various states of [[India]] regarding similar laws, particularly those that restrict conversions using force, fraud or allurement. ===Secular law=== Religious practice may also conflict with secular law creating debates on religious freedom. For instance, even though [[polygamy]] is permitted in Islam it is prohibited in secular law in many Western countries. Does prohibiting polygamy then curtail the religious freedom of Muslims? The USA and India have taken two different views of this. In India polygamy is permitted, but only for Muslims, under Muslim Personal Law. In the USA polygamy is prohibited for all. This was a major source of conflict between the early [[Mormon]] Church and the United States until the Church amended its position on polygamy. Similar issues have also arisen in the context of the religious use of [[psychedelic]] substances by Native American tribes in the United States as well as other Native practices. ===International law=== In international law the freedom of [[religion]] and belief is protected by the [[International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights]] (ICCPR). This protection extends to specifically non-religious beliefs, such as [[Humanism (life stance)|Humanism]]. ==US foreign relations == The United States formally considers religious freedom in its foreign relations. The [[International Religious Freedom Act of 1998]] established the [[United States Commission on International Religious Freedom]] which investigates the records of over 200 other nations with respect to religious freedom, and makes recommendations to submit nations with egregious records to ongoing scrutiny and possible economic sanctions. Many human rights organizations have urged the United States to be still more vigorous in imposing sanctions on countries that do not permit or tolerate religious freedom. Some critics charge that the United States policy on religious freedom is largely directed towards the rights of Christians, particularly the ability for Christian missionaries to evangelize, in other countries.{{Fact|date=June 2008}} ==Timeline== * 313 - [[Constantine I]] becomes the first Christian Emperor and ends persecution of Christians in the [[Roman Empire]] * 1549 - first English [[Act of Uniformity 1549|Act of Uniformity]] * 1571, January 11 - religious toleration was granted to Austrian nobles; * 1573, January 28 - [[Warsaw Confederation]] granting religious toleration; * 1598, April 13 - King [[Henry IV of France]] issued the [[Edict of Nantes]], allowing religious toleration of the [[Huguenot]]s; * 1609, July 6 - [[Bohemia]] was granted religious toleration; * 1657, April 20 - [[New Amsterdam]] granted religious toleration to [[Jew]]s; * 1685, October - the [[Edict of Fontainebleau]] was issued, revoking the Edict of Nantes and making Protestantism illegal in France. * 1689 - [[Act of Toleration]] - England * 1786 - The [[Virginia Statute for Religious Freedom]] passed. Drafted by [[Thomas Jefferson]] this law prevented any religion from being established in Virginia. * 1791 - [[First Amendment to the United States Constitution|1st amendment]] to [[United States Constitution|US Constitution]] passed, stating, "Congress shall make no law respecting an establishment of religion, or prohibiting the free exercise thereof…"; * 1829, April 13 - [[British Parliament]] granted [[Catholic Emancipation]] in the spirit of religious toleration; * 1864 - In the ''[[Syllabus of Errors]]'', [[Pope Pius IX]] condemned as an error the belief that "[e]very man is free to embrace and profess that religion which, guided by the light of reason, he shall consider true." (Pope Pius IX. (1864). Allocution "Maxima quidem," June 9, 1862; Damnatio "Multiplices inter," June 10, 1851. * 1965, December 7 - ''[[Dignitatis Humanae]]'': "This [[Second Vatican Council|Vatican Council]] declares that the human person has a right to religious freedom (...) the right to religious freedom has its foundation in the very dignity of the human person as this dignity is known through the revealed word of God and by reason itself" * 1988, April 29 - in the spirit of [[Glasnost]], [[Soviet Union]] leader [[Mikhail Gorbachev]] promised increased religious toleration. ==See also== * [[Christian Solidarity Worldwide]] * [[Dignitatis Humanae]] * [[Flushing Remonstrance]] * [[Forum 18]] * [[Freedom of thought]] * [[International Religious Liberty Association]] * [[North American Religious Liberty Association]] * [[Religious discrimination]] * [[Religious persecution]] * [[Religious toleration]] * [[Separation of church and state]] * [[Status of religious freedom by country]] * [[State religion]] * [[Warsaw Confederation (1573)]] ==References and Notes== {{reflist}} == Further reading == * {{cite book |last=Barzilai |first=Gad |title= Law and Religion |date= 2007 |publisher= Ashgate |id=ISBN 978-0-7546-2494-3 }}. * {{cite book |last=Beneke |first=Chris |title=Beyond Toleration: The Religious Origins of American Pluralism |date=2006-09-20 |publisher=Oxford University Press, USA |id=ISBN 0-19-530555-8 }}. *{{cite book |last=Curry |first=Thomas J. |title=Church and State in America to the Passage of the First Amendment |date=1989-12-19 |publisher=Oxford University Press; Reprint edition (December 19, 1989) |id=ISBN 0-19-505181-5 }}. * Frost, J. William (1990) ''A Perfect Freedom: Religious Liberty in Pennsylvania'' (Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press). * Gaustad, Edwin S. (2004, 2nd ed.) ''Faith of the Founders: Religion and the New Nation, 1776-1826'' (Waco: Baylor University Press). * {{cite book |last=Hamilton |first=Marci A. |others=Edward R. Becker (Foreword |title=God vs. the Gavel : Religion and the Rule of Law |date=2005-06-17 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |id=ISBN 0-521-85304-4 }}. *{{cite book |last=Hanson |first=Charles P. |title=Necessary Virtue: The Pragmatic Origins of Religious Liberty in New England |year=1998 |publisher=University Press of Virginia |id=ISBN 0813917948 }}. * Hasson, Kevin 'Seamus' , ''The Right to be Wrong : Ending the Culture War Over Religion in America'', Encounter Books, 2005, ISBN 1-59403-083-9 *{{cite book |last=McLoughlin |first=William G. |authorlink = William G. McLoughlin |year=1971 |title=New England Dissent: The Baptists and the Separation of Church and State'' |format=2 vols. |location=Cambridge |publisher=Harvard University Press}} *{{cite book |last=Murphy |first=Andrew R. |title=Conscience and Community: Revisiting Toleration and Religious Dissent in Early Modern England and America |year=2001 |month = July |publisher=Pennsylvania State University Press |id=ISBN 0-271-02105-5 }}. *{{cite book |last=Mutua |first=Makau |title=Facilitating Freedom of Religion or Belief, A Deskbook |year=2004 |publisher= Oslo Coalition on Freedom of Religion or Belief}} * Stokes, Anson Phelps (1950) ''Church and State in the United States, Historic Development and Contemporary Problems of Religious Freedom under the Constitution,'' 3 Volumes (New York: Harper & Brothers Publishers). *Stokes, DaShanne (In Press). [http://www.geocities.com/eaglefeatherlaw Legalized Segregation and the Denial of Religious Freedom] * Associated Press (2002). [http://www.religionnewsblog.com/archives/00000246.html Appeals court upholds man's use of eagle feathers for religious practices] * [http://www.cr.nps.gov/local-law/FHPL_IndianRelFreAct.pdf American Indian Religious Freedom Act] (1978) * [http://www.animallaw.info/administrative/adus59fr22953.htm Policy Concerning Distribution of Eagle Feathers for Native American Religious] *[http://works.bepress.com/marcel_stuessi/4 ''Ban on Minarets: On the Validity of a Controversial Swiss Popular Initiative (2008), ''], by Marcel Stuessi, research fellow at the University of Lucerne. ==External links== *[http://www1.umn.edu/humanrts/instree/b3ccpr.htm International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (in particular Article 18)] from the Human Rights Library *[http://www.law.harvard.edu/students/orgs/hrj/iss16/gunn.shtml The Complexity of Religion and the Definition of “Religion” in International Law] Harvard Human Rights Journal article from the President and Fellows of Harvard College(2003) *[http://www.hreoc.gov.au/Human_RightS/briefs/brief_3.html Human Rights Brief No. 3, Freedom Of Religion and Belief] Australian Human Rights and Equal Opportunity Commission (HREOC) *[http://www.forum18.org Forum 18 News Service] - Reports, country surveys and commentaries from [[Forum 18]], a Norwegian international religious freedom news service *[http://www.state.gov/g/drl/irf/rpt/ U.S. State Department country reports] *[http://www.uscirf.gov/images/AR2008/annual%20report%202008-entire%20document.pdf 2008 Annual Report] of the United States Commission on International Religious Freedom *[http://www.cleavetoGod.com/freedom.htm American Religious Freedom and its history] *{{cite web |url=http://italy.usembassy.gov/pdf/other/rellib1.pdf |title=Religious Liberty: The legal framework in selected OSCE countries. |accessdate=2007-04-06 |year=2000 |month = May |publisher=Law Library, U.S. Library of Congress }} {{Articles of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights}} {{Human rights}} {{DEFAULTSORT:Religion}} [[Category:Human rights]] [[Category:Freedom of expression]] [[Category:Religious discrimination]] [[Category:Religious persecution]] [[bg:Свобода на религията]] [[cs:Náboženská svoboda]] [[da:Religionsfrihed]] [[de:Religionsfreiheit]] [[el:Ανεξιθρησκεία]] [[es:Libertad de culto]] [[eo:Religia libereco]] [[fr:Liberté de religion]] [[ko:종교의 자유]] [[is:Trúfrelsi]] [[it:Libertà religiosa]] [[he:חופש דת]] [[hu:Vallásszabadság]] [[nl:Godsdienstvrijheid]] [[ja:信教の自由]] [[no:Religionsfrihet]] [[pl:Wolność religijna]] [[pt:Liberdade religiosa]] [[ro:Libertate religioasă]] [[ru:Свобода вероисповедания]] [[simple:Freedom of religion]] [[fi:Uskonnonvapaus]] [[sv:Religionsfrihet]] [[vi:Tự do tôn giáo]] [[zh:宗教自由]]