Fuel cell
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[[Image:Fuel cell NASA p48600ac.jpg|thumb|250px|right|Methanol fuel cell. The actual fuel cell stack is the layered bi-cubic structure in the center of the image]]
A '''fuel cell''' is an [[Electrochemistry|electrochemical]] conversion device. It produces electricity from fuel (on the [[anode]] side) and an oxidant (on the [[cathode]] side), which react in the presence of an [[electrolyte]]. The reactants flow into the cell, and the reaction products flow out of it, while the electrolyte remains within it. Fuel cells can operate virtually continuously as long as the necessary flows are maintained.
Fuel cells are different from [[battery (electricity)|batteries]] in that they consume reactant, which must be replenished, whereas batteries store electrical energy chemically in a closed system. Additionally, while the electrodes within a battery react and change as a battery is charged or discharged, a fuel cell's electrodes are [[catalytic]] and relatively stable.
Many combinations of fuel and oxidant are possible. A hydrogen cell uses [[hydrogen]] as fuel and [[oxygen]] as oxidant. Other fuels include [[hydrocarbon]]s and [[alcohol]]s. Other oxidants include [[air]], [[chlorine]] and [[chlorine dioxide]].<ref>S. G. Meibuhr, Electrochim. Acta, 11, 1301 (1966)</ref>
==Fuel cell design==
A fuel cell works by [[catalysis]], separating the component [[electron]]s and [[proton]]s of the reactant fuel, and forcing the electrons to travel though a [[Electronic circuit|circuit]], hence converting them to electrical power. The catalyst is typically comprised of a platinum group metal or alloy. Another catalytic process takes the electrons back in, combining them with the protons and the oxidant to form waste products (typically simple compounds like water and carbon dioxide).
In the archetypal hydrogen–oxygen [[proton exchange membrane fuel cell]] (PEMFC) design, a proton-conducting polymer membrane, (the [[electrolyte]]), separates the [[anode]] and [[cathode]] sides. This was called a "solid polymer electrolyte fuel cell" (SPEFC) in the early 1970s, before the proton exchange mechanism was well-understood. (Notice that "polymer electrolyte membrane" and "proton exchange membrane" result in the same [[acronym]].)
On the anode side, hydrogen diffuses to the anode catalyst where it later dissociates into protons and electrons. These protons often react with oxidants causing them to become what is commonly referred to as multi-facilitated proton membranes (MFPM). The protons are conducted through the membrane to the cathode, but the electrons are forced to travel in an external circuit (supplying power) because the membrane is electrically insulating. On the cathode catalyst, oxygen [[molecule]]s react with the electrons (which have traveled through the external circuit) and protons to form water — in this example, the only waste product, either [[water|liquid]] or [[water vapor|vapor]].
In addition to this pure hydrogen type, there are [[hydrocarbon]] fuels for fuel cells, including [[diesel]], [[methanol]] (''see:'' [[direct-methanol fuel cell]]s) and chemical hydrides. The waste products with these types of fuel are [[carbon dioxide]] and water.
[[Image:PEM fuelcell.svg|400px|thumb|right|Construction of a low temperature [[proton exchange membrane fuel cell|PEMFC]]: Bipolar plate as [[electrode]] with in-milled gas channel structure, fabricated from conductive [[plastic]]s (enhanced with [[carbon nanotube]]s for more conductivity); [[Porous]] carbon papers; reactive layer, usually on the [[polymer]] membrane applied; polymer membrane.]][[Image:condensation.jpg|400px|thumb|Condensation of water produced by a PEMFC on the air channel wall. The gold wire around the cell ensures the collection of electric current.<ref>[http://www.ensem.inpl-nancy.fr/Olivier.Lottin/Ourfuelcells.html LEMTA - Our fuel cells<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref>
]]
The materials used in fuel cells differ by type. The electrode–[[bipolar]] plates are usually made of [[metal]], [[nickel]] or [[carbon nanotube]]s, and are coated with a [[catalyst]] (like [[platinum]], [[nano iron powder]]s or [[palladium]]) for higher efficiency. [[Carbon paper]] separates them from the electrolyte. The electrolyte could be [[ceramic]] or a [[artificial membrane|membrane]].
A typical PEM fuel cell produces a voltage from 0.6 V to 0.7 V at full rated load. Voltage decreases as current increases, due to several factors:
* [[Overpotential|Activation loss]]
* Ohmic loss ([[voltage drop]] due to resistance of the cell components and interconnects)
* Mass transport loss (depletion of reactants at catalyst sites under high loads, causing rapid loss of voltage)<ref name="Larminie2003">{{cite book | last = Larminie | first = James | title = Fuel Cell Systems Explained, Second Edition | publisher = [[Society of Automotive Engineers|SAE International]] | year = 2003 | month = May | day = 1 | isbn = 0768012597}}</ref>
To deliver the desired amount of energy, the fuel cells can be combined in [[series and parallel circuits]], where series yield higher [[voltage]], and parallel allows a stronger [[Electric current|current]] to be drawn. Such a design is called a ''fuel cell stack''. Further, the cell surface area can be increased, to allow stronger [[Electric current|current]] from each cell.
===Fuel cell design issues===
*Costs. In 2002, typical cells had a catalyst content of US$1000 per kilowatt of electric power output. In 2008 UTC Power has 400kw Fuel cells for $1,000,000 per 400kW installed costs. The goal is to reduce the cost in order to compete with current market technologies including gasoline internal combustion engines. Many companies are working on techniques to reduce cost in a variety of ways including reducing the amount of platinum needed in each individual cell. [[Ballard Power Systems]] have experiments with a catalyst enhanced with [[carbon silk]] which allows a 30% reduction (1 mg/cm² to 0.7 mg/cm²) in platinum usage without reduction in performance.<ref>{{Cite news | title = Ballard Power Systems: Commercially Viable Fuel Cell Stack Technology Ready by 2010 | date = 2005-03-29 | url = http://www.fuelcellsworks.com/Supppage2336.html | accessdate = 2007-05-27}}</ref>
*The production costs of the PEM (proton exchange membrane). The [[Nafion]] membrane currently costs €400/m². This, and the [[Toyota]] PEM and [[3M]] PEM membrane can be replaced with the [[ITM Power]] membrane (a hydrocarbon polymer), resulting in a price of ~€4/m². in 2005 Ballard Power Systems announced that its fuel cells will use Solupor, a porous [[polyethylene]] film patented by [[DSM (company)|DSM]].<ref name=patent-solupor>{{Ref patent | country = EP | number = 0950075 | status = patent | title = Electrolytic Membrane, Method of Manufacturing it and Use | assign1 = DSM | pubdate = 1999-10-20 | gdate = 2003-02-12}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web | title = Ballard Uses Solupor | date = 2005-09-13 | url = http://www.ecn.nl/en/h2sf/news/ballard-uses-solupor/ | accessdate = 2007-05-27}}</ref>
*Water and air management<ref>[http://www.ika.rwth-aachen.de/r2h/index.php/Water_and_Air_Management_for_Fuel_Cells Water_and_Air_Management]</ref> (in PEMFCs). In this type of fuel cell, the membrane must be hydrated, requiring water to be evaporated at precisely the same rate that it is produced. If water is evaporated too quickly, the membrane dries, resistance across it increases, and eventually it will crack, creating a gas "short circuit" where hydrogen and oxygen combine directly, generating heat that will damage the fuel cell. If the water is evaporated too slowly, the electrodes will flood, preventing the reactants from reaching the catalyst and stopping the reaction. Methods to manage water in cells are being developed like [[electroosmotic pump]]s focusing on flow control. Just as in a combustion engine, a steady ratio between the reactant and oxygen is necessary to keep the fuel cell operating efficiently.
*Temperature management. The same temperature must be maintained throughout the cell in order to prevent destruction of the cell through [[thermal]] loading. This is particularly challenging as the 2H<sub>2</sub> + O<sub>2</sub> -> 2H<sub>2</sub>O reaction is highly exothermic, so a large quantity of heat is generated within the fuel cell.
*Durability, [[service life]], and special requirements for some type of cells. Stationary applications typically require more than 40,000 hours of reliable operation at a temperature of -35 °C to 40 °C, while automotive fuel cells require a 5,000 hour lifespan (the equivalent of 150,000 miles) under extreme temperatures. Automotive engines must also be able to start reliably at -30 °C and have a high power to volume ratio (typically 2.5 kW per liter).
*Limited [[carbon monoxide]] tolerance of the anode.
== History ==
The principle of the fuel cell was discovered by German scientist [[Christian Friedrich Schönbein]] in 1838 and published in the January 1839 edition of the "Philosophical Magazine".<ref>{{Cite web | title = History of Fuel Cells | publisher = Johnson Matthey plc. | url = http://www.fuelcelltoday.com/FuelCellToday/EducationCentre/EducationCentreExternal/EduCentreDisplay/0,1741,History,00.html | accessdate = 2007-05-27}}</ref> Based on this work, the first fuel cell was developed by Welsh scientist Sir [[William Robert Grove]] in 1845. The fuel cell he made used similar materials to today's [[phosphoric-acid fuel cell]]. In 1955, W. Thomas Grubb, a chemist working for the General Electric Company ([[GE]]), further modified the original fuel cell design by using a sulphonated polystyrene ion-exchange membrane as the electrolyte. Three years later another GE chemist, Leonard Niedrach, devised a way of depositing platinum onto the membrane, which served as catalyst for the necessary hydrogen oxidation and oxygen reduction reactions. This became known as the 'Grubb-Niedrach fuel cell'. GE went on to develop this technology with NASA and McDonnell Aircraft, leading to its use during [[Project Gemini]]. This was the first commercial use of a fuel cell.
It wasn't until 1959 that British engineer [[Francis Thomas Bacon]] successfully developed a 5 kW stationary fuel cell. In 1959, a team led by Harry Ihrig built a 15 kW fuel cell tractor for Allis-Chalmers which was demonstrated across the US at state fairs. This system used potassium hydroxide as the electrolyte and compressed hydrogen and oxygen as the reactants. Later in 1959, Bacon and his colleagues demonstrated a practical five-kilowatt unit capable of powering a welding machine. In the 1960s, Pratt and Whitney licensed Bacon's U.S. patents for use in the U.S. space program to supply electricity and drinking water (hydrogen and oxygen being readily available from the spacecraft tanks).
[[UTX|United Technology Corp.]]'s [[UTC Power]] subsidiary was the first company to manufacture and commercialize a large, stationary fuel cell system for use as a [[co-generation]] power plant in hospitals, universities and large office buildings. UTC Power continues to market this fuel cell as the PureCell 200, a 200 kW system.<ref>{{Cite web | title = The PureCell 200 - Product Overview | publisher = UTC Power | url = http://www.utcpower.com/fs/com/bin/fs_com_Page/0,11491,0122,00.html | accessdate = 2007-05-27}}</ref> UTC Power continues to be the sole supplier of fuel cells to NASA for use in space vehicles, having supplied the [[Apollo mission]]s, <ref>[http://www.spaceaholic.com/apollo_artifacts.htm Apollo Space Program Hydrogen Fuel Cells]</ref> and currently the [[Space Shuttle program]], and is developing fuel cells for automobiles, buses, and cell phone towers; the company has demonstrated the first fuel cell capable of starting under freezing conditions with its [[proton exchange membrane]] automotive fuel cell.
== Types of fuel cells ==
{|style="text-align:center;" class="wikitable"
!Fuel Cell Name
!Electrolyte
!Qualified [[Electric power|Power]] (W)
!Working [[Temperature]] (°C)
![[Electrical efficiency]]
!Status
!Cost per Watt
|-
|{{rh}}|[[Metal hydride fuel cell]]
|[[Aqueous]] [[alkali]]ne solution (e.g.[[potassium hydroxide]])
|{{?}}
|style="background:#ddddff;text-align:right;" | above -20<br>(50% P<sub>peak</sub> @ 0°C)
|{{?}}
|{{partial|[[Research and development|Commercial/Research]]}}
|-
|{{rh}}|[[Electro-galvanic fuel cell]]
|Aqueous alkaline solution (e.g., potassium hydroxide)
|{{?}}
|style="background:#ddffdd;text-align:right;"|under 40
|{{?}}
|{{partial|Commercial/Research}}
|-
|{{rh}}|[[Formic acid fuel cell|Direct formic acid fuel cell]] (DFAFC)
|Polymer membrane (ionomer)
|style="background:#ffffdd;text-align:right;"|to 50 W
|style="background:#ddffdd;text-align:right;"|under 40
|{{?}}
|style="background:#ffffdd;text-align:right;"|Commercial/Research
|-
|{{rh}}|[[Zinc-air battery]]
|Aqueous alkaline solution (e.g., potassium hydroxide)
|{{?}}
|style="background:#ddffdd;text-align:right;"|under 40
|{{?}}
|{{yes2}}[[Mass production]]
|-
|{{rh}}|[[Microbial fuel cell]]
|Polymer membrane or [[humic acid]]
|{{?}}
|style="background:#ddffdd;text-align:right;"|under 40
|{{?}}
|style="background:#ddddff"|Research
|-
|{{rh}}|[[Upflow microbial fuel cell]] (UMFC)
|
|{{?}}
|style="background:#ddffdd;text-align:right;"|under 40
|{{?}}
|style="background:#ddddff"|Research
|-
|{{rh}}|[[Reversible fuel cell]]
|Polymer membrane ([[ionomer]])
|{{?}}
|style="background:#ddffdd;text-align:right;"|under 50
|{{?}}
|{{partial|Commercial/Research}}
|-
|{{rh}}|[[Direct borohydride fuel cell]]
|Aqueous alkaline solution (e.g., [[sodium hydroxide]])
|{{?}}
|style="background:#ddffdd;text-align:right;"|70
|{{?}}
|style="background:#ddddff"|Commercial
|-
|{{rh}}|[[Alkaline fuel cell]]
|Aqueous alkaline solution (e.g., potassium hydroxide)
|style="background:#ffffdd;text-align:right;"|10 kW to 100 kW
|style="background:#ddffdd;text-align:right;"|under 80
|style="background:#ddffdd;text-align:right;"|Cell: 60–70%<br>System: 62%
|{{partial|Commercial/Research}}
|-
|{{rh}}|[[Direct methanol fuel cell]]
|Polymer membrane (ionomer)
|style="background:#ffffdd;text-align:right;"|100 kW to 1 MW
|style="background:#ffffdd;text-align:right;"|90–120
|style="background:#ffdddd;text-align:right;"|Cell: 20–30%<br>System: 10–20%
|{{partial|Commercial/Research}}
|-
|{{rh}}|[[Reformed methanol fuel cell]]
|Polymer membrane (ionomer)
|style="background:#ffffdd;text-align:right;"|5 W to 100 kW
|style="background:#ffffdd;text-align:right;"|(Reformer)250–300<br>(PBI)125–200
|style="background:#ffdddd;text-align:right;"|Cell: 50–60%<br>System: 25–40%
|{{partial|Commercial/Research}}
|-
|{{rh}}|[[Direct-ethanol fuel cell]]
|Polymer membrane (ionomer)
|style="background:#ffffdd;text-align:right;"|up to 140 mW/cm²
|style="background:#ffffdd;text-align:right;"|above 25<br>? 90–120
|{{?}}
|style="background:#ddddff"|Research
|-
|{{rh}}|[[Direct formic acid fuel cell]]
|Polymer membrane (ionomer)
|{{?}}
|style="background:#ffffdd;text-align:right;"|25+
|{{?}}
|style="background:#ddddff"|Research
|-
|{{rh}}|[[Proton exchange membrane fuel cell]]
|Polymer membrane (ionomer) (e.g., [[Nafion]] or [[Polybenzimidazole fiber]])
|style="background:#ddffdd;text-align:right;"|100 W to 500 kW
|style="background:#ffffdd;text-align:right;"|(Nafion)50–120<br>(PBI)125–220
|style="background:#ffffdd;text-align:right;"|Cell: 50–70%<br>System: 30–50%
|{{partial|Commercial/Research}}
|-
|{{rh}}|[[Flow Battery#Classes of flow batteries|RFC - Redox]]
|Liquid electrolytes with [[redox]] shuttle & polymer membrane (Ionomer)
|style="background:#ddffdd;text-align:right;"|1 kW to 10 MW
|{{?}}
|{{?}}
|style="background:#ddddff"|Research
|-
|{{rh}}|[[Phosphoric acid fuel cell]]
|Molten [[phosphoric acid]] (H<sub>3</sub>PO<sub>4</sub>)
|style="background:#ddffdd;text-align:right;"|up to 10 MW
|style="background:#ffdddd;text-align:right;"|150-200
|style="background:#ffffdd;text-align:right;"|Cell: 55%<br>System: 40%<br>Co-Gen: 90%
|{{partial|Commercial/Research}}
|$4-$4.50 per watt
|-
|{{rh}}|[[Molten carbonate fuel cell]]
|Molten alkaline [[carbonate]] (e.g., [[sodium bicarbonate]] NaHCO<sub>3</sub>)
|style="background:#ddffdd;text-align:right;"|100 MW
|style="background:#ffdddd;text-align:right;"|600-650
|style="background:#ffffdd;text-align:right;"|Cell: 55%<br>System: 47%
|{{partial|Commercial/Research}}
|-
|{{rh}}|[[Tubular solid oxide fuel cell]] (TSOFC)
|O<sup>2-</sup>-conducting ceramic [[oxide]] (e.g., [[zirconium dioxide]], ZrO<sub>2</sub>)
|up to 100 MW
|style="background:#ffdddd;text-align:right;"|850-1100
|style="background:#ddffdd;text-align:right;"|Cell: 60–65%<br>System: 55–60%
|style="background:#ddddff"|Commercial/Research
|-
|{{rh}}|[[Protonic ceramic fuel cell]]
|H<sup>+</sup>-conducting ceramic oxide
|{{?}}
|style="background:#ffdddd;text-align:right;"|700
|{{?}}
|style="background:#ddddff"|Research
|-
|{{rh}}|[[Direct carbon fuel cell]]
|Several different
|{{?}}
|style="background:#ffdddd;text-align:right;"|700-850
|style="background:#ddffdd;text-align:right;"|Cell: 80%<br>System: 70%
|{{partial|Commercial/Research}}
|-
|{{rh}}|[[Planar Solid oxide fuel cell]]
|O<sup>2-</sup>-conducting ceramic [[oxide]] (e.g., [[zirconium dioxide]], ZrO<sub>2</sub> Lanthanum Nickel Oxide La<sub>2</sub>XO<sub>4</sub>,X= Ni,Co, Cu.)
|style="background:#ddffdd;text-align:right;"|up to 100 MW
|style="background:#ffdddd;text-align:right;"|850-1100
|style="background:#ddffdd;text-align:right;"|Cell: 60–65%<br>System: 55–60%
|{{partial|Commercial/Research}}
|}
== Efficiency ==
===Fuel cell efficiency===
The efficiency of a fuel cell is dependent on the amount of power drawn from it. Drawing more power means drawing more current, which increases the losses in the fuel cell. As a general rule, the more power (current) drawn, the lower the efficiency. Most losses manifest themselves as a voltage drop in the cell, so the efficiency of a cell is almost proportional to its voltage. For this reason, it is common to show graphs of voltage versus current (so-called polarization curves) for fuel cells. A typical cell running at 0.7 V has an efficiency of about 50%, meaning that 50% of the energy content of the hydrogen is converted into electrical energy; the remaining 50% will be converted into heat. (Depending on the fuel cell system design, some fuel might leave the system unreacted, constituting an additional loss.)
For a hydrogen cell operating at standard conditions with no reactant leaks, the efficiency is equal to the cell voltage divided by 1.48 V, based on the [[enthalpy]], or heating value, of the reaction. For the same cell, the [[second law efficiency]] is equal to cell voltage divided by 1.23 V. (This voltage varies with fuel used, and quality and temperature of the cell.) The difference between these number represents the difference between the reaction's [[enthalpy]] and [[Gibbs free energy]]. This difference always appears as heat, along with any losses in electrical conversion efficiency.
Fuel cells are not constrained by the maximum [[Carnot cycle]] efficiency as combustion engines are, because they do not operate with a thermal cycle. At times this is misrepresented by saying that fuel cells are exempt from the laws of thermodynamics, because most people think of thermodynamics in terms of combustion processes ([[enthalpy of formation]]). The laws of thermodynamics also hold for chemical processes ([[Gibbs free energy]]) like fuel cells, but the maximum theoretical efficiency is higher (83% efficient at 298K <ref>[http://www.worldenergy.org/focus/fuel_cells/377.asp Fuel Cell efficiency]</ref>) than the [[Otto cycle]] thermal efficiency (60% for compression ratio of 10 and specific heat ratio of 1.4). Of course, comparing limits imposed by thermodynamics is not a good predictor of practically achievable efficiencies. Also, if propulsion is the goal, electrical output of the fuel cell has to still be converted into mechanical power with the corresponding inefficiency. In reference to the exemption claim, the correct claim is that the "limitations imposed by the second law of thermodynamics on the operation of fuel cells are much less severe than the limitations imposed on conventional energy conversion systems".<ref>{{Cite web | title = About Fuel Cells | publisher = MIT / NASA | url = http://web.mit.edu/afs/athena.mit.edu/org/m/mecheng/fcp/about%20f%20cells.html | accessdate = 2007-05-27}}</ref> Consequently, they can have very high efficiencies in converting [[chemical energy]] to [[electrical energy]], especially when they are operated at low power density, and using pure hydrogen and oxygen as reactants.
===In practice===
For a fuel cell operated on air (rather than bottled oxygen), losses due to the air supply system must also be taken into account. This refers to the pressurization of the air and humidifying it. This reduces the efficiency significantly and brings it near to that of a compression ignition engine. Furthermore fuel cell efficiency decreases as load increases.
The tank-to-wheel efficiency of a fuel cell vehicle is about 45% at low loads and shows average values of about 36% when a driving cycle like the NEDC (New European Driving Cycle) is used as test procedure.<ref>{{Cite web | title = Fuel Cell Vehicles:Status 2007| date = 2007-03-20 | doi = 10.1016/j.jpowsour.2006.12.073| accessdate = 2007-05-23}}</ref> The comparable NEDC value for a Diesel vehicle is 22%.
It is also important to take losses due to fuel production, transportation, and storage into account. Fuel cell vehicles running on compressed hydrogen may have a power-plant-to-wheel efficiency of 22% if the hydrogen is stored as high-pressure gas, and 17% if it is stored as [[liquid hydrogen]].<ref>{{Cite web | title = Efficiency of Hydrogen PEFC, Diesel-SOFC-Hybrid and Battery Electric Vehicles | date = 2003-07-15 | url = http://www.efcf.com/reports/E04.pdf | accessdate = 2007-05-23}}</ref>
Fuel cells cannot store energy like a battery, but in some applications, such as stand-alone power plants based on discontinuous sources such as [[solar energy|solar]] or [[wind power]], they are combined with [[electrolysis|electrolyzers]] and storage systems to form an energy storage system. The overall efficiency (electricity to hydrogen and back to electricity) of such plants (known as ''round-trip efficiency'') is between 30 and 50%, depending on conditions.<ref>{{Cite journal | title = Round Trip Energy Efficiency of NASA Glenn Regenerative Fuel Cell System | date = January 2006 | publisher = Preprint | url = http://hdl.handle.net/2060/20060008706 | accessdate = 2007-05-27}}</ref> While a much cheaper [[lead-acid battery]] might return about 90%, the electrolyzer/fuel cell system can store indefinite quantities of hydrogen, and is therefore better suited for long-term storage.
Solid-oxide fuel cells produce exothermic heat from the recombination of the oxygen and hydrogen. The ceramic can run as hot as 800 degrees Celsius. This heat can be captured and used to heat water in a [[micro combined heat and power]] (m-CHP) application. When the heat is captured, total efficiency can reach 80-90%. CHP units are being developed today for the European home market.
==Fuel cell applications==
[[Image:U Boot 212 HDW 1.jpg|thumb|330px|right|[[Type 212 submarine]] with fuel cell propulsion of the [[German Navy]] in dock]]
Fuel cells are very useful as power sources in remote locations, such as spacecraft, remote weather stations, large parks, rural locations, and in certain military applications. A fuel cell system running on hydrogen can be compact and lightweight, and have no major moving parts. Because fuel cells have no moving parts and do not involve combustion, in ideal conditions they can achieve up to 99.9999% reliability.<ref>{{Cite web | title = Fuel Cell Basics: Benefits | publisher = Fuel Cells 2000 | url = http://www.fuelcells.org/basics/benefits.html | accessdate = 2007-05-27}}</ref> This equates to around one minute of down time in a two year period.
A new application is [[micro combined heat and power]], which is [[cogeneration]] for family homes, office buildings and factories. This type of system generates constant electric power (selling excess power back to the grid when it is not consumed), and at the same time produces hot air and water from the waste heat. A lower fuel-to-electricity conversion efficiency is tolerated (typically 15-20%), because most of the energy not converted into electricity is utilized as heat. Some heat is lost with the exhaust gas just as in a normal [[furnace]], so the combined heat and power efficiency is still lower than 100%, typically around 80%. In terms of [[exergy]] however, the process is inefficient, and one could do better by maximizing the electricity generated and then using the electricity to drive a [[heat pump]]. [[Phosphoric-acid fuel cell]]s (PAFC) comprise the largest segment of existing CHP products worldwide and can provide combined efficiencies close to 90%<ref>{{Cite web | title = Fuel Cell Efficiency | publisher = UTC Power | url = http://www.utcpower.com/fs/com/bin/fs_com_Page/0,11491,0117,00.html | accessdate = 2007-11-16}}</ref> (35-50% electric + remainder as thermal) [[Molten-carbonate fuel cell]]s have also been installed in these applications, and [[solid-oxide fuel cell]] prototypes exist.
[[Image:Die Hydra in Leipzig I.jpg|thumb|right|400px|The world's first certified Fuel Cell Boat ([[hydra (ship)|HYDRA]]), in [[Leipzig]]/[[Germany]]]]
Since electrolyzer systems do not store fuel in themselves, but rather rely on external storage units, they can be successfully applied in large-scale energy storage, rural areas being one example. In this application, batteries would have to be largely oversized to meet the storage demand, but fuel cells only need a larger storage unit (typically cheaper than an electrochemical device).
One such pilot program is operating on Stuart Island in Washington State. There the Stuart Island Energy Initiative <ref>[http://www.siei.org Stuart Island Energy Initiative]</ref>has built a complete, closed-loop system: Solar panels power an electrolyzer which makes hydrogen. The hydrogen is stored in a 500 gallon tank at 200 PSI, and runs a ReliOn fuel cell to provide full electric back-up to the off-the-grid residence. The SIEI website gives extensive technical details.
The world's first Fuel Cell Ship [[Hydra (ship)|HYDRA]] used an AFC system with 6.5 kW net output.
=== Suggested applications ===
* [[Base load power plant]]s
* [[Electric vehicle|Electric]] and [[hybrid vehicle]]s.
* [[Auxiliary power]]
* Off-[[electric power transmission|grid]] power supply
* [[Notebook computers]] for applications where [[Alternating current|AC]] charging may not be available for weeks at a time.
* Portable charging docks for small electronics (e.g. a belt clip that charges your [[cell phone]] or [[Personal digital assistant|PDA]]).
* [[Smartphones]] with high power consumption due to large displays and additional features like GPS might be equipped with micro fuel cells.
===Hydrogen transportation and refueling===
[[Image:Toyota FCHV.jpg|thumb|right|250px|[[Toyota FCHV]] [[Proton exchange membrane fuel cell|PEM FC]] fuel cell vehicle]]
{{seedetails|Hydrogen vehicle}}
{{seedetails|Hydrogen station}}
{{seedetails|Hydrogen highway}}
The first public hydrogen refueling station was opened in [[Reykjavík]], [[Iceland]] in April 2003. This station serves three buses built by [[DaimlerChrysler]] that are in service in the [[public transport]] net of Reykjavík. The station produces the hydrogen it needs by itself, with an electrolyzing unit (produced by [[Norsk Hydro]]), and does not need refilling: all that enters is electricity and water. [[Royal Dutch Shell]] is also a partner in the project. The station has no roof, in order to allow any leaked hydrogen to escape to the atmosphere.
The GM 1966 Electrovan was the automotive industry's first attempt at an automobile powered by a hydrogen fuel cell. The Electrovan, which weighed more than twice as much as a normal van, could travel up to 70mph for 30 seconds.<ref>{{Cite web | title = Fuel Cell Vehicles:Status 2007| date = 2007-03-20 | doi = 10.1016/j.jpowsour.2006.12.073| accessdate = 2007-05-23}}</ref><ref>"An Electrovan, Not an Edsel" by Danny Hakim. New York Times. New York, N.Y.: November 17, 2002. pg. 3.2</ref>
The 2001 [[Chrysler Natrium]] used its own on-board hydrogen processor. It produces hydrogen for the fuel cell by reacting sodium borohydride fuel with [[Borax]], both of which Chrysler claimed was naturally occurring in great quantity in the United States.<ref>[http://www.allpar.com/cars/concepts/natrium.html natrium]</ref> The hydrogen produces electric power in the fuel cell for near-silent operation and a range of 300 miles without impinging on passenger space. [[Chrysler]] also developed vehicles which separated hydrogen from gasoline in the vehicle, the purpose being to reduce emissions without relying on a nonexistent hydrogen infrastructure and to avoid large storage tanks.<ref>{{Cite web | title = Chrysler Fuel Cell Vehicles | publisher = allpar.com | url = http://www.allpar.com/corporate/fuel-cells.html | accessdate = 2007-05-27}}</ref>
In 2005 the British firm Intelligent Energy produced the first ever working hydrogen run [[motorcycle]] called the [[ENV]] (Emission Neutral Vehicle). The motorcycle holds enough fuel to run for four hours, and to travel 100 miles in an urban area, at a top speed of 50 miles per hour.<ref>{{Cite web | title = The ENV Bike | publisher = Intelligent Energy | url = http://www.envbike.com/ | accessdate = 2007-05-27}}</ref> [[Honda]] is also going to offer [[fuel-cell motorcycle]]s.<ref>{{Cite news | title = Honda Develops Fuel Cell Scooter Equipped with Honda FC Stack | publisher = Honda Motor Co. | date = 2004-08-24 | url = http://world.honda.com/news/2004/2040824_03.html | accessdate = 2007-05-27}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web | title = Honda to offer fuel-cell motorcycle | last = Bryant | first = Eric | publisher = autoblog.com | date = 2005-07-21 | url = http://hybrids.autoblog.com/2005/07/21/honda-to-offer-fuel-cell-motorcycle/ | accessdate = 2007-05-27}}</ref>
[[Image:Hydrogen fuel cell bus.jpg|thumb|right|250px|A hydrogen fuel cell [[public transport|public bus]] accelerating at [[traffic lights]] in [[Perth, Western Australia]]]]
There are numerous prototype or production cars and buses based on fuel cell technology being researched or manufactured. Research is ongoing at a variety of motor car manufacturers. [[Honda]] has announced the release of a [[hydrogen vehicle]] in 2008.<ref>{{Cite news | title = Honda readies fuel-cell car for 2008 launch | date = 2006-09-25 | publisher = CBC News | url = http://www.cbc.ca/money/story/2006/09/25/tech-diesel-060925.html | accessdate = 2007-05-27}}</ref>
[[Type 212 submarine]]s use fuel cells to remain submerged for weeks without the need to surface.
[[Boeing]] researchers and industry partners throughout Europe are planning to conduct experimental flight tests in 2007 of a manned [[airplane]] powered only by a fuel cell and lightweight [[battery (electricity)|batteries]]. The Fuel Cell Demonstrator Airplane research project was completed recently and thorough systems integration testing is now under way in preparation for upcoming ground and flight testing. The Boeing demonstrator uses a Proton Exchange Membrane (PEM) fuel cell/[[lithium-ion battery]] hybrid system to power an electric motor, which is coupled to a conventional propeller.
===Market structure===
Not all geographic markets are ready for SOFC powered m-CHP appliances. Currently, the regions that lead the race in Distributed Generation and deployment of fuel cell m-CHP units are the EU and Japan.<ref>[http://www.cfcl.com.au/Content.aspx?PageID=214 m-CHP]</ref>
== Hydrogen economy ==
{{Main|Hydrogen economy}}
[[Electrochemical]] extraction of energy from hydrogen via fuel cells is an especially clean method of meeting power requirements, but not an efficient one, due to the necessity of adding large amounts of energy to either water or hydrocarbon fuels in order to produce the hydrogen. Additionally, during the extraction of hydrogen from hydrocarbons, carbon monoxide is released. Although this gas is artificially converted into carbon dioxide, such a method of extracting hydrogen remains environmentally injurious. It must however be noted that regarding the concept of the [[hydrogen vehicle]], burning/[[combustion]] of hydrogen in an [[internal combustion engine]] (IC/ICE) is often confused with the electrochemical process of generating electricity via fuel cells (FC) in which there is no combustion (though there is a small byproduct of heat in the reaction). Both processes require the establishment of a hydrogen economy before they may be considered commercially viable, and even then, the aforementioned energy costs make a hydrogen economy of questionable environmental value. Hydrogen combustion is similar to petroleum combustion, and like petroleum combustion, still results in nitrogen oxides as a by-product of the combustion, which lead to smog. Hydrogen combustion, like that of petroleum, is limited by the [[Exergy efficiency|Carnot efficiency]], but is completely different from the hydrogen fuel cell's chemical conversion process of hydrogen to electricity and water without combustion. Hydrogen fuel cells emit only water during use, while producing carbon dioxide emissions during the majority of hydrogen production, which comes from natural gas. Direct [[methane]] or [[natural gas]] conversion (whether IC or FC) also generate carbon dioxide emissions, but direct hydrocarbon conversion in high-temperature fuel cells produces lower carbon dioxide emissions than either combustion of the same fuel (due to the higher efficiency of the fuel cell process compared to combustion), and also lower carbon dioxide emissions than hydrogen fuel cells, which use methane less efficiently than high-temperature fuel cells by first converting it to high-purity hydrogen by steam reforming. Although hydrogen can also be produced by electrolysis of water using renewable energy, at present less than 3% of hydrogen is produced in this way.
Hydrogen is an [[energy carrier]], and not an energy source, because it is usually produced from other energy sources via petroleum combustion, [[wind power]], or [[Solar cell|solar photovoltaic cells]]. Hydrogen may be produced from subsurface reservoirs of methane and natural gas by a combination of [[steam reforming]] with the [[water gas shift reaction]], from [[coal]] by [[coal gasification]], or from [[oil shale]] by [[oil shale extraction|oil shale gasification]]. {{Fact|date=September 2007}} Electrolysis, which requires [[electricity]], and [[high-temperature electrolysis]]/[[hydrogen production|thermochemical production]], which requires high temperatures (ideal for [[nuclear reactor]]s), are two primary methods for the extraction of hydrogen from water.
As of 2005, 49.7% of the electricity produced in the [[United States]] comes from [[coal]], 19.3% comes from [[nuclear power|nuclear]], 18.7% comes from [[natural gas]], 6.5% from [[hydroelectricity]], 3% from [[petroleum]] and the remaining 2.8% mostly coming from [[geothermal power|geothermal]], [[solar energy|solar]] and [[biomass]]. <ref>[http://www.eia.doe.gov/cneaf/electricity/epa/figes1.html EIA - Electricity Data, Analysis, Surveys<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref> When hydrogen is produced through electrolysis, the energy comes from these sources. Though the fuel cell itself will only emit heat and water as waste, pollution is often caused when generating the electricity required to produce the hydrogen that the fuel cell uses as its power source (for example, when coal, oil, or natural gas-generated electricity is used). This will be the case unless the hydrogen is produced using electricity generated by hydroelectric, geothermal, solar, wind or other clean power sources (which may or may not include nuclear power, depending on one's attitude to the nuclear waste byproducts); hydrogen is only as clean as the energy sources used to produce it. A holistic approach has to take into consideration the impacts of an extended hydrogen scenario, including the production, the use and the disposal of infrastructure and energy converters.
Nowadays low temperature fuel cell stacks [[proton exchange membrane fuel cell]] (PEMFC), [[direct methanol fuel cell]] (DMFC) and [[phosphoric acid fuel cell]] (PAFC) make extensive use of [[catalyst]]s. Impurities poison or foul the catalysts (reducing activity and efficiency), thus higher catalyst densities are required.<ref>{{Cite journal | title = Fuel Processing Catalysts for Hydrogen Reformate Generation for PEM Fuel Cells | first = Anca | last = Faur-Ghenciu | publisher = FuelCell Magazine | date = April/May 2003 | url = http://www.fuelcell-magazine.com/eprints/free/johnsonmattheyapril03.pdf | accessdate = 2007-05-27}}</ref> Limited reserves of [[platinum]] quicken the synthesis of an inorganic complex very similar to the catalytic iron-sulfur core of bacterial hydrogenase to step in.<ref>{{Cite journal | title = Iron-Sulfur Core Assembled | first = Stu | last = Borman | date = [[February 14]], [[2005]] | journal = Chemical & Engineering News | volume = 83 | issue = 7 | pages = 11 | accessdate = 2007-05-27 | unused_data = |http://pubs.acs.org/cen/news/83/i07/8307notw8.html}}</ref> Although platinum is seen by some as one of the major "showstoppers" to mass market fuel cell commercialization companies, most predictions of platinum running out and/or platinum prices soaring do not take into account effects of thrifting (reduction in catalyst loading) and recycling. Recent research at [[Brookhaven National Laboratory]] could lead to the replacement of platinum by a [[gold]]-[[palladium]] coating which may be less susceptible to poisoning and thereby improve fuel cell lifetime considerably.<ref>{{Cite news | title = Gold is key to ending platinum dissolution in fuel cells | publisher = EETimes.com | date = 2007-01-22 | first = R. Colin | last = Johnson | url = http://www.eetimes.com/news/latest/showArticle.jhtml?articleID=196901214 | accessdate = 2007-05-27}}</ref> Current targets for a transport PEM fuel cells are 0.2 g/kW Pt – which is a factor of 5 decrease over current loadings – and recent comments from major [[original equipment manufacturer]]s (OEMs) indicate that this is possible. Also it is fully anticipated that [[recycling]] of fuel cells components, including platinum, will kick-in. High-temperature fuel cells, including molten carbonate fuel cells (MCFC's) and [[solid oxide fuel cell]]s (SOFC's), do not use platinum as catalysts, but instead use cheaper materials such as nickel and nickel oxide, which are considerably more abundant (for example, nickel is used in fairly large quantities in common stainless steel).
== Research and development ==
*'''August 2005''': [[Georgia Institute of Technology]] researchers use [[triazole]] to raise the operating temperature of PEM fuel cells from below 100 °C to over 120 °C, claiming this will require less carbon-monoxide purification of the hydrogen fuel.<ref>{{Cite news | title = Chemical Could Revolutionize Polymer Fuel Cells | publisher = Georgia Institute of Technology | date = 2005-08-24 | url = http://www.gatech.edu/news-room/release.php?id=618 | accessdate = 2007-05-27}}</ref>
*'''2006''':[[Staxon]] introduced an inexpensive OEM fuel cell module for system integration. In 2006 [[Angstrom Power]], a British Columbia based company, began commercial sales of portable devices using proprietary hydrogen fuel cell technology, trademarked as "micro hydrogen."<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.angstrompower.com/products.html|title=Angstrom Power products|accessdate=2007-07-03}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.micro-fuelcell.com/2006/04/microhydrogen-fuel-cell-bicycle-light.html|title=Micro-Fuel Cell Blog|accessdate=2007-07-03}}</ref>
==See also==
{{portal|Electronics|Nuvola_apps_ksim.png}}
{{EnergyPortal}}
{{Portal|Sustainable development|Sustainable development.svg}}
* [[Bio-nano generator]]
* [[Comparison of automobile fuel technologies]]
* [[Cryptophane]]
* [[Distributed generation]]
* [[Electrolysis]]
* [[Energy development]]
* [[Flow battery]]
* [[Germanischer Lloyd guidelines for fuel cells on ships and boats]]
* [[Grid energy storage]]
* [[Hydrogen reformer]]
* [[Hydrogen storage]]
* [[Hydrogen technologies]]
* [[Microgeneration]]
* [[Microgeneration Certification Scheme]]
* [[Renewable energy]]
* [[Water splitting]]
==References==
{{reflist}}
== External links ==
* [http://www.iec.ch/cgi-bin/procgi.pl/www/iecwww.p?wwwlang=E&wwwprog=TCboard.p&committee=SC&TC=105 TC 105] [[International Electrotechnical Commission|IEC]] Technical standard for Fuel Cells
* [http://www.bigs.de/en/shop/htm/bz01.html BIGS: Fuel Cell Animation]
* [http://www.eere.energy.gov/hydrogenandfuelcells/fuelcells/fc_types.html EERE: Fuel Cell Types]
* [http://www.eere.energy.gov/hydrogenandfuelcells/ EERE: Hydrogen, Fuel Cells and Infrastructure Technologies Program]
* [http://www.fuelcelltoday.com/ Fuel Cell Today]
* [http://www.fuelcells.org/ Fuel Cells 2000]
* [http://www.usfcc.com/ USFCC]
* [http://protium.us/ Ponaganset's Fuel Cell Education Initiative Classes]
* [http://www.ika.rwth-aachen.de/r2h/index.php/Category:Fuel_Cell r2h Hydrogen and Fuel Cell Wiki]
* [http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/Hbase/thermo/electrol.html#c2 Thermodynamics of electrolysis of water and hydrogen fuel cells]
*[http://www.hydrogen-fuel.org Hydrogen Fuel Cells - Alternative Renewable Energy]
*[http://www.larger-than-life.org/modules.php?name=Content&pa=showpage&pid=11 Questions and answers on Hydrogen and Hydrogen Fuel Cells]
[[Category:Electric batteries]]
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