Game studies 402119 225317075 2008-07-13T01:42:32Z KiwiX50 6925320 /* External links */ '''Game studies''' is the still-young field of analyzing [[video games |games]] from a multi- and inter-disciplinary perspective. ==Introduction== Prior to the late-20th century, the academic study of [[game]]s was rare and limited to fields such as [[history]] and [[anthropology]]. For example, in the early 1900s Stewart Culin wrote a comprehensive catalog of gaming implements and games from [[Indigenous peoples of the Americas|Native American]] tribes north of [[Mexico]] <ref>{{cite book| last = Culin| first = S.| year = 1907| title = Games of the North American Indians| series = Twenty fourth Annual Report of the Bureau of American Ethnology, 1902-1903| publisher = Government Printing Office: 1-840}}</ref> while [[Johan Huizinga]] and [[Roger Caillois]] explored the importance of games and play as a basic human activity that helps define [[culture]] <ref>{{cite book| last = Huizinga| first=Johan| year = 1954| title = Homo Ludens| publisher = Alianza Editorial |location = Madrid}}</ref>. As the videogame revolution took off in the early 1980s, so did [[academic]] interest in games. To date, the field of games studies can be characterized not only as multi-disciplinary but also as inter-disciplinary. Over the years, different fields and disciplines have demonstrated an interest in videogames and their study. The approaches taken thus far can be broadly characterized in three ways: #'''[[Social science]] approach''' #*Studying the effects of games on people #**What do games do to people? #***E.g.: [[Learning]], effects of [[violence]] in games #**How do people create and negotiate a game? #'''[[Humanities]] approach''' #*Studying the [[meaning]] and [[context]] of games #**What meanings are made through game use? #**Studying games as artifacts in and of themselves #***E.g.: Affordances of the medium, critical analysis, rhetoric #'''[[Industry]] and [[engineering]] approach''' #*Understanding the design and development of games #**E.g.: How to make better games #*Games as drivers of technological innovations #**E.g.: Graphics, AI, networking, etc. In addition to asking different kinds of questions, each approach tends to use different methods and tools. A large body of social scientists prefer [[quantitative]] tools and methods while a smaller group makes use of [[qualitative research]]. Academics from the humanities tend to prefer tools and methods that are qualitative. The industry approach is practice-driven and usually less concerned with theory than the other two. Of course, these approaches are not mutually exclusive, and a significant part of game studies research blends them together. Tracy Fullerton and Kenji Ito’s work are examples of interdisciplinary work being done in games studies<ref>{{cite conference | first = Tracy | last = Fullerton | authorlink = | coauthors = | title = The Play's the Thing: Practicing Play as Community Foundation and Design Technique | booktitle = Changing Views: Worlds in Play, Selected Papers from the 2005 DiGRA Conference | pages = | publisher = DiGRA | date = 2005 | location = Vancouver, Canada | url = http://www.digra.org/dl/db/06276.24389.pdf | doi = | id = | accessdate = }}</ref><ref>{{cite conference | first = Kenji | last = Ito | authorlink = | coauthors = | title = Possibilities of Non-Commercial Games: The Case of Amateur Role Playing Games Designers in Japan | booktitle = Changing Views: Worlds in Play, Selected Papers from the 2005 DiGRA Conference | pages = 135-145 | publisher = DiGRA | date = 2005 | location = Vancouver, Canada | url = http://www.digra.org/dl/db/06278.00101.pdf | doi = | id = | accessdate = }}</ref>. The youth of the field of game studies is also another reason for blurred boundaries between approaches. Williams, in a call for greater inter-disciplinary work in communications-oriented games scholarship, noted how the “study of videogames is poised to repeat the mistakes of past academic inquiry” <ref>{{Citation | last = Williams | first = D | author-link = | title = Bridging the methodological divide in game research | journal = Simulation & Gaming | volume = 36 | issue = 4 | pages = 447–463 | date = | year = 2005 | url = | doi = | id = }}</ref>. He argues that the youth of the field means that it is not bound to follow the traditional divisions of scholarly work and that there is an opportunity to rediscover the strengths and contributions that different scholarly traditions can offer. An example of this in the field of educational games. [http://www.eece.bham.ac.uk/People/ProfEurEngBobStone/tabid/154/Default.aspx Prof Robert Stone] at [[University of Birmingham]], England, [http://www.coventry.ac.uk/cu/vco/staff/a/2044 Prof Ian Marshall] at [[University of Coventry]], and [http://cis.paisley.ac.uk/conn-ci0/ Prof Thomas Connolly] at [[University of the West of Scotland]] come from technical Computer Science backgrounds but are engaged in related research into educational uses of video games, including games in the school curruculum, games as formal learning environments, and games as naturalistic learning media. ==Social sciences== Broadly speaking, the social scientific approach has concerned itself with the question of “What do games do to people?” Using tools and methods such as [[statistical survey|surveys]] and controlled laboratory [[experiment]]s, researchers have investigated both the positive and negative impact that playing games could have on people. Among the possible negative effects of gameplay, perhaps the one most commonly raised by media and the general public has to do with violence in games. What are the possible effects that playing videogames, in particular those that feature aggressive or violent elements, might have on children and youth? [[Social learning theory]] (e.g., Bandura, 1986) suggests that playing aggressive videogames would stimulate aggressive behavior in players in particular because the player is an active participant (as opposed to a passive observer as the case of [[aggression]] in film and television). On the other hand, [[catharsis]] theory (e.g., Feshbach and Singer, 1971) implies that playing aggressive videogames would have the opposite effect by channeling latent aggression resulting in a positive effect on players. Numerous reviews of existing literature have been written and there isn’t a clear picture of the effects of playing violent videogames might have (Griffiths, 1999; Sherry, 2001). As for positive effects, educators and learning scientists have also debated how to leverage the [[motivation]] students had for playing games as well as exploring the medium of videogames for educational and [[pedagogical]] purposes. Malone explored the intrinsically motivating qualities that games have and how they might be useful in designing [[educational games]] (Malone, 1980; Malone, 1981) while Kafai utilized the design of games by schoolchildren as the context for them to learn [[computer programming]] concepts and [[mathematics]] (Kafai, 1995; Kafai, 1996). Similarly, Squire has explored the use of commercial games as a means for engaging disenfranchised students in school (Squire, 2005). In addition to their motivational factors, Gee and Shaffer have argued that certain qualities present in the medium of videogames provide valuable opportunities for learning (Gee, 2003; Shaffer, 2006). In her book Life on the Screen, [[Sherry Turkle]] explored how people that participated in online multiplayer games such as [[MUD]]s used their experiences with the game to explore personal issues of [[identity]] (Turkle, 1995). In her book Play Between Worlds, T. L. Taylor recounts her experience playing the massively multiplayer online game [[Everquest]]. In doing so, she seeks to understand “the nuanced border relationship that exists between MMOG players and the (game) worlds they inhabit” (Taylor, 2006). Finally, [[economist]]s have also begun studying games, in particular massively multiplayer online games (MMOG), to better understand [[human behavior]]. The economic activity in these games is being studied as one would study the economy of a nation such as [[Russia]] or [[Bulgaria]] (Castronova, 2001). Different theories, such as [[coordination game|coordination game theory]], can be put to the test because games can produce contexts for natural experiments: a high number of participants as well as tightly controlled experimental conditions (Castronova, 2006). From this perspective, games provide a unique context in which human activity can be explored and better understood. == Humanities == In general terms, the humanities approach has concerned itself with the question of “What meanings are made through games?” Using tools and methods such as interviews, ethnographies and participant observation, researchers have investigated the various roles that videogames play in people’s lives and activities together with the meaning they assign to their experiences. For example, Consalvo explores how players choose to play the games they buy and negotiate how, when, and for what reasons to subvert a game’s rules (Consalvo, 2007). It turns out that “[[cheating]]” is a very complex phenomenon whose meaning is continually negotiated by players, the game industry, and various gaming [[sub-culture]]s that revolve around specific games. Other researchers have focused on understanding videogames as cultural artifacts with embedded meaning, exploring what the medium of the videogame is, and situating it in context to other forms of human expression. Laurel’s book Computers as Theatre, while principally focused on applying tenants of [[drama]]tic criticism to the design of human-computer interface design, describes how videogames are the natural result of computers “capacity to represent action in which the humans could participate”. (Laurel, 1991). Rather than considering the computer as a highly efficient tool for calculating or computing, she proposed understanding the computer as a medium. The thesis of her book attempts to draw parallels between drama and the computer, with computers allowing their users to play equivalent roles to both the drama performer as well as the audience member. Throughout her book, Laurel uses different videogames as exemplars of many of the ideas and principles she tries to communicate. Jenkins, on the other hand, explores the role that videogames play in a broader context he calls transmedia storytelling. In Jenkin’s view, content moves between different media and videogames are a part of the general ecology of storytelling media that includes movies, novels, and comic books (Jenkins, 2003). Similarly, Janet Murray’s Hamlet on the Holodeck, described the computer as a new medium for the practice of storytelling (Murray, 1997). By analyzing videogames along with other digital artifacts such as hypertext and interactive chat characters, Murray explores the new expressive possibilities allowed by computers. In particular, she views videogames as part of an expanded concept of storytelling she calls cyberdrama. Espen Aarseth, in his book Cybertext, disagrees with Murray’s idea and holds that “to claim there is no difference between games and [[narrative]]s is to ignore essential qualities of both categories” (Aarseth, 1997). This disagreement has been called the [[ludology]] vs. narratology debates. The narratological view is that games should be understood as novel forms of narrative and can thus be studied using theories of narrative (Murray, 1997; Atkins, 2003). The ludological position is that games should be understood on their own terms. Ludologists have proposed that the study of games should concern the analysis of the abstract and [[formal system]]s they describe. In other words, the focus of game studies should be on the rules of a game, not on the representational elements which are only incidental (Aarseth, 2001; Eskelinen, 2001; Eskelinen, 2004). The idea that a videogame is “radically different to narratives as a [[cognitive]] and [[Communication|communicative]] [[structure]]” (Aarseth, 2001) has led the development of new approaches to criticism that are focused on videogames as well adapting, repurposing and proposing new ways of studying and theorizing about videogames. Juul’s Half-Real explores how videogames blend formal rules with the imaginative experiences provided by fictional worlds. He describes the tensions faced by games studies scholars when choosing to focus on the game or the player of the game. “We can examine the rules as they are found mechanically in the game program or in the manual of a board game, or we can examine the rules as something that players negotiate and learn. We can also treat the fictional world as a set of signs that the game presents, and we can treat the fictional world as something that the game cues the player into imagining and that players then imagine in their own ways (Juul, 2005).” Bogost’s comparative approach to videogame criticism also stands out as one of the more recent steps in the direction of proposing new ways of studying and theorizing about games. In Unit Operations, Bogost argues for explicating videogames through a new form of criticism that encompasses the programmatic and [[algorithm]]ic underpinnings of games together with the cultural and ideological units (2006). ==Ludology and narratology== Like most academic fields, those who study video games often have differing approaches. While scholars use many different theoretical and research frameworks, the two most visible approaches are ludology and [[narratology]]. The term ludology arose within the context of non-electronic games and [[board game]]s in particular, but gained popularity after it was featured in an article by [[Gonzalo Frasca]] in [[1999]].<ref>{{cite web| last = Frasca| first = Gonzalo| authorlink = Gonzalo Frasca| year = 1999| url = http://www.ludology.org/articles/ludology.htm| title = Ludology meets narratology: Similitudes and differences between (video) games and narrative| format = HTML| publisher = [http://ludology.org Ludology.org]| accessdate = 2006-06-14}}</ref> The name, however, has not yet caught on fully. Major issues being grappled within the field are questions of [[narrative]] and of [[simulation]], and whether or not video games are either, neither, or both. The narrativists approach video games in the context of what [[Janet Murray]] calls "Cyberdrama." That is to say, their major concern is with video games as a storytelling medium, one that arises out of interactive fiction. Murray puts video games in the context of the [[Holodeck]], a fictional piece of technology from [[Star Trek]], arguing for the video game as a medium in which we get to become another person, and to act out in another world.<ref>{{cite book | last = Murray | first = Janet | authorlink = Janet Murray | year = 1998 | title = Hamlet on the Holodeck | publisher = MIT Press | id = ISBN 0262631873}}</ref> This image of video games certainly received early widespread popular support, and forms the basis of films such as ''[[Tron (film)|Tron]]'', ''[[eXistenZ]]'', and ''[[The Last Starfighter]]''. But it is also criticized by some game scholars (such as [[Espen J. Aarseth]]) for being better suited to linear narratives than to analysis of interactive video games with multiple, semi-linear or non-linear narratives. The narrativist approach can also be found in the works of [[Lev Manovich]], as well as in the works of [[Jay David Bolter]] and [[Richard Grusin]], which deal more with the concept of [[new media]] in general, and its historical roots than with video games as such. But these authors still fundamentally approach video games as 'a text that can be read' - much like a book, poem, or film, and as a media form that has many of the same elements. There are some standard arguments that usually are used to claim that games are narratives, as in the explanation from Jesper Juul: * Everything is narrative * Most gamers use narratives as introductions and backstories * Games share certain elements with narratives The ludologists break sharply and radically from this. Their perspective is that a video game is first and foremost just that, a game, and that it needs to be understood in terms of its rules, interface, and in terms of the concept of play. Ludologists such as [[Espen J. Aarseth]] argue that, although games certainly have plots, characters, and aspects of traditional narratives, these aspects are incidental to gameplay. In one essay, he memorably claims that "the dimensions of [[Lara Croft]]'s body, already analyzed to death by [[film theory|film theorists]], are irrelevant to me as a player, because a different-looking body would not make me play differently... When I play, I don't even see her body, but see through it and past it."<ref>{{cite web| last = Aarseth| first = Espen J.| authorlink = Espen J. Aarseth| date = 2004-05-21| url = http://www.electronicbookreview.com/thread/firstperson/vigilant| title = Genre Trouble| format = HTML| publisher = [http://www.electronicbookreview.com Electronic Book Review]| accessdate = 2006-06-14}}</ref> [[Stuart Moulthrop]], another ludologist, takes a slightly more moderate perspective, arguing that one cannot completely divorce games from their social context, but still fundamentally arguing that games are not narratives in any meaningful sense. In another opinion, the dualism of a strict division between ludology-narratology is quite artificial. Ludology does not exclude the so-called "narratology" approach.<ref>{{cite web| last = Frasca| first = Gonzalo| authorlink = Gonzalo Frasca| year = 2003| url = http://ludology.org/articles/Frasca_LevelUp2003.pdf| title = Ludologists love stories, too: notes from a debate that never took place| format = PDF| publisher = [http://ludology.org Ludology.org]| accessdate = 2006-06-14 }}</ref> Jesper Juul's arguments for looking at games as non-narrative, or as a ludologist: * Games are not a part of the media landscape of movies, novels, theater etc. * Game time is different from narrative time * The relationship between the reader/viewer and the story world is different from the relation between the player and the game world One can say that some narrativist approaches are useful when examining strongly narrative-like games such as ''[[Zork]]'', and ''[[Return to Zork]]'', and more contemporary text-heavy games such as the ''[[Lunar]]'' series, the ''[[Final Fantasy]]'' series, or ''[[Odin Sphere]]'' - but some video game genres have taken a different approach to their design. Fighting games, sports games, or first person shooting games, to name a few, can hardly be analyzed using the narrativist approach. One can also point to the way that narrativist approaches may have something to say about where "big world" games have come from historically; immense game-worlds do seem to have roots in narrative [[Pulp magazine|pulp]] and popular fiction (''[[Lord of the Rings]]'', etc) and [[fantasy]] [[film epic]]s (''[[Star Wars]]'' trilogy, etc). Henry Jenkins attempts to find a compromise between ludology and narratology with the following points: * Not all games tell stories * Many games have narrative ambitions * An analysis of storytelling in games can be done in more than one way * The gaming experience can never be reduced to the experience of a story * If games tell stories, it is unlikely that they do so in the same manner as other media Many games can be seen in light of this compromise. For instance, the first-person shooter game ''[[Bioshock]]'' is in many ways typical for the genre. However, as the protagonist fights through the game, pieces of the narrative are discovered as audio recordings authored by the inhabitants of the game world. In this way, the actions taken in-game and the story of the game become interconnected. ''[[Shadow Of The Colossus]]'' is a different example. Although any explicit narrative elements are extremely spartan, nearly dialog-less and consist mainly of an introduction and ending, all in-game actions taken by the player would have no context without a story to give these actions meaning. ==Pre-history of video games== There is now also an emerging field of study (Oliver Grau, 2004, and others) that looks at the "pre-history" of video games, and at the branch of their roots that lie in: [[fairground]] attractions and [[sideshow]]s such as shooting games; early "[[Coney Island]]"-style pleasure parks with elements such as large [[roller-coaster]]s and "[[haunted house]]" simulations; nineteenth century landscape simulations such as [[diorama]]s, [[panorama]]s, [[planetarium]]s, and [[stereograph]]s; and [[amusement arcade]]s that had mechanical game machines and also [[peep-show]] film machines.<ref>{{cite book | last = Grau| first = Oliver | year = 2004| title = Virtual Art | publisher = [[MIT Press]]|id=ISBN 978-0-262-57223-1}}</ref> ==See also== *[[Center for Computer Games Research]] *[[List of books on computer and video games]] *[[Ludography]] *[[Simulated reality]] ==References== <references/> ==Relevant resources== ===Professional associations=== * [http://www.digra.org Digital Games Research Association (DiGRA)] * [http://contagion.edu.yorku.ca:16080/cgsa/ Canadian Games Studies Association] * [http://spilforskning.dk/ Spilforskning - The Danish network of game researchers] ===Academic journal publications=== * [http://www.gamejournal.org/ Game Journal: Professional Academic Forum for Games and Game Theory] * [http://www.gamestudies.org Game Studies: The International Journal of Computer Game Research] * [http://www.game-research.com/ Game Research: The art, business, and science of video games] * [http://gac.sagepub.com Games and Culture: A Journal of Interactive Media] * [http://www.eludamos.org Eludamos: Journal for Computer Game Culture] * [http://journals.sfu.ca/loading/index.php/loading Loading...] ===Conferences=== * [http://www.digra2007.jp/ DiGRA 2007: Situated Play] **[http://www.digra.org/dl/order_by_author?publication=Situated%20Play Conference Proceedings] * [http://www.gamesconference.org/digra2005/overview.php# DiGRA 2005: Worlds in Play] **[http://www.digra.org/dl/order_by_author?publication=Changing%20Views:%20Worlds%20in%20Play Conference Proceedings] *[http://www.gamesconference.org/digra2003/ DiGRA 2003: Level Up] **[http://www.digra.org/dl/order_by_author?publication=Level%20Up%20Conference%20Proceedings Conference Proceedings] ===Games Schools=== * United Kingdom ** [http://wosgames.wikispaces.com// University of The West of Scotland (Skillset accredited)] ** [http://data.bolton.ac.uk/gamesplatform/// University of Bolton] ** [http://nbs.newport.ac.uk/courses/displayCourse.aspx?course_id=102// University of Wales, Newport] ==External links== * [http://lgi.mesmernet.org Learning Games Initiative]: an international, transdisciplinary, multi-institutional research collective and archive. * [http://www.ludology.org Ludology.org]: online discussion of ludology. * [http://www.makingindiegames.com Makingindiegames.com]: Learn how to make video games. * [http://www.digra.org/dl Digra.org]: digital library of game studies conference papers. * [http://www.gameology.org Gameology.org]: commentary and resources for the game studies community. * [http://www.buzzcut.com Buzzcut.com]: critical videogame theory. * [http://www.eternalgamer.com EternalGamer.com]: exploring games through philosophy, theory, and criticism. * [http://www.joystick101.org Joystick101.org]: online gaming and education site sponsored by the University of Wisconsin-Madison. * [http://grandtextauto.org/ Grand Text Auto]: about machine narrative, games, poetry, and art. * [http://terranova.blogs.com/ Terra Nova]: online discussion about virtual worlds. * [http://www.costik.com/weblog/ Games * Design * Art * Culture] * [http://www.jesperjuul.net/ludologist The Ludologist]: Blog on computer game studies. * [http://www.ludonauts.com Ludonauts]: exploring ludic media * [http://www.dot-brain.com .brain] Critical videogame theory and ludology. * [http://www.sirlin.net/ Sirlin.net] Videogame theory site focusing on competitive gaming. * [http://konzack.blogspot.com/ Ludologica]: blog on game studies * [http://www.gamessound.com GamesSound.com] - site with studies and resources for educators all dealing with game audio. * [http://www.gamecultura.com.br/ Gamecultura]: GameCulture: The Videogame as Culture. (in Portuguese, with auto-translation) * [http://ludologistjarvi.blogspot.com/ Ludic Dreams] Blog Chronicling a student's attempts to Bring Ludology to his campus as a Major. * [http://www.digiplay.info/bibliography Digiplay Games Research Bibliography] Bibliography containing over 2400 references to papers, books, theses and conference papers on computer, video and digital games research. * [http://gamesanatomy.com/ Games Anatomy]: -blog of an ordinary guy's perspective on games. ==Further reading== * {{cite book| last=Aarseth |first= Espen J. |authorlink=Espen J Aarseth |year=1997 |title=Cybertext: Perspectives on Ergodic Literature |publisher=Johns Hopkins University Press |isbn= 0-8018-5579-9}} *{{cite book |last=Balkin |first=Jack M. |coauthors=Beth Simone Noveck |title=The State of Play: Law, Games, and Virtual Worlds |publisher=New York University Press |year=2006 |isbn=978-0-8147-9971-0}} *{{cite book | last = Bogost| first = Ian|authorlink=Ian Bogost | year = 2006| title = Unit Operations: an Approach to Videogame Criticism | publisher = [[MIT Press]] |isbn=978-0-262-02599-7}} * {{cite book| last=Bolter |first=Jay David |authorlink=Jay David Bolter |coauthors=Richard Grusin |year=2000 |title=Remediation: Understanding New Media |publisher=[[MIT Press]] |isbn=978-0-262-52279-3}} *{{cite book |last=Bryce|first=Jo |coauthors=Jason Rutter |title=Understanding Digital Games |publisher=Sage |year=2006 |isbn=1-4129-0033-6}} [http://www.digiplay.info/node/250 (Table of contents and contributing authors)], [http://www.sagepub.co.uk/upm-data/9768_36401ch1.pdf (Introduction to collection)] *{{cite book |last=Galloway |first=Alexander R. |title=Gaming:Essays on Algorithmic Culture |year=2006 |isbn=9780816648504 |publisher=University of Minnesota Press}} *{{cite book | last = Grau| first = Oliver | year = 2004| title = Virtual Art | publisher = [[MIT Press]]| isbn= 978-0-262-57223-1}} *{{cite book | last = Grau| first = Oliver (ed.) | year = 2007| title = MediaArtHistories | publisher = [[MIT Press]]| isbn=978-0-262-07279-3}} *{{cite book|last=Hanson |first=Matt |authorlink=Matt Hanson |year=2004 |title=[[The End of Celluloid]]: Film futures in the digital age. |publisher=Rotovision, |isbn= 2-88046-783-7}} * {{cite book|last=Harrigan |first= Pat and |coauthors=Noah Wardrip-Fruin |year=2007 |title=Second Person: Role-Playing and Story in Games and Playable Media'' |publisher=[[MIT Press]] |isbn=978-0-262-08356-0}} * {{cite journal|last=Juul |first=Jesper |authorlink=Jesper Juul |title=Games Telling Stories: A brief note on games & Narratives |journal=Games Studies |volume=1 |issue= 1 |date=July 2001 |url=http://www.gamestudies.org/0101/juul-gts/}} *{{cite book | last = Juul| first = Jesper| authorlink=Jesper Juul |year = 2006 |title =Half-Real: Video Games between Real Rules and Fictional Worlds |publisher = [[MIT Press]] | id=ISBN 978-0-262-10110-3}} *{{cite book| last=King |first=Brad |coauthors=John Borland |title=Dungeons and Dreamers: The Rise of Computer Game Culture from Geek to Chic |publisher= |isbn=0-07-222888-1 |publisher=McGraw-Hill |year=2003}} *{{cite book | last = Manovich| first = Lev | authorlink=Lev Manovich|year = 2001| title = The Language of New Media| publisher = [[MIT Press]]|id=ISBN 978-0-262-63255-3}} * {{cite book| last=Mäyrä |first= Frans |authorlink=Frans Mäyrä |year=2008 |title=An Introduction to Game Studies: Games in Culture |publisher=Sage Publications |isbn= 978-1-4129-3445-9}} * {{cite book| last=McAllister |first= Ken S. |authorlink=Ken S. McAllister |year=2004 |title=Gamework: Language, Power, and Computer Game Culture |publisher=University of Alabama Press |isbn= 0-8173-5420-4}} * {{cite book |authorlink=James Newman |last=Newman |first=James |year=2004 |title=Videogames |publisher=[[Routledge]] |isbn=0-415-28192-X}} <!-- title is one word --> * {{cite book |last=Ryan |first=Marie-Laure |year=2001 |title=Narrative as Virtual Reality |publisher=Johns Hopkins University Press|isbn=0-8018-6487-9}} * {{cite book |authorlink=Katie Salen |last=Salen |first=Katie |coauthors=[[Eric Zimmerman]] |year=2003 |title=Rules of Play: Game Design Fundamentals |publisher=[[MIT Press]] |isbn=0-262-24045-9}} * {{cite book |authorlink=Katie Salen |last=Salen |first=Katie |coauthors=[[Eric Zimmerman]] |year=2005 ||title=The Game Design Reader: A Rules of Play Anthology |publisher=[[MIT Press]] |isbn=978-0-262-19536-2}} * {{cite book |last=Wardrip-Fruin |first=Noah |coauthors=Pat Harrigan |year=2004 ||title=First Person: New Media as Story, Performance, and Game |publisher=[[MIT Press]] |isbn=978-0-262-73175-1}} * {{cite book |last=Wolf |first=Mark J.P. |coauthors=Bernard Perron |year=2003 |title=The Video Game Theory Reader |publisher=Routledge |isbn=0-415-96579-9}} * {{cite book |last=Wolf |first=Mark J.P. |title=The Medium of the Video Game |year=2001 |publisher=University of Texas Press |isbn=0-292-79150-X}} [[Category:Video game culture]] [[Category:Interdisciplinary fields]] [[de:Ludologie]] [[es:Ludología]] [[ko:게임학]] [[it:Ludologia]] [[nl:Ludologie]] [[pl:Ludologia]] [[fi:Pelitutkimus]] [[sv:Ludologi]]