Genetically modified organism
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{{redirect|GMO}}
:''This article is about organisms which have been genetically modified. For information on the techniques of genetic modification, see [[transfection]], [[gene knockout]], and [[knock-in]].''
{{Refimprove|date=March 2008}}
[[Image:GloFish.jpg|thumb|300px|[[GloFish]]: the first genetically modified animal to be sold as a [[pet]].]]
A '''genetically modified organism (GMO)''' or '''genetically engineered organism (GEO)''' is an [[organism]] whose [[gene]]tic material has been [[genetic engineering|altered]] using [[genetic engineering]] techniques.These techniques are generally known as [[recombinant DNA]] technology. With this technology, DNA [[molecule]]s from different sources are combined into one molecule to create a new set of [[gene]]s. This DNA is then transferred into an organism and causes the organism to acquire modified or novel traits.
==History==
The general principle of producing a GMO is to add a lot of genetic material into an organism's [[genome]] to generate new [[Trait (biology)|trait]]s - [[Genetic engineering]] - was made possible through a series of scientific advances including the discovery of [[DNA]] and the creation of the first recombinant [[bacteria]] in 1973, i.e., [[Escherichia coli|''E .coli'']] expressing a salmonella gene.<ref>Cohen, S., Chang, A., Boyer, H. & Helling, R. (1973) Construction of Biologically Functional Bacterial Plasmids In Vitro. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 70, 3240-3244 </ref> This led to concerns in the scientific community about potential risks from genetic engineering which have been thoroughly discussed at the [[Asilomar conference on recombinant DNA|Asilomar Conference]] in Pacific Grove, California. The recommendations laid out from this meeting were that government oversight of recombinant DNA research should be established until the technology was deemed safe.<ref>Berg, P., Baltimore, D., Brenner, S., Roblin, R.O. III, Singer, M.F., "Summary statement of the Asilomar Conference on recombinant DNA molecules," Proc. Nat. Acad. Sci. USA 72, pp. 1981-1984 (1975), also Science 188, p. 991 (1975).</ref><ref>"Guidelines for research involving recombinant DNA molecules," Federal Register 41, no. 131, pp. 27911-27943 (1976).</ref> [[Herbert Boyer]] then founded the first company to use recombinant DNA technology, [[Genentech]], and in 1978 the company announced the creation of an ''[[E. coli]]'' strain producing the human protein [[insulin]].<ref>Genentech: Press Releases - News Release September 6, 1978
[http://www.gene.com/gene/news/press-releases/display.do?method=detail&id=4160 The insulin synthesis is the first laboratory production DNA technology.]</ref>
In 1986, field tests of bacteria genetically engineered to protect plants from frost damage ([[ice-minus bacteria]]) at a small biotechnology company called Advanced Genetic Sciences of [[Oakland, California|Oakland]], [[California]], were repeatedly delayed by opponents of biotechnology. In the same year, a proposed field test of a microbe genetically engineered for a pest resistance protein by [[Monsanto]] was dropped.[http://homepages.uel.ac.uk/J.Mottley/Newchapt.html]
==Uses of GMOs==
Examples of GMOs are highly diverse, and include transgenic (genetically modified by recombinant DNA methods) [[animal]]s such as [[Mus musculus|mice]],<ref>[http://users.rcn.com/jkimball.ma.ultranet/BiologyPages/T/TransgenicAnimals.html ''Transgenic Animals'', Dr. John W. Kimball, Harvard University]</ref> fish, [[transgenic plant]]s, or various [[Microorganism|microbe]]s, such as fungi and [[Transgenic Bacteria|bacteria]]. The generation and use of GMOs has many reasons, chief among them are their use in research that addresses fundamental or applied questions in biology or medicine, for the production of [[pharmaceutical]]s and industrial enzymes, and for direct, and often controversial, applications aimed at improving human health (e.g., [[gene therapy]]) or agriculture (e.g., [[golden rice]]). The term "genetically modified organism" does not always imply, but can include, targeted insertions of genes from one into another [[species]]. For example, a gene from a jellyfish, encoding a [[fluorescence|fluorescent]] protein called [[Green fluorescent protein|GFP]], can be physically linked and thus co-expressed with mammalian genes to identify the location of the protein encoded by the GFP-tagged gene in the mammalian cell. These and other methods are useful and indispensable tools for [[biologist]]s in many areas of research, including those that study the mechanisms of human and other diseases or fundamental biological processes in [[eukaryote|eukaryotic]] or [[prokaryote|prokaryotic]] cells.
===Transgenic microbes===
Bacteria were the first organisms to be modified in the laboratory, due to their simple genetics.<ref name=Melo>{{cite journal |author=Melo EO, Canavessi AM, Franco MM, Rumpf R |title=Animal transgenesis: state of the art and applications |journal=J. Appl. Genet. |volume=48 |issue=1 |pages=47–61 |year=2007 |pmid=17272861 |url=http://jag.igr.poznan.pl/2007-Volume-48/1/abstracts/373.html}}</ref> These organisms are now used in a variety of tasks, and are particularly important in producing large amounts of pure human [[protein]]s for use in medicine.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Leader B, Baca QJ, Golan DE |title=Protein therapeutics: a summary and pharmacological classification |journal=Nat Rev Drug Discov |volume=7 |issue=1 |pages=21–39 |year=2008 |month=January |pmid=18097458 |doi=10.1038/nrd2399}}</ref>
Genetically modified bacteria are used to produce the protein [[insulin]], to treat [[diabetes]].<ref>{{cite journal |author=Walsh G |title=Therapeutic insulins and their large-scale manufacture |journal=Appl. Microbiol. Biotechnol. |volume=67 |issue=2 |pages=151–9 |year=2005 |month=April |pmid=15580495 |doi=10.1007/s00253-004-1809-x}}</ref> Similar bacteria have been used to produce [[coagulation|clotting factor]]s to treat [[haemophilia]],<ref>{{cite journal |author=Pipe SW |title=Recombinant clotting factors |journal=Thromb. Haemost. |volume=99 |issue=5 |pages=840–50 |year=2008 |month=May |pmid=18449413}}</ref> and human [[growth hormone]] to treat various forms of [[dwarfism]].<ref>{{cite journal |author=Bryant J, Baxter L, Cave CB, Milne R |title=Recombinant growth hormone for idiopathic short stature in children and adolescents |journal=Cochrane Database Syst Rev |issue=3 |pages=CD004440 |year=2007 |pmid=17636758 |doi=10.1002/14651858.CD004440.pub2}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |author=Baxter L, Bryant J, Cave CB, Milne R |title=Recombinant growth hormone for children and adolescents with Turner syndrome |journal=Cochrane Database Syst Rev |issue=1 |pages=CD003887 |year=2007 |pmid=17253498 |doi=10.1002/14651858.CD003887.pub2}}</ref> These recombinant proteins are much safer than the products they replaced, since the older products were purified from cadavers and could transmit diseases.<ref name=Foster>{{cite journal |author=Foster PR |title=Prions and blood products |journal=Ann. Med. |volume=32 |issue=7 |pages=501–13 |year=2000 |month=October |pmid=11087171}}</ref> Indeed the human-derived proteins caused many cases of [[AIDS]] and [[hepatitis C]] in haemophilliacs and [[Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease]] from human growth hormone.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Key NS, Negrier C |title=Coagulation factor concentrates: past, present, and future |journal=Lancet |volume=370 |issue=9585 |pages=439–48 |year=2007 |month=August |pmid=17679021 |doi=10.1016/S0140-6736(07)61199-4}}</ref><ref name=Foster/>
In addition to bacteria being used for producing proteins, genetically modified viruses allow [[gene therapy]].<ref>{{cite journal |author=Selkirk SM |title=Gene therapy in clinical medicine |journal=Postgrad Med J |volume=80 |issue=948 |pages=560–70 |year=2004 |month=October |pmid=15466989 |doi=10.1136/pgmj.2003.017764 |url=http://pmj.bmj.com/cgi/pmidlookup?view=long&pmid=15466989}}</ref> Gene therapy is a relatively new idea in medicine. A virus reproduces by injecting its own genetic material into an existing cell. That cell then follows the instructions in this genetic material and produces more viruses. In medicine this process is adapted to deliver a gene that could cure disease into human cells. Although gene therapy is still relatively new, it has had some successes. It has been used to treat [[genetic disorder]]s such as [[severe combined immunodeficiency]],<ref>{{cite journal |author=Cavazzana-Calvo M, Fischer A |title=Gene therapy for severe combined immunodeficiency: are we there yet? |journal=J. Clin. Invest. |volume=117 |issue=6 |pages=1456–65 |year=2007 |month=June |pmid=17549248 |pmc=1878528 |doi=10.1172/JCI30953 |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1172/JCI30953}}</ref> and treatments are being developed for a range of other incurable diseases, such as [[cystic fibrosis]],<ref>{{cite journal |author=Rosenecker J, Huth S, Rudolph C |title=Gene therapy for cystic fibrosis lung disease: current status and future perspectives |journal=Curr. Opin. Mol. Ther. |volume=8 |issue=5 |pages=439–45 |year=2006 |month=October |pmid=17078386}}</ref> [[sickle cell anemia]],<ref>{{cite journal |author=Persons DA, Nienhuis AW |title=Gene therapy for the hemoglobin disorders |journal=Curr. Hematol. Rep. |volume=2 |issue=4 |pages=348–55 |year=2003 |month=July |pmid=12901333}}</ref> and [[muscular dystrophy]].<ref>{{cite journal |author=Foster K, Foster H, Dickson JG |title=Gene therapy progress and prospects: Duchenne muscular dystrophy |journal=Gene Ther. |volume=13 |issue=24 |pages=1677–85 |year=2006 |month=December |pmid=17066097 |doi=10.1038/sj.gt.3302877}}</ref>
For instance, the bacteria in your mouth which causes tooth decay is called Streptococcus mutans. This bacteria eats left over sugars in your mouth and produces acid that eats away tooth enamel and causes cavities. Scientists have recently modified Streptococcus mutans to produce ethanol.{{Fact|date=July 2008}} This transgenic bacterium, if properly colonized in a person's mouth, could possibly eliminate cavities and other tooth related issues. Transgenic microbes have also been used in recent research to kill or hinder tumors, and fight [[Crohn's disease]]{{Fact|date=July 2008}}. Genetically modified bacteria is also used in some soils to facilitate crop growth, and can also produce chemicals which are toxic to crop pests.
===Transgenic animals===
Transgenic animals are used as experimental models to perform [[phenotype|phenotypic]] tests with genes whose function is unknown or to generate animals that are susceptible to certain compounds or stresses for testing in biomedical research.{{Fact|date=June 2007}} Other applications include the production of human hormones, such as [[insulin]].
Frequently used in genetic research are transgenic fruit flies (''[[Drosophila melanogaster]]'') as genetic models to study the effects of genetic changes on development.<ref>[http://www.genome.gov/25520307 First Transgenic Mice and Fruit Flies]</ref> Flies are often preferred over other animals for ease of culture, and also because the fly genome is somewhat simpler than that of [[vertebrates]]. Transgenic mice are often used to study cellular and tissue-specific responses to disease.
* [[Enviropig]]
===Transgenic plants===
[[Image:Btcornafrica.jpg|Kenyans examining insect-resistant transgenic [[Bacillus thuringiensis|Bt]] corn.|thumb]]
[[Transgenic plant]]s have been developed for various purposes: resistance to pests, herbicides or harsh environmental conditions; improved shelflife; increased nutritional value - and many more. Since the first commercial cultivation of GM plants in 1996, GM plant events tolerant to the herbicides [[glufosinate]] or [[glyphosate]] and events producing the [[Bacillus thuringiensis|Bt toxin]], an insecticide, have dominated the market. Recently, a new generation of GM plants promising benefits for consumers and industry purposes is becoming ready to enter the markets.
Whenever GM plants are grown on open fields without forms of containment, there is the possibility that there could be associated environmental risks. Therefore, most countries require biosafety studies prior to the approval of a new GM plant event, usually followed by a monitoring programme to detect environmental impacts.
Especially in Europe, the [[Co-existence of genetically modified and conventional crops and derived food and feed|coexistence of GM plants with conventional and organic crops]] has raised many concerns. Since there is separate legislation for GM crops and a high demand from consumers for the freedom of choice between GM and non-GM foods, measures are required to separate GM, conventional and organic plants and derived food and feed. European research programmes such as [[Co-Extra]], Transcontainer and SIGMEA are investigating appropriate tools and rules. On the field level, these are [[biological containment]] methods, [[Isolation distance for genetically modified plants|isolation distances]] and [[pollen barrier]]s.
==Controversy over GMOs==
{{See also|Genetically modified food controversies}}
===Government support for and ban of GMOs ===
{{Globalize}}
The use of GMOs has sparked significant controversy in many areas [http://www.csa.com/discoveryguides/gmfood/overview.php]. Some groups or individuals see the generation and use of GMO as intolerable meddling with biological states or processes that have naturally evolved over long periods of time, while others are concerned about the limitations of modern science to fully comprehend all of the potential negative ramifications of genetic manipulation.
While some groups advocate the complete prohibition of GMOs, others call for mandatory labeling of [[genetically modified food]] or other products. Other controversies include the definition of patent and property pertaining to products of genetic engineering and the possibility of unforeseen local and global effects as a result of transgenic organisms proliferating. The basic ethical issues involved in genetic research are discussed in the article on [[genetic engineering]].
====USA====
In 2004, [[Mendocino County, California|Mendocino County]], [[California]] became the first county in the [[United States]] to ban the production of GMOs. The measure passed with a 57% majority. In California, [[Trinity County, California|Trinity]] and [[Marin County, California|Marin]] counties have also imposed bans on GM crops, while ordinances to do so were unsuccessful in [[Butte County, California|Butte]], [[San Luis Obispo County, California|San Luis Obispo]], [[Humboldt County, California|Humboldt]], and [[Sonoma County, California|Sonoma]] counties. Supervisors in the [[agriculture|agriculturally]]-rich counties of [[Fresno County, California|Fresno]], [[Kern County, California|Kern]], [[Kings County, California|Kings]], [[Solano County, California|Solano]], [[Sutter County, California|Sutter]], and [[Tulare County, California|Tulare]] have passed resolutions supporting the practice [http://www.santacruzsentinel.com/archive/2005/June/15/local/stories/07local.htm].
====Canada====
In 2005, a [[standing committee]] of the government of [[Prince Edward Island]] in [[Canada]] began work to assess a proposal to ban the production of GMOs in the province. PEI has already banned GM potatoes, which account for most of its crop. Mainland Canada is one of the worlds largest producers of GM canola.
====Australia====
Several states of Australia have had moratoria on the planting of GM food crops dating from around 2003 <ref>[http://www.parliament.nsw.gov.au/prod/parlment/nswbills.nsf/d2117e6bba4ab3ebca256e68000a0ae2/eece7ad826896f3bca256d2c002080f7!OpenDocument www.parliament.nsw.gov.au]</ref>. However, in late 2007 the states of New South Wales and Victoria lifted these bans <ref>Australian Science Media Center - 27 November 2007 [http://www.aussmc.org/GM_moratorium_lifted.php]</ref> while South Australia and Western Australia continued their bans <ref>Australian Science Media Center - 8 February 2008[http://www.aussmc.org/SA_GM_Moratorium_Extended.php]</ref>. Tasmania has extended their moritorium to June 2008 which<ref>[http://www.dpiw.tas.gov.au/inter.nsf/webpages/cpas-5k6vrk?open DPIW - GM Moratorium Extended<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref> The state of Queensland has allowed the growing of GM crops since 1995 <ref>10 Years of GM cotton - where to from here? Jeff Bidstrup, Convener, Producers’ Forum Outlook Conference, Canberra, 2006 [http://abareonlineshop.com/PdfFiles/pc13387.pdf]</ref> and has never had a GM ban.
Currently, there is little international consensus regarding the acceptability and effective role of modified "complete" organisms such as plants or animals. A great deal of the modern research that is illuminating complex biochemical processes and disease mechanisms makes vast use of genetic engineering.
===Crosspollination concerns===
Some critics have raised the concern that conventionally bred crop plants can be cross-pollinated (bred) from the pollen of modified plants. Pollen can be dispersed over large areas by wind, animals, and insects. Recent research with [[creeping bentgrass]] has lent support to the concern when modified genes were found in normal grass up to 21 km (13 miles) away from the source, and also within close relatives of the same genus (''[[Agrostis]]'') [http://www.pnas.org/cgi/content/abstract/101/40/14533?ijkey=e52c2f60e681a753eab3d267158057b81ffc6b13&keytype2=tf_ipsecsha ]. GM proponents point out that [[outcrossing]], as this process is known, is not new. The same thing happens with any new open-pollinated crop variety—newly introduced traits can potentially cross out into neighbouring crop plants of the same species and, in some cases, to closely related wild relatives. Defenders of GM technology point out that each GM crop is assessed on a case by case basis to determine if there is any risk associated with the outcrossing of the GM trait into wild plant populations. The fact that a GM plant may outcross with a related wild relative is not, in itself, a risk unless such an occurrence has consequences. If, for example, a herbicide resistance trait was to cross into a wild relative of a crop plant it can be predicted that this would not have any consequences except in areas where herbicides are sprayed, such as a farm. In such a setting the farmer can manage this risk by rotating herbicides.
The European Union funds research programmes such as [[Co-Extra]], that investigate options and technologies on the coexistence of GM and conventional farming. This also includes research on biological containment strategies and other measures, that prevent outcrossing and enable the implementation of coexistence.
If patented genes are outcrossed, even accidentally, to other commercial fields and a person deliberately selects the outcrossed plants for subsequent planting then the patent holder has the right to control the use of those crops. This was supported in [[Canadian law]] in the case of [[Monsanto Canada Inc. v. Schmeiser]].
==='Terminator' and 'traitor'===
An often cited controversy is a hypothetical "Technology Protection" technology dubbed 'Terminator'[http://cls.casa.colostate.edu/TransgenicCrops/terminator.html]. This yet-to-be-[[Commercialization|commercialized]] technology would allow the production of first generation crops that would not generate seeds in the second generation because the plants yield sterile [[seed]]s. The patent for this so-called "terminator" gene technology is owned by Delta and Pine Land and the [[United States Department of Agriculture]]. Delta and Pine Land was bought by [[Monsanto]] in August 2006. Similarly, the hypothetical Trait-specific Genetic Use Restriction Technology, also known as 'Traitor' or 'T-gut', requires application of a chemical to genetically-modified crops to reactivate engineered traits[http://www.nature.com/wcs/b50.html][http://cls.casa.colostate.edu/TransgenicCrops/terminator.html]. This technology is intended both to limit the spread of genetically engineered plants, and to require farmers to pay yearly to reactivate the genetically engineered traits of their crops. Traitor is under development by companies including Monsanto and AstraZeneca.
In addition to the commercial protection of proprietary technology in self-pollinating crops such as [[soybean]] (a generally contentious issue) another purpose of the terminator gene is to prevent the escape of genetically modified traits from crosspollinating crops into wild-type species by sterilizing any resultant hybrids. The terminator gene technology created a backlash amongst those who felt the technology would prevent re-use of seed by farmers growing such terminator varieties in the developing world and was ostensibly a means to exercise [[patent]] claims. Use of the terminator technology would also prevent "volunteers", or crops that grow from unharvested seed, a major concern that arose during the [[Transgenic maize|Starlink]] debacle. There are technologies evolving which contain the transgene by biological means and still can provide fertile seeds using fertility restorer functions. Such methods are being developed by several EU research programmes, among them Transcontainer and [[Co-Extra]].
==See also==
*[[Genetically modified food]]
*[[LMO (biology)|LMO]] (Living Modified Organism)
*[[Transgene]]
*[[Gene flow]]
*[[Organic farming]]
*[[Permaculture]]
*[[Organic food]]
*[[Genetically modified food controversies|GM food controversies]]
*[[GloFish]]
*[[Chimera (genetics)]]
*[[Dolly the sheep]]
*[[Ice-minus bacteria]]
*[[BioSteel]]
*[[Gene pool]]
*[[Genetic pollution]]
*[[Genetic erosion]]
*[[Smart breeding]]
*[[Synthetic Biology]]
==References==
{{reflist|2}}
==External links==
===General===
* [http://www.romerlabs.com/gmo.html Information on GM crops]
*{{cite book |last=Zaid |first=A |authorlink= |coauthors= H.G. Hughes, E. Porceddu, F. Nicholas|title= Glossary of Biotechnology for Food and Agriculture - A Revised and Augmented Edition of the Glossary of Biotechnology and Genetic Engineering. Available in English, French, Spanish and Arabic|url= http://www.fao.org/biotech/index_glossary.asp|year=2001|publisher=[[FAO]] |location=[[Rome]], [[Italy]]|id= ISBN 92-5-104683-2}}
*[http://www.fao.org/biotech/news_list.asp?thexpand=1&cat=131 FAO-BiotechNews] — News and events about GMOs from the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations
*[http://www.newscientist.com/channel/life/gm-food Everything you wanted to know about GM organisms] — Provided by ''[[New Scientist]]''.
* [http://www.eppendorf-biochips.com Eppendorf Biochip Systems] Detection method for GMO in food and feed by using GMO-microarray
*[http://www.merid.org/fs-agbiotech/ Food Security and Ag-Biotech News] — for balanced news
* [http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.tibtech.2005.12.008 Devlin RH, Sundstrom LF, Muir WM. 2006. Interface of biotechnology and ecology for environmental risk assessments of transgenic fish. Trends in Biotechnology 24:89-97] - A scientific article on the advances and problems in making reliable risk-assessment of transgenic fish.
*[[Bernard Stiegler]], [http://www.arsindustrialis.org/Members/bstiegler/prendresoin-en "Take Care"] — A philosophical approach to the question of GMOs and their relation to human agricultural history.
*[http://www.gmo-safety.eu/en/ GMO Safety] - Information about research projects on the biological safety of genetically modified plants.
*[http://www.akademie-fresenius.de/1824 International Conference on "GM Crops and Foods" (20/21 November in Frankfurt/Germany)]
*[http://www.soilassociation.org/seedsofdoubt Seeds of doubt: North American farmers' experiences of GM crops] Seeds of doubt: North American farmers' experiences of GM crops
* [http://www.mshri.on.ca/nagy/tt2008/ The 8th International Transgenic Technology Conference (Toronto 2008)]
===Transgenic animals===
*[http://www.hhmi.org/biointeractive/clocks/vlab.html Transgenic Fly Virtual Lab - Howard Hughes Medical Institute BioInteractive]
*[http://www.informatics.jax.org/ Mouse Genome Informatics (informatics.jax.org)]
*[http://www.thearkdb.org/ ArkDB (theArkDB.org)]
*[http://ratmap.gen.gu.se/ The Rat Genome Database]
*[http://www.mitils.co.jp/site/index2.html Mouse Embryo Banking System]
*[http://www.mgu.har.mrc.ac.uk/ Mammalian Genetics Unit Harwell: Mouse models for human disease]
*[http://www.fleming.gr Disease Animal Models - BSRC Alexander Fleming]
*[http://www.biomedcode.com Transgenic Animal Models - Biomedcode]
*[http://www.thenation.com/doc/20071231/pentland_gumpert USDA Bets the Farm on Animal ID Program]
===Transgenic plants===
*[http://www.romerlabs.com/gmo.html Information on GM crops and protein based rapid tests]
*[http://www.gmo-compass.org GMO-Compass: Information on genetically modified organisms]
*[http://www.co-extra.eu Co-Extra: Research on co-existence and traceability of GM and non-GM supply chains]
*[http://www.transcontainer.org/UK Transcontainer: Research on biological containment systems for genetically modified plants]
*[http://www.isaaa.org/kc/default.asp ISAAA Knowledge Center: Information on genetically modified organisms]
[[Category:Genetically modified organisms| ]]
[[Category:Molecular biology]]
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