Geography
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{{redirect|Geographical|the magazine of the Royal Geographical Society|Geographical (magazine)}}
[[Image:World-map-2004-cia-factbook-large-1.7m-whitespace-removed.jpg|thumb|290px|right|Map of the [[Earth]]]]
'''Geography''' (from [[Greek language|Greek]] ''γεωγραφία'' - ''geografia'') is the study of the [[earth]] and its features, inhabitants, and phenomena.<ref>{{cite web |title=Geography |work=The American Heritage Dictionary/ of the English Language, Fourth Edition |publisher=Houghton Mifflin Company |url=http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/geography |accessmonthday=October 9|accessyear=2006 }}</ref> A literal translation would be "to describe or write about the Earth". The first person to use the word "geography" was [[Eratosthenes]] (276-194 B.C.). Four historical traditions in geographical research are the [[spatial analysis]] of natural and human phenomena (geography as a study of distribution), area studies (places and regions), study of man-land relationship, and research in [[earth sciences]].<ref>{{cite journal |last=Pattison |first=W.D. |year=1990 |title=The Four Traditions of Geography |journal=Journal of Geography |volume=89 |issue=5 |pages=pp. 202–6 |url=http://www.geog.ucsb.edu/~kclarke/G200B/four_20traditions_20of_20geography.pdf |id={{ISSN|0022-1341}} |doi=10.1080/00221349008979196 }} Reprint of a 1964 article.</ref> Nonetheless, modern geography is an all-encompassing discipline that foremost seeks to understand the world and all of its human and natural complexities-- not merely where objects are, but how they have changed and come to be. As "the bridge between the human and physical sciences," geography is divided into two main branches - [[human geography]] and [[physical geography]].<ref>web.clas.ufl.edu/users/morgans/lecture_2.prn.pdf.</ref>
==Introduction==
Traditionally, [[geographers]] have been viewed the same way as [[cartographers]] and people who study place names and numbers. Although many geographers are trained in [[toponymy]] and cartology, this is not their main preoccupation. Geographers study the [[spatial]] and [[temporal]] distribution of phenomena, processes and feature as well as the interaction of [[humans]] and their [[Natural environment|environment]].<ref name="Hayes-Bohanan">{{cite web |last=Hayes-Bohanan |first=James |title=What is Environmental Geography, Anyway? |url=http://webhost.bridgew.edu/jhayesboh/environmentalgeography.htm |accessmonthday=October 9|accessyear=2006 }}</ref> As space and place affect a variety of topics such as economics, health, climate, plants and animals, geography is highly interdisciplinary.
{{Cquote2|''mere names of places...are not geography... know by heart a whole gazetteer full of them would not, in itself, constitute anyone a [[geographer]]. Geography has higher aims than this: it seeks to classify phenomena (alike of the natural and of the political world, in so far as it treats of the latter), to compare, to generalize, to ascend from effects to causes, and, in doing so, to trace out the great laws of nature and to mark their influences upon man. This is 'a description of the world'—that is Geography. In a word Geography is a Science—a thing not of mere names but of argument and reason, of cause and effect.''|[[William Hughes (professor)|William Hughes]], 1863<ref>[[William Hughes (professor)|Hughes, William]]. (1863). ''The Study of Geography''. Lecture delivered at King's College, London by Sir Marc Alexander. Quoted in {{cite book |last=Baker |first=J.N.L |year=1963 |title=The History of Geography |publisher=Basil Blackwell |location=Oxford |pages=p. 66}}</ref>}}
Geography as a discipline can be split broadly into two main sub fields: [[human geography]] and [[physical geography]]. The former focuses largely on the built environment and how space is created, viewed and managed by humans as well as the influence humans have on the space they occupy. The latter examines the natural environment and how the [[climate]], [[vegetation]] & life, [[soil]], [[water]], and [[landforms]] are produced and interact.<ref>{{cite web |title=What is geography? |work=AAG Career Guide: Jobs in Geography and related Geographical Sciences |publisher=Association of American Geographers |url=http://www.aag.org/Careers/What_is_geog.html |accessmonthday=October 9|accessyear=2006 }}</ref> As a result of the two subfields using different approaches a third field has emerged, which is [[environmental geography]]. Environmental geography combines physical and human geography and looks at the interactions between the environment and humans.<ref name="Hayes-Bohanan"/>
==Branches of geography==
=== Physical geography ===
{{main|Physical geography}}
Physical geography (or physiogeography) focuses on geography as an [[Earth science]]. It aims to understand the physical [[lithosphere]], [[hydrosphere]], [[Earth's atmosphere|atmosphere]], [[pedosphere]], and global [[flora (plants)|flora]] and [[fauna (animals)|fauna]] patterns ([[biosphere]]). Physical geography can be divided into the following broad categories:
:{| style="border:1px solid #ddd; text-align:center; margin: auto;" cellspacing="15"
| [[Image:Línea de Wallace.jpg|96px]] || [[Image:Cyclone Catarina from the ISS on March 26 2004.JPG|96px]] || [[Image:90 mile beach.jpg|96px]] || [[Image:Gavin Plant.JPG|96px]] || [[Image:Meridian convergence and spehrical excess.png|96px]] || [[Image:Delicate Arch LaSalle.jpg|96px]] || [[Image:Receding glacier-en.svg|96px]]
|-
| [[Biogeography]] || [[Climatology]] & [[paleoclimatology]] || [[Coastal geography]] || [[Environmental geography]] & [[Environmental management|management]] || [[Geodesy]] || [[Geomorphology]] || [[Glaciology]]
|-
|[[Image:Meander.svg|96px]] || [[Image:Khajuraho-landscape.jpg|96px]] || [[Image:World11.jpg|96px]] || [[Image:Soil profile.jpg|96px]] || [[Image:Pangea animation 03.gif|96px]] || [[Image:Milankovitch Variations sv.png|96px]]
|-
|[[Hydrology]] & [[Hydrography]] || [[Landscape ecology]] || [[Oceanography]] || [[Pedology (soil study)|Pedology]] || [[Palaeogeography]] || [[Quaternary science]]
|}
===Human geography===
{{main|Human geography}}
[[Human geography]] is a branch of geography that focuses on the study of patterns and processes that shape human interaction with various environments. It encompasses [[human]], [[political]], [[cultural]], [[social]], and [[economics|economic]] aspects. While the major focus of human geography is not the physical landscape of the Earth (see [[physical geography]]), it is hardly possible to discuss human geography without referring to the physical landscape on which human activities are being played out, and [[environmental geography]] is emerging as a link between the two. Human geography can be divided into many broad categories (for a comprehensive list see [[human geography]]), such as:
:{| style="border:1px solid #ddd; text-align:center; margin: auto;" cellspacing="15"
| [[Image:Qichwa conchucos 01.jpg|96px]] || [[Image:Pepsi in India.jpg|96px]] || [[Image:Christaller model 1.jpg|96px]] || [[Image:Star of life.svg|96px]] || [[Image:British Empire 1897.jpg|96px]] || [[Image:UN General Assembly.jpg|96px]] || [[Image:Pyramide Comores.PNG|96px]]
|-
|[[Cultural geography]] || [[Development geography]] || [[Economic geography]] || [[Health geography]] || [[Historical geography|Historical]] & [[Time geography]] || [[Political geography]] & [[Geopolitics]] || [[Population geography]] or [[Demography]] ||
|-
|[[Image:ReligionSymbol.png|96px]] || [[Image:US-hoosier-family.jpg|96px]] || [[Image:RERParisVision2025.png|96px]] || [[Image:Tourists-2-x.jpg|96px]] || [[Image:New-York-Jan2005.jpg|96px]]
|-
| [[Religion geography]] || [[Social geography]] || [[Transportation geography]] || [[Tourism geography]] || [[Urban geography]]
|}
Various approaches to the study of human geography have also arisen through time and include:
* [[Behavioral geography]]
* [[Geosophy]]
* [[Feminist geography]]
* [[Cultural theory]]
=== Environmental geography ===
{{main|Environmental geography}}
[[Environmental geography]] is the branch of geography that describes the spatial aspects of interactions between humans and the natural world. It requires an understanding of the traditional aspects of physical and human geography, as well as the ways in which human societies conceptualize the environment.
Environmental geography has emerged as a bridge between human and physical geography as a result of the increasing specialisation of the two sub-fields. Furthermore, as human relationship with the environment has changed as a result of [[globalization]] and [[technological change]] a new approach was needed to understand the changing and dynamic relationship. Examples of areas of research in environmental geography include [[disaster management]], [[environmental management]], [[sustainability]], and [[political ecology]].
===Geomatics===
{{main|Geomatics}}
[[Image:Geabios3d.jpg|thumb|right|Digital Elevation Model (DEM)]]
[[Geomatics]] is a branch of geography that has emerged since the quantitative revolution in geography in the mid 1950s. Geomatics involves the use of traditional spatial techniques used in cartography and topography and their application to computers. Geomatics has become a widespread field with many other disciplines using techniques such as GIS and remote sensing. Geomatics has also led to a revitalization of some geography departments especially in Northern America where the subject had a declining status during the 1950s.
Geomatics encompasses a large area of fields involved with [[spatial analysis]], such as [[Cartography]], [[Geographic information system|Geographic information systems (GIS)]], [[Remote sensing]], and [[GPS|Global positioning systems (GPS)]].
===Regional geography===
{{main|Regional geography}}
[[Regional geography]] is a branch of geography that studies the regions of all sizes across the [[Earth]]. It has a prevailing descriptive character. The main aim is to understand or define the uniqueness or character of a particular region which consists of natural as well as human elements. Attention is paid also to [[regionalization]] which covers the proper techniques of space delimitation into regions.
Regional geography is also considered as a certain approach to study in geographical sciences (similar to [[quantitative revolution|quantitative]] or [[critical geography|critical geographies]], for more information see [[History of geography]]).
=== Related fields ===
*[[Urban planning]], [[regional planning]] and [[spatial planning]]: use the science of geography to assist in determining how to develop (or not develop) the land to meet particular criteria, such as safety, beauty, economic opportunities, the preservation of the built or natural heritage, and so on. The planning of towns, cities, and rural areas may be seen as applied geography.
*[[Regional science]]: In the 1950s the regional science movement led by Walter Isard arose, to provide a more quantitative and analytical base to geographical questions, in contrast to the descriptive tendencies of traditional geography programs. Regional science comprises the body of knowledge in which the spatial dimension plays a fundamental role, such as [[regional economics]], [[resource management]], [[location theory]], [[urban planning|urban]] and [[regional planning]], [[transport]] and [[communication]], [[human geography]], population distribution, [[landscape ecology]], and environmental quality.
*[[Planetology|Interplanetary Sciences]]: While the discipline of geography is normally concerned with the [[Earth]], the term can also be informally used to describe the study of other worlds, such as the [[planets]] of the [[solar system]], and even beyond. The study of systems larger than the earth itself usually forms part of [[Astronomy]] or [[Cosmology]]. The study of other planets is usually called [[planetology]]. Alternative terms such as [[areology]] (the study of Mars) have been proposed but are not widely used.
== Geographical techniques ==
As spatial interrelationships are key to this [[synoptic science]], [[map]]s are a key tool. Classical [[cartography]] has been joined by a more modern approach to geographical analysis, computer-based [[geographic information system]]s (GIS).
In their study, geographers use four interrelated approaches:
* Systematic - Groups geographical knowledge into categories that can be explored globally.
* Regional - Examines systematic relationships between categories for a specific region or location on the planet.
* Descriptive - Simply specifies the locations of features and populations.
* Analytical - Asks ''why'' we find features and populations in a specific geographic area.
===Cartography===
{{main|Cartography}}
Cartography studies the representation of the Earth's surface with abstract symbols (map making). Although other subdisciplines of geography rely on maps for presenting their analyses, the actual making of maps is abstract enough to be regarded separately. Cartography has grown from a collection of drafting techniques into an actual science.
Cartographers must learn [[cognitive psychology]] and ergonomics to understand which symbols convey information about the Earth most effectively, and [[behavioral psychology]] to induce the readers of their maps to act on the information. They must learn [[geodesy]] and fairly advanced [[mathematics]] to understand how the shape of the Earth affects the distortion of map symbols projected onto a flat surface for viewing. It can be said, without much controversy, that cartography is the seed from which the larger field of geography grew. Most geographers will cite a childhood fascination with maps as an early sign they would end up in the field.
===Geographic information systems===
{{main|Geographic information system}}
<!-- Deleted image removed: [[Image:31b.jpg|thumb|right|Example of [[Geographic information system|GIS]] software (Idrisi, Clark Labs).]] -->
<!-- the section's use of a singular verb for a seemingly plural noun is intentional. The name of the academic subject is "Geographic information systems". If you didn't care about parallel construction, you could precede the following with THE SUBJECT OF --->
Geographic information systems (GIS) deal with the storage of information about the Earth for automatic retrieval by a computer, in an accurate manner appropriate to the information's purpose. In addition to all of the other subdisciplines of geography, GIS specialists must understand [[computer science]] and [[database]] systems. GIS has revolutionized the field of cartography; nearly all mapmaking is now done with the assistance of some form of GIS software. GIS also refers to the science of using GIS software and GIS techniques to represent, analyze and predict spatial relationships. In this context, GIS stands for Geographic Information Science.
===Remote sensing===
{{main|Remote sensing}}
Remote sensing can be defined as the art and science of obtaining information about Earth features from measurements made at a distance. Remotely sensed data comes in many forms such as [[satellite imagery]], [[aerial photography]] and data obtained from hand-held sensors. Geographers increasingly use remotely sensed data to obtain information about the Earth's land surface, ocean and atmosphere because it: a) supplies objective information at a variety of spatial scales (local to global), b) provides a synoptic view of the area of interest, c) allows access to distant and/or inaccessible sites, d) provides spectral information outside the visible portion of the electromagnetic spectrum, and e) facilitates studies of how features/areas change over time. Remotely sensed data may be analyzed either independently of, or in conjunction with, other digital data layers (e.g., in a Geographic Information System).
===Geographic quantitative methods===
{{main|Geostatistics}}
[[Geostatistics]] deal with quantitative data analysis, specifically the application of statistical methodology to the exploration of geographic phenomena. Geostatistics is used extensively in a variety of fields including: [[hydrology]], [[geology]], [[petroleum]] exploration, weather analysis, [[urban planning]], [[logistics]], and [[epidemiology]]. The mathematical basis for geostatistics derives from [[cluster analysis]], [[discriminant analysis]], and [[non-parametric statistics|non-parametric statistical tests]], and a variety of other subjects. Applications of geostatistics rely heavily on [[Geographic Information Systems]], particularly for the [[interpolation]] (estimate) of unmeasured points. Geographers are making notable contributions to the method of quantitative techniques.
===Geographic qualitative methods===
{{main|Ethnography}}
Geographic qualitative methods, or ethnographical; research techniques, are used by human geographers. In [[cultural geography]] there is a tradition of employing [[qualitative research]] techniques also used in [[anthropology]] and [[sociology]]. [[Participant observation]] and in-depth interviews provide human geographers with qualitative data.
== History of geography ==
{{main|History of geography}}
{{History of geography}}
The ideas of Anaximander of Miletus (c. 610 B.C.-c. 545 B.C.), considered by later Greek writers to be the true founder of geography, come to us through fragments quoted by his successors. Anaximander is credited with the invention of the gnomon,the simple yet efficient Greek instrument that allowed the early measurement of latitude. Thales, Anaximander is also credited with the prediction of eclipses. The foundations of geography can be traced to the ancient cultures, such as the ancient, medieval, and early modern [[History of China|Chinese]]. The [[ancient Greece|Greeks]], who were the first to explore geography as both [[art]] and [[science]], achieved this through [[History of cartography|Cartography]], [[Greek philosophy|Philosophy]], and [[Ancient Greek literature|Literature]], or through [[History of mathematics|Mathematics]]. There is some debate about who was the first person to assert that the Earth is spherical in shape, with the credit going either to [[Parmenides]] or [[Pythagoras]]. [[Anaxagoras]] was able to demonstrate that the profile of the Earth was circular by explaining [[eclipse]]s. However, he still believed that the Earth was a flat disk, as did many of his contemporaries. One of the first estimates of the radius of the Earth was made by [[Eratosthenes]].<ref>{{cite book |author=Jean-Louis and Monique Tassoul |title=A Concise History of Solar and Stellar Physics |publisher=Princeton University Press |location=London |year=1920 }}</ref>
The first rigorous system of latitude and longitude lines is credited to [[Hipparchus]]. He employed a [[sexagesimal]] system that was derived from [[Babylonian mathematics]]. The parallels and meridians were sub-divided into 360°, with each degree further subdivided 60′ ([[minutes]]). To measure the longitude at different location on Earth, he suggested using eclipses to determine the relative difference in time.<ref>{{cite web |year=2001 |url=http://astrogeology.usgs.gov/HotTopics/index.php?/archives/147-Names-for-the-Columbia-astronauts-provisionally-approved.html |title=Hipparcos of Rhodes |publisher=Technology Museum of Thessaloniki|accessdate=2006-10-16 }}</ref> The extensive mapping by the [[Roman Empire|Romans]] as they explored new lands would later provide a high level of information for [[Ptolemy]] to construct detailed [[atlas]]es. He extended the work of [[Hipparchus]], using a grid system on his maps and adopting a length of 56.5 [[mile]]s for a degree.<ref>{{cite web |last=Sullivan |first=Dan |year=2000 |url=http://www.math.rutgers.edu/~cherlin/History/Papers2000/sullivan.html |title=Mapmaking and its History |publisher=Rutgers University |accessdate=2006-10-16 }}</ref>
From the 3rd century onwards, [[History of China|Chinese]] methods of geographical study and writing of geographical literature became much more complex than what was found in Europe at the time (until the [[13th century]]).<ref name="needham volume 3 512"/> Chinese geographers such as [[Liu An]], [[Pei Xiu]], [[Jia Dan]], [[Shen Kuo]], [[Fan Chengda]], [[Zhou Daguan]], and [[Xu Xiake]] wrote important treatises, yet by the 17th century, advanced ideas and methods of Western-style geography were adopted in China.
During the [[Middle Ages]], the [[Decline of the Roman Empire|fall of the Roman empire]] led to a shift in the evolution of geography from [[Europe]] to the [[Muslim world|Islamic world]].<ref name="needham volume 3 512">Needham, Joseph (1986). Science and Civilization in China: Volume 3. Taipei: Caves Books, Ltd. Page 512.</ref> [[Islamic geography|Muslim geographers]] such as [[Al-Idrisi]] produced detailed world maps (such as [[Tabula Rogeriana]]), while other geographers such as [[Yaqut al-Hamawi]], [[Al-Biruni]], [[Ibn Batutta]] and [[Ibn Khaldun]] provided detailed accounts of their journeys and the geogarphy of the regions they visited. Turkish geigrapher, [[Mahmud al-Kashgari]] drew a world map on a linguistic basis, and later so did [[Piri Reis]] ([[Piri Reis map]]). Further, Islamic scholars translated and [[interpreted]] the earlier works of the [[Ancient Rome|Romans]] and [[ancient Greece|Greeks]] and established the [[House of Wisdom]] in [[Baghdad]] for this purpose.<ref>[http://www.islamicity.com/education/ihame/default.asp?Destination=/education/ihame/20.asp IslamiCity.com - Education<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref> [[Ahmed ibn Sahl al-Balkhi|Abū Zayd al-Balkhī]], originally from [[Balkh]], founded the "Balkhī school" of terrestrial mapping in [[Baghdad]].<ref name = E61-3>E. Edson and Emilie Savage-Smith, ''Medieval Views of the Cosmos'', pp. 61-3, Bodleian Library, [[University of Oxford]]</ref> Suhrāb, a late tenth century Muslim geographer, accompanied a book of geographical coordinates with instructions for making a rectangular world map, with [[equirectangular projection]] or cylindrical cylindrical equidistant projection.<ref name = E61-3/> In the early 11th century, [[Avicenna]] hypothesized on the [[Geology|geological]] causes of [[mountain]]s in ''[[The Book of Healing]]'' (1027).
[[Abū Rayhān al-Bīrūnī]] (976-1048) first described a polar equi-[[azimuthal equidistant projection]] of the [[celestial sphere]].<ref>David A. King (1996), "Astronomy and Islamic society: Qibla, gnomics and timekeeping", in Roshdi Rashed, ed., ''[[Encyclopedia of the History of Arabic Science]]'', Vol. 1, p. 128-184 [153]. [[Routledge]], London and New York.</ref> He was regarded as the most skilled when it came to mapping cities and measuring the distances between them, which he did for many cities in the [[Middle East]] and [[Indian subcontinent]]. He often combined astronomical readings and mathematical equations, in order to develop methods of pin-pointing locations by recording degrees of [[latitude]] and [[longitude]]. He also developed similar techniques when it came to measuring the heights of [[mountain]]s, depths of [[valley]]s, and expanse of the [[horizon]]. He also discussed [[human geography]] and the [[planetary habitability]] of the [[Earth]]. He hypothesized that roughly a quarter of the Earth's surface is habitable by [[human]]s.<ref name=Bill>{{Harvard reference |last=Scheppler |first=Bill |year=2006 |title=Al-Biruni: Master Astronomer and Muslim Scholar of the Eleventh Century |publisher=The Rosen Publishing Group |isbn=1404205128 |pp=41-2}}</ref> He also calculated the [[latitude]] of Kath, [[Khwarazm]], using the maximum altitude of the Sun, and solved a complex [[Geodesy|geodesic]] equation in order to accurately compute the [[Earth]]'s [[circumference]], which were close to modern values of the Earth's circumference.<ref name=Khwarizm>{{cite web|url=http://muslimheritage.com/topics/default.cfm?ArticleID=482|title=Khwarizm|publisher=Foundation for Science Technology and Civilisation|accessdate=2008-01-22}}</ref><ref>James S. Aber (2003). Alberuni calculated the Earth's circumference at a small town of Pind Dadan Khan, District Jhelum, Punjab, Pakistan.[http://academic.emporia.edu/aberjame/histgeol/biruni/biruni.htm Abu Rayhan al-Biruni], [[Emporia State University]].</ref> His estimate of 6,339.9 km for the [[Earth radius]] was only 16.8 km less than the modern value of 6,356.7 km. In contrast to his predecessors who measured the Earth's circumference by sighting the Sun simultaneously from two different locations, al-Biruni developed a new method of using [[trigonometric]] calculations based on the angle between a [[plain]] and [[mountain]] top which yielded more accurate measurements of the Earth's circumference and made it possible for it to be measured by a single person from a single location.<ref>Lenn Evan Goodman (1992), ''Avicenna'', p. 31, [[Routledge]], ISBN 041501929X.</ref> He also published a study of [[map projection]]s, ''[[Cartography]]'', which included a method for projecting a [[Sphere|hemisphere]] on a [[plane (mathematics)|plane]].<ref>{{Harvard reference |last=Scheppler |first=Bill |year=2006 |title=Al-Biruni: Master Astronomer and Muslim Scholar of the Eleventh Century |publisher=The Rosen Publishing Group |isbn=1404205128 |pp=42-3}}</ref>
[[Image:Alexander von Humboldt-selfportrait.jpg|thumb|185px|right|Self portrait of [[Alexander von Humboldt]], one of the early pioneers of geography]]
The European [[Age of Discovery]] during the [[16th century|16th]] and [[17th century|17th centuries]], where many new lands were discovered and accounts by European explorers such as [[Christopher Columbus]], [[Marco Polo]] and [[James Cook]], revived a desire for both accurate geographic detail, and more solid theoretical foundations in Europe.{{Fact|date=February 2007}}
The [[18th century|18th]] and [[19th century|19th centuries]] were the times when geography became recognized as a discrete academic discipline and became part of a typical [[university]] curriculum in [[Europe]] (especially [[Paris]] and [[Berlin]]). The development of many geographic societies also occurred during the 19th century with the foundations of the [[Société de Géographie]] in 1821,<ref>{{cite web
|url=http://www.socgeo.org/index.html
|title=Société de Géographie, Paris, France
|accessdate=2007-01-15
|language=French
}}</ref> the [[Royal Geographical Society]] in 1830,<ref>{{cite web
|url=http://www.rgs.org/AboutUs/about+us.htm
|title=About Us
|publisher=Royal Geographical Society
|accessdate=2007-01-15
}}</ref> [[Russian Geographical Society]] in 1845,<ref>[http://www.rgo.org.ru/ Русское Географическое Общество (основано в 1845 г.)<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref> [[American Geographical Society]] in 1851,<ref>[http://www.amergeog.org/ The American Geographical Society<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref> and the [[National Geographic Society]] in 1888.<ref>[http://www.nationalgeographic.com/index.html National Geographic - Inspiring People to Care About the Planet<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref> The influence of [[Immanuel Kant]], [[Alexander von Humbolt]], [[Carl Ritter]] and [[Paul Vidal de la Blache]] can be seen as a major turning point in geography from a philosophy to an academic subject.
Over the past two centuries the advancements in technology such as computers, have led to the development of [[geomatics]] and new practices such as participant observation and geostatistics being incorporated into geography's portfolio of tools. In the West during the 20th century, the discipline of geography went through four major phases: [[environmental determinism]], [[regional geography]], the [[quantitative revolution]], and [[critical geography]]. The strong interdisciplinary links between geography and the sciences of [[geology]] and [[botany]], as well as [[economics]], [[sociology]] and [[demographics]] have also grown greatly especially as a result of Earth System Science that seeks to understand the world in a holistic view.
==Some influential geographers==
{{main|List of geographers}}
[[Image:The Geographer.jpg|thumb|right|200px|''The Geographer'' by [[Johannes Vermeer]]]]
*[[Eratosthenes]] (276BC - 194BC) - calculated the size of the Earth.
*[[Ptolemy]] (c.90–c.168) - compiled Greek and Roman knowledge into the book [[Geographia (Ptolemy)|Geographia]].
*[[Gerardus Mercator]] (1512-1594) - innovative [[cartographer]] produced the [[mercator projection]]
*[[Alexander Von Humboldt]] (1769–1859) - Considered Father of modern geography, published the Kosmos and founder of the sub-field biogeography.
*[[Carl Ritter]] (1779-1859) - Considered Father of modern geography. Occupied the first chair of geography at Berlin University.
*[[Arnold Henry Guyot]] (1807-1884) - noted the structure of glaciers and advanced understanding in glacier motion, especially in fast ice flow.
*[[William Morris Davis]] (1850-1934) - father of American geography and developer of the cycle of erosion.
*[[Paul Vidal de la Blache]] (1845-1918) - founder of the French school of geopolitics and wrote the principles of human geography.
* Sir [[Halford John Mackinder]] (1861-1947) - Co-founder of the [[London School of Economics|LSE]], [[Geographical Association]]
*[[Walter Christaller]] (1893-1969) - human geographer and inventor of Central Place Theory.
*[[Yi-Fu Tuan]] (1930-) - Chinese-American scholar credited with starting [[Humanistic Geography]] as a discipline.
*[[David Harvey (geographer)|David Harvey]] (1935-) - Marxist geographer and author of theories on spatial and urban geography.
*[[Michael Frank Goodchild]] (1944-) - prominent GIS scholar and winner of the RGS founder's medal in 2003.
*[[Nigel Thrift]] (1949-) - originator of non-representational theory.
==References==
{{reflist}}
==See also==
{{portal}}
{{portalpar|Atlas|BlankMap-World.png|65}}
: ''Main lists: [[List of basic geography topics]] and [[List of geography topics]]''
*[[:Category:Geographical term stubs|Geographical term stubs]]
*[[List of countries]]
*[[List of reference tables#Geography and places|Geography reference tables]]
*[[Map]]
*[[World map]]
*[[Gazetteer]]
*[[Geographical renaming]]
*[[National Geographic Society]] ([[United States]])
*[[National Geographic Bee]] (United States)
*[[Royal Geographical Society]] ([[United Kingdom]])
*[[Royal Canadian Geographical Society]] ([[Canada]])
*[[List of explorers]]
*[[Geographer]]
*[[List of geographers]]
{{Geography topics}}
*[[Navigator]]
==External links==
{{sisterlinks|Geography}}
*Teaching Geography
** [http://www.geoknow.net GeoKnow.net - Geography news, information and resources at your fingertips]
** [http://www.juicygeography.co.uk/ Juicy Geography - ideas and resources for teachers]
** [http://www.geointeractive.co.uk GeoInteractive - shared resources for teachers]
** [http://www.geocasestudies.com Geography case studies for students]
** [http://www.geography-site.co.uk/ The Geography-Site]
** [http://www.geographyteachingtoday.org.uk/ Geography Teaching Today - Curriculum development project]
** [http://www.geographyalltheway.com/ geographyalltheway.com - Online Geography Resources]
** [http://www.wartoft.nu/software/seterra/ Seterra - Free Geography Software]
*Multimedia Geography Resources
** [http://earth.google.com Google Earth: View the World from your Desktop]
** [http://www.guardian.co.uk/interactive Flash Animations on Geographical Themes]
** [http://geographyatthemovies.co.uk/ Geography Movies free for download]
** [http://www.arkive.org/ Images of Life on Earth]
** [http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/worldbalance/ World in the Balance (PBS)]
** [http://www.hypergeo.eu/ Hypergeo : Electronical Encyclopedia of Geography]
*Geographical Associations and Pressure Groups
** [http://www.igu-net.org/ International Geographical Union]
** [http://www.nationalgeographic.com/ National Geographic Online]
** [http://www.rgs.org Royal Geographical Society]
** [http://www.aag.org/ Association of American Geographers]
** [http://www.rcgs.org Royal Canadian Geographical Society]
** [http://www.cag-acg.ca/en/ Canadian Association of Geographers]
** [http://rgo.msk.ru/ Russian Geographical Society (Moscow Centre)]
** [http://igu.org.ru/ International Geographical Union - Russian National Committee]
** [http://www.geografos.org Colegio de Geógrafos - España]
** [http://www.geografs.org Col.legi de Geògrafs - Catalunya]
[[Category:Geography| ]]
[[Category:Academic disciplines]]
[[Category:Earth sciences]]
[[Category:Social sciences]]
[[Category:Greek loanwords]]
{{Link FA|lmo}}
{{Link FA|sl}}
[[af:Geografie]]
[[als:Geografie]]
[[ab:Географи]]
[[ar:جغرافيا]]
[[an:Cheografía]]
[[arc:ܓܐܘܓܪܦܝܐ]]
[[frp:G·eografia]]
[[as:ভূগোল]]
[[ast:Xeografía]]
[[gn:Tetãnguéra]]
[[av:География]]
[[ay:Uraqita]]
[[az:Coğrafiya]]
[[bm:Dùgùkòlòkùnnàkalan]]
[[bn:ভূগোল]]
[[map-bms:Geografi]]
[[ba:География]]
[[be:Геаграфія]]
[[be-x-old:Геаграфія]]
[[bh:भूगोल]]
[[bcl:Heograpiya]]
[[bar:Geografie]]
[[bs:Geografija]]
[[br:Douaroniezh]]
[[bg:География]]
[[ca:Geografia]]
[[cv:Географи]]
[[ceb:Heyograpiya]]
[[cs:Geografie]]
[[co:Geografia]]
[[cy:Daearyddiaeth]]
[[da:Geografi]]
[[de:Geographie]]
[[dv:ޖުޣުރާފީ]]
[[et:Geograafia]]
[[el:Γεωγραφία]]
[[es:Geografía]]
[[eo:Geografio]]
[[ext:Heugrafia]]
[[eu:Geografia]]
[[fa:جغرافیا]]
[[fo:Landafrøði]]
[[fr:Géographie]]
[[fy:Geografy]]
[[fur:Gjeografie]]
[[ga:Tíreolaíocht]]
[[gan:地理學]]
[[gl:Xeografía]]
[[gu:ભૂગોળ]]
[[ko:지리학]]
[[hy:Աշխարհագրություն]]
[[hi:भूगोल]]
[[hsb:Geografija]]
[[hr:Zemljopis]]
[[io:Geografio]]
[[ilo:Heografia]]
[[id:Geografi]]
[[ia:Geographia]]
[[ie:Geografie]]
[[iu:ᓄᓇᐅᔪᖅ/nunaujuq]]
[[os:Географи]]
[[is:Landafræði]]
[[it:Geografia]]
[[he:גאוגרפיה]]
[[jv:Geografi]]
[[pam:Geografia]]
[[ka:გეოგრაფია]]
[[csb:Geògrafijô]]
[[kw:Dorydhyeth]]
[[ky:География]]
[[sw:Jiografia]]
[[kv:География]]
[[ht:Jewografi]]
[[ku:Erdnîgarî]]
[[lad:Jeografiya]]
[[lo:ພູມສາດ]]
[[la:Geographia]]
[[lv:Ģeogrāfija]]
[[lb:Geographie]]
[[lt:Geografija]]
[[lij:Geografia]]
[[li:Geografie]]
[[ln:Mambí ma mabelé]]
[[lmo:Geugrafìa]]
[[hu:Földrajztudomány]]
[[mk:Географија]]
[[mg:Jeografia]]
[[ml:ഭൂമിശാസ്ത്രം]]
[[mt:Ġeografija]]
[[mr:भूगोल]]
[[mzn:Jəögrafi / جئوگرافی]]
[[ms:Geografi]]
[[mn:Газар зүй]]
[[my:ပထဝီဝင်]]
[[nah:Cemānāhuacāyōtl]]
[[nl:Aardrijkskunde]]
[[ne:भूगोल]]
[[ja:地理学]]
[[no:Geografi]]
[[nn:Geografi]]
[[nrm:Géographie]]
[[nov:Geografia]]
[[oc:Geografia]]
[[ng:Geografi]]
[[uz:Geografiya]]
[[ps:ځمکپوهنه]]
[[km:ភូមិវិទ្យា]]
[[nds:Geographie]]
[[pl:Geografia]]
[[pt:Geografia]]
[[ro:Geografie]]
[[rmy:Phuvipen]]
[[rm:Geografia]]
[[qu:Allpa saywachi]]
[[ru:География]]
[[sm:Geography]]
[[sc:Geografia]]
[[sco:Geography]]
[[sq:Gjeografia]]
[[scn:Giografìa]]
[[si:භූගෝල විද්යාව]]
[[simple:Geography]]
[[sk:Geografia]]
[[sl:Geografija]]
[[so:Juquraafi]]
[[sr:Географија]]
[[sh:Zemljopis]]
[[su:Géografi]]
[[fi:Maantiede]]
[[sv:Geografi]]
[[tl:Heograpiya]]
[[ta:புவியியல்]]
[[te:భూగోళ శాస్త్రము]]
[[th:ภูมิศาสตร์]]
[[vi:Địa lý học]]
[[tg:Ҷуғрофия]]
[[tpi:Jiograpi]]
[[tr:Coğrafya]]
[[tk:Geografiýa]]
[[uk:Географія]]
[[ur:جغرافيہ]]
[[vec:Giografia]]
[[vo:Taledav]]
[[fiu-vro:Maatiidüs]]
[[wa:Djeyografeye]]
[[war:Heyograpiya]]
[[wo:Melosuuf]]
[[yi:געאגראפיע]]
[[zh-yue:地理]]
[[zea:Heografie]]
[[bat-smg:Geuograpėjė]]
[[zh:地理学]]