Geography of India 14597 move=:edit= 225495380 2008-07-14T00:16:28Z SmackBot 433328 Date the maintenance tags or general fixes {{Mergefrom|Geographical position of india|date=July 2008}} {{Country geography | name =India | map =India 78.40398E 20.74980N.jpg| continent =[[Asia]] | region =[[South Asia|Southern Asia]]<br />[[Indian subcontinent]]| coordinates =20°00'N 77°00'E | area ranking =7th | km area =3287263 | percent land= 90.44 | km coastline =7516 | borders =[[Land borders|Total land borders]]:<ref name="DEPARTMENT OF BORDER MANAGEMENT">{{cite web |title=MINISTRY OF HOME AFFAIRS (DEPARTMENT OF BORDER MANAGEMENT) |work=MINISTRY OF HOME AFFAIRS (DEPARTMENT OF BORDER MANAGEMENT)|url=http://mha.nic.in/BM_Div/BM_Intro(E).doc |accessdate=2008-01-09}}</ref><br />{{convert|15106.70 |km|mi|0|abbr=on}}<br />[[Bangladesh]]:<br/>{{convert|4096.70|km|mi|0|abbr=on}}<br /> [[People's Republic of China|China (PRC)]]:<br />{{convert|3488|km|mi|0|abbr=on}}<br />[[Pakistan]]:<br />{{convert|3323|km|mi|0|abbr=on}}<br />[[Nepal]]:<br />{{convert|1751|km|mi|0|abbr=on}}<br/>[[Myanmar]]:<br />{{convert|1643|km|mi|0|abbr=on}}<br />[[Bhutan]]:<br />{{convert|699|km|mi|0|abbr=on}}<br />[[Afghanistan]]:<br />{{convert|106|km|mi|0|abbr=on}} | highest point= [[K2]]<ref name="K2"> India officially regards [[K2]], located in [[Pakistan Occupied Kashmir]] as its highest peak. </ref><br/>{{convert|8611|m|ft|0|abbr=on}}| lowest point= [[Kuttanad]]<br />{{convert|-2.2|m|ft|1|abbr=on}}| longest river=[[Ganges]]–[[Brahmaputra River|Brahmaputra]]<br />| largest lake=[[Chilka Lake]]| }} The '''geography of India''' is diverse, with landscape ranging from snow-capped mountain ranges to deserts, plains, rainforests, hills, and plateaus. [[India]] comprises most of the [[Indian subcontinent]] situated on the [[Indian Plate]], the northerly portion of the [[Indo-Australian Plate]]. Having a coastline of over {{convert|7000|km|mi|0}}, most of India lies on a peninsula in [[Southern Asia]] that protrudes into the [[Indian Ocean]]. India is bounded in the southwest by the [[Arabian Sea]] and in the east and southeast by the [[Bay of Bengal]]. The fertile [[Indo-Gangetic Plain]] occupies most of [[North India|northern]], central, and [[East India|eastern India]], while the [[Deccan Plateau]] occupies most of [[South India|southern India]]. To the west of the country is the [[Thar Desert]], which consists of a mix of rocky and sandy desert. India's east and northeastern border consists of the high [[Himalayas|Himalayan]] range. The highest point in India is disputed due to a [[territorial dispute]] with [[Pakistan]]; according to India's claim, the highest point (located in the disputed [[Kashmir region]]) is [[K2]], at {{convert|8611|m|ft|0}}. The highest point in undisputed Indian territory is [[Kangchenjunga]], at {{convert|8598|m|ft|0|abbr=on}}. Climate ranges from equatorial in the far south, to [[Alpine climate|Alpine]] in the upper reaches of the Himalayas. India is bordered by [[Pakistan]] to the north-west,<ref>The Indian government considers the entire state of [[Jammu and Kashmir]] to be a part of India. This state borders a part of [[Afghanistan]]. A ceasefire sponsored by the [[United Nations]] in 1948 freezes the positions of Indian- and Pakistani-held territory. As a result, the region bordering Afghanistan is in Pakistani-administered territory.</ref> [[China]], [[Bhutan]] and [[Nepal]] to the north, [[Myanmar]] to the east and [[Bangladesh]] to the east of [[West Bengal]]. [[Sri Lanka]], the [[Maldives]] and [[Indonesia]] are [[island nation]]s to the south of India. Sri Lanka is separated from India by a narrow channel of sea formed by [[Palk Strait]] and the [[Gulf of Mannar]].Politically, India is divided into 28 states, and seven federally administered [[union territories]]. The political divisions generally follow linguistic and ethnic boundaries rather than geographic transitions. ==Location and extent== {{see also|Extreme points of India}} [[Image:800px-Vivekananda Memorial Kanyakumari.jpg|thumb||[[Kanyakumari (town)|Kanyakumari]] is the southernmost point in mainland India.]] India lies to the north of the equator between 8°4' and 37°6' north latitude and 68°7' and 97°25' east longitude.<ref name="yearbook">{{cite book |title=India Yearbook 2007 |publisher=Publications Division, Ministry of Information & Broadcasting, Govt. Of India |isbn=81-230-1423-6 |pages=Pg. 1 }}</ref> It is the [[List of countries and outlying territories by total area|seventh-largest country in the world]], with a total land area of {{convert|3287263|km2|sqmi|0}}.<ref name=india>{{cite web | title=India Details on Official India Government website| url=http://india.gov.in/knowindia/profile.php| accessmonthday =June 9 |accessyear=2007}}</ref> India measures {{convert|3214|km|mi|0|abbr=on}} from north to south and {{convert|2993|km|mi|0|abbr=on}} from east to west. It has a land frontier of {{convert|15200|km|mi|0|abbr=on}} and a coastline of {{convert|7517|km|mi|0|abbr=on}}.<ref name="manorama">{{cite book | title = Manorama Yearbook 2006 ''(India - The Country)'' | publisher = Malayala Manorama | date = 2006 | pages =Pg 515 | ISSN = 0542-5778}}</ref> India is bounded to the southwest by the Arabian Sea, to the southeast by the Bay of Bengal, and the [[Indian Ocean]] to the south. To the north, northeast, and northwest are the Himalayas. [[Cape Comorin]] constitutes the southern tip of the mainland Indian peninsula, which narrows before ending in the [[Indian Ocean]]. The southernmost part of India is [[Indira Point]] in the [[Andaman and Nicobar Islands]] in the [[Bay of Bengal]].<ref name="manorama"/> The [[territorial waters]] of India extend into the sea to a distance of twelve nautical miles measured from the appropriate baseline.<ref name="waters_extent">{{cite web |title=Territorial extent of India's waters|publisher=THE INTERNATIONAL LAW OF THE SEA AND INDIAN MARITIME LEGISLATION |date=[[2005-04-30]] |work=developments till 1965 |url=http://www.irfc-nausena.nic.in/irfc/ezine/Trans2Trimph/chapters/27_law%20of%20the%20sea1.htm | accessdate=2006-05-16 }}</ref> ==Political geography== {{main|States and territories of India}} India is divided into 28 states (which are further subdivided into [[List of Indian districts|districts]]), seven union territories. States have their own elected government, while union territories are governed by an administrator appointed by the union government. {{India states}} The state of Jammu and Kashmir is claimed by India and Pakistan, and both administer part of the territory. India also claims [[Aksai Chin]], a small barren piece of territory in [[Ladakh]] administered by China. The state of [[Arunachal Pradesh]] is claimed by [[China]] but administered by [[India]]. ==Physiographic regions== India is divided into seven physiographic regions. They are #The northern mountains including the [[Himalayas]], which includes the [[Kuen Lun]] and the [[Karakoram]] ranges and the northeast mountain ranges. #[[Indo-Gangetic plain]]s #[[Thar Desert]] #Central Highlands and [[Deccan Plateau]] #East Coast #West Coast #Bordering seas and islands<ref name="manorama"/> ===Mountains=== [[Image:India topo big.jpg|thumb|Elevated regions in India]] [[Image:India north.jpg|thumb|Mountains in Ladakh.]] [[Image:1350092312 c279a3d675 o.jpg|thumb|A highway through mountainous landscape in Ladakh.]] A great arc of mountains, composed of the [[Himalaya]], [[Hindu Kush]], and [[Patkai]] ranges, define the Indian subcontinent. These mountains were formed by the [[destructive boundary|ongoing tectonic collision]] of the [[Indian Plate]] with the [[Eurasian Plate]] which started some 50 million years ago. These mountain ranges are home to some of the world's tallest mountains and act as a natural barrier to cold polar winds. They also facilitate the [[monsoon]]s winds drive climate in India. Rivers that originate in these mountains provide water to the fertile Indo-Gangetic plains. These mountains are recognised by [[biogeography|biogeographers]] as the boundary between two of the earth's great ecozones; the [[temperate]] [[Palearctic]] that covers most of Eurasia, and the tropical and subtropical [[Indomalaya]] ecozone that includes the Indian subcontinent extending into [[Southeast Asia]] and Indonesia. Historically, these ranges have also served as barriers to invaders. India has nine major mountain ranges having peaks of over {{convert|1000|m|ft|0|abbr=on}}. The Himalayas are the only mountain ranges to have snow-capped peaks. These ranges are: #[[Aravalli Range]] #[[Eastern Ghats]] #[[Himalayas]] #[[Patkai]] #[[Vindhya Range]] #[[Western Ghats]] (''Sahyadri'') #[[Satpura Range]] #[[Karakoram]] #[[Kunlun]] The Himalaya mountain range is the world's highest mountain range.<ref name="manorama2">{{cite book | title = Manorama Yearbook 2006 ''(India - The Country)'' | publisher = Malayala Manorama | date = 2006 | pages =516 | ISSN = 0542-5778}}</ref> They form India's north-eastern border, separating it from the rest of Asia. The Himalayas are also one of the world's youngest mountain ranges, and extend almost uninterrupted for a distance of {{convert|2500|m|ft|0|abbr=on}}, covering an area of {{convert|500000|km2|sqmi|0|abbr=on}}.<ref name="manorama2"/> The Himalayas extend from the state of Jammu and Kashmir in the west to the state of Arunachal Pradesh in the east. These states along with Himachal Pradesh, Uttarakhand, and Sikkim lie mostly in the Himalayan region. Some of the Himalayan peaks range over {{convert|7000|m|ft|0|abbr=on}} and the [[snow line]] ranges between {{convert|6000|m|ft|0|abbr=on}} in Sikkim to around {{convert|3000|m|ft|0|abbr=on}} in Kashmir. [[Kangchenjunga]], which lies on the [[Sikkim]]–[[Nepal]] border, is the highest point in the area administered by India. Most peaks in the Himalayas remain snowbound throughout the year. The [[Shiwalik]], or lower Himalaya, consists of smaller hills towards the Indian side. Most of the rock formations are young and highly unstable, with landslides being a regular phenomenon during the rainy season. Many of India's [[hill station]]s are located on this range. The climate varies from subtropical in the foothills to alpine at the higher elevations of these mountain ranges. The mountains on India's eastern border with Myanmar are called as the [[Patkai]] or the Purvanchal. They were created by the same tectonic processes that resulted in the formation of the Himalaya. The features of the Patkai ranges are conical peaks, steep slopes and deep valleys. The Patkai ranges are not as rugged or tall as the Himalayas. There are three hill ranges that come under the Patkai: The Patkai-Bum, the [[Garo Hills|Garo]]–[[Khasi Hills|Khasi]]–[[Jaintia Hills|Jaintia]], and the [[Lushai hills]]. The Garo–Khasi range is in the state of Meghalaya. [[Mawsynram]],a village near [[Cherrapunji]] lying on the [[windward]] side of these hills, has the distinction of being the wettest place in the world, receiving the highest annual rainfall.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.nios.ac.in/SecSoccour/English/Lesson07.pdf |title= Physical divisions |archiveurl=http://web.archive.org/web/20041212061106/http://www.nios.ac.in/SecSoccour/English/Lesson07.pdf |archivedate=2004-12-12}}</ref> [[Image:Vindhya.jpg|thumb|The Vindhyas in central India]] The [[Vindhya]] range runs across most of central India, covering a distance of {{convert|1050|km|mi|0|abbr=on}}.<ref name="manorama2"/> The average elevation of these hills is {{convert|3000|m|ft|0|abbr=on}}.<ref name="manorama2"/> They are believed to have been formed by the wastes created due to the weathering of the ancient Aravali mountains. It geographically separates [[North India|northern]] India from [[South India|southern]] India. The western end of the range lies in eastern Gujarat, near its border with the state of Madhya Pradesh, and the range runs east and north almost meeting the [[Ganges River]] at [[Mirzapur]]. The [[Satpura Range]] is a range of hills in central India. It begins in eastern Gujarat near the Arabian Sea coast, then runs east across Maharashtra, Madhya Pradesh and ends in the state of Chhattisgarh. It extends for a distance of {{convert|900|km|mi|0|abbr=on}} with many of its peaks rising above {{convert|1000|m|ft|0|abbr=on}}.<ref name="manorama2"/> It is triangular in shape, with its apex at [[Ratnapuri]] and the two sides being parallel to the [[Tapti River|Tapti]] and [[Narmada River|Narmada]] rivers.<ref name="manorama3">{{cite book | title = Manorama Yearbook 2006 ''(India - The Country)'' | publisher = Malayala Manorama | date = 2006 | pages =517| ISSN = 0542-5778}}</ref> It runs parallel to the Vindhya Range, which lies to the north, and these two east-west ranges divide the Indo-Gangetic plain of northern India from the Deccan Plateau lying in the south. The Narmada runs in the depression between the Satpura and Vindhya ranges, and drains the northern slope of the Satpura range, running west towards the Arabian Sea. The [[Aravali Range]] is the oldest mountain range in India, running from northeast to southwest across Rajasthan in western India, extending approximately {{convert|500|km|mi|0|abbr=on}}. The northern end of the range continues as isolated hills and rocky ridges into [[Haryana]], ending near [[Delhi]]. The highest peak is [[Mount Abu]], rising to {{convert|1722|m|ft|0|abbr=on}}, lying near the southwestern extremity of the range, close to the border with Gujarat. The Aravali Range is the eroded stub of an ancient folded mountain system that was once snow-capped. The range rose in a [[Precambrian]] event called the Aravali-Delhi [[orogen]]. The range joins two of the ancient segments that make up the Indian [[craton]], the [[Marwar]] segment to the northwest of the range, and the Bundelkhand segment to the southeast. [[Image:Indiahills.png|thumb|Map of the hilly regions in India.]] The [[Western Ghats]] or Sahyadri mountains run along the western edge of India's [[Deccan Plateau]], and separate it from a narrow coastal plain along the [[Arabian Sea]]. The range starts south of the [[Tapti River]] near the Gujarat–Maharashtra border, and runs approximately {{convert|1600|km|mi|0|abbr=on}}<ref name="manorama3"/> across the states of Maharashtra, Goa, Karnataka, Kerala, and Tamil Nadu, almost to the southern tip of the Indian peninsula. The average elevation is around {{convert|1000|m|ft|0|abbr=on}}.<ref name="manorama3"/> The [[Anai Mudi]] in the [[Anaimalai Hills]] at {{convert|2695|m|ft|0|abbr=on}}in Kerala is the highest peak in the Western Ghats. The [[Eastern Ghats]] are a discontinuous range of mountains, which have been eroded and cut through by the four major rivers of southern India, the [[Godavari River|Godavari]], [[Mahanadi River|Mahanadi]], [[Krishna River|Krishna]], and [[Kaveri River|Kaveri]]. These mountain ranges extend from West Bengal in the north, through Orissa and Andhra Pradesh to Tamil Nadu in the south. They run parallel to the [[Bay of Bengal]]. Though not as tall as the Western Ghats, though some of its peaks are over {{convert|1000|m|ft|0|abbr=on}} in height.<ref name="manorama3"/> The Eastern Ghats meet with the Western Ghats meet at the [[Nilgiri]] hills in Tamil Nadu. ===Indo-Gangetic plain=== {{main|Indo-Gangetic plain}}[[Image:IndoGangeticPlain Map.png|thumb|Extent of the Indo-Gangetic plain across South Asia.]] The Indo-Gangetic plains are large [[floodplain]]s of the [[Indus River|Indus]] and the [[Ganges River|Ganga]]-[[Brahmaputra]] river systems. They run parallel to the Himalaya mountains, from [[Jammu and Kashmir]] in the west to [[Assam]] in the east, draining the states of [[Punjab, India|Punjab]], [[Haryana]], parts of [[Rajasthan]], [[Uttar Pradesh]], [[Bihar]], [[Jharkhand]] and [[West Bengal]]. The plains encompass an area of 700,000&nbsp;km² (270,000&nbsp;mile²) and vary in width through their length by several hundred kilometres. Major rivers that form a part of this system are the Ganga ([[Ganges River|Ganges]]) and [[Indus River]] along with their tributaries; [[Beas River|Beas]], [[Yamuna River|Yamuna]], [[Gomti River|Gomti]], [[Ravi River|Ravi]], [[Chambal River|Chambal]], [[Sutlej River|Sutlej]] and [[Chenab River|Chenab]].<br /> The great plains are sometimes classified into four divisions: * The '''[[Bhabhar|Bhabar]]''' belt- This is adjacent to the foothills of the Himalayas and consists of boulders and pebbles which have been carried down by the river streams. As the porosity of this belt is very high, the streams flow underground. The bhabar is generally narrow about 7-15 km wide. * The '''[[Terai]]''' belt- This belt lies next to the bhabar region and is composed of newer alluvium. The underground streams re-appear in this region. The region is excessively moist and thickly forested. It also receives heavy rainfall throughout the year and is populated with a variety of wildlife. * The '''Bangar''' belt- It consists of older alluvium and forms the alluvial terrace of the flood plains. In the Gangetic plains, it has a low upland covered by laterite deposits. * The '''Khadar''' belt- It lies in lowland areas after the Bangar belt. It is made up of fresh newer alluvium which is deposited by the rivers flowing down the plain. The Indo-Gangetic belt is the world's most extensive expanse of uninterrupted [[alluvium]] formed by the deposition of [[silt]] by the numerous rivers. The plains are flat and mostly treeless, making it conducive for [[irrigation]] through [[canal]]s. The area is also rich in [[ground water]] sources. The plains are one of the world's most [[intensive farming|intensely farmed]] areas. Crops grown on the Indo-Gangetic Plain are primarily [[rice]] and [[wheat]], grown in [[Crop rotation|rotation]]. Other crops include [[maize]], [[sugarcane]] and [[cotton]]. Also known as the Great Plains, the Indo-Gangetic plains rank among the world's most densely populated areas. ===The Desert=== {{main|Thar Desert}} [[Image:Jaisalmer-3.jpg|thumb|[[Jaisalmer]] in Rajasthan is situated in the heart of the Thar Desert. The region is arid and dusty.]] The Thar Desert (also known as the ''Great Indian Desert'') is a hot [[desert]] that forms a significant portion of western India. Spread over four states in [[India]]—[[Punjab, India|Punjab]], [[Haryana]], [[Rajasthan]], and [[Gujarat]] it covers an area of 208,110&nbsp;km² (80,350&nbsp;mile²). The desert continues into [[Pakistan]] as the [[Cholistan Desert]]. Most of the Thar Desert is situated in [[Rajasthan]], covering 61% of its geographic area. Most of the desert is rocky, with a small part of the extreme west of the desert being sandy. The origin of the Thar Desert is uncertain. Some geologists consider it to be 4,000 to 10,000 years old, whereas others state that [[aridity]] began in this region much earlier. The area is characterised by extreme temperatures of above 45&nbsp;°[[Celsius|C]] (113&nbsp;°[[Fahrenheit|F]]) in summer to below [[freezing point|freezing]] in winters. Rainfall is precarious and erratic, ranging from below 120&nbsp;mm (4.72&nbsp;inches) in the extreme west to 375&nbsp;mm (14.75&nbsp;inches) eastward. The lack of rainfall is mainly due to the unique position of the desert with respect to the Aravalli range. The desert lies in the rain shadow area of the [[Bay of Bengal]] arm of the southwest monsoon. The parallel nature of the range to the Arabian Sea arm also means that the desert does not receive much rainfall. The soils of the arid region are generally sandy to sandy-loam in texture. The consistency and depth vary according to the topographical features. The low-lying loams are heavier and may have a hard pan of clay, [[calcium carbonate]] or [[gypsum]]. Due to the low population density, the effect of the population on the environment is relatively less compared to the rest of India. ===Highlands=== The Central Highlands are composed of three main [[plateau]]s—the [[Malwa]] Plateau in the west, the [[Deccan Plateau]] in the south, (covering most of the Indian peninsula), and the [[Chota Nagpur Plateau]] in [[Jharkhand]] towards the east. [[Image:deccan.jpg|thumb|Satellite image of the Deccan region of southern India]] The Deccan Plateau is a large triangular plateau, bounded by the Vindhyas to the north and flanked by the Eastern and Western Ghats. The Deccan covers a total area of 1.9 million&nbsp;km² (735,000 mile²). It is mostly flat, with elevations ranging from 300 to 600&nbsp;m (1,000 to 2,000&nbsp;ft).<ref>[http://india.punjabilit.com/land/deccan_plateau.htm Deccan Plateau]</ref> The name ''Deccan'' comes from the [[Sanskrit language|Sanskrit]] word ''dakshina'', which means "the south". The plateau slopes gently from west to east and gives rise to several peninsular [[river]]s such as the [[Godavari River|Godavari]], the [[Krishna]], the [[Kaveri]] and the [[Narmada River|Narmada]]. This region is mostly semi-arid as it lies on the leeward side of both Ghats. Much of the Deccan is covered by thorn scrub forest scattered with small regions of [[deciduous]] broadleaf forest. Climate ranges from hot summers to mild winters. The Chota Nagpur Plateau is a plateau in eastern India, which covers much of [[Jharkhand]] state as well as adjacent parts of [[Orissa]], [[Bihar]], and [[Chhattisgarh]]. The total area of Chota Nagpur Plateau is approximately 65,000&nbsp;km² (25,000&nbsp;mile²). The Chota Nagpur Plateau is made up of three smaller plateaus, the Ranchi, Hazaribagh, and Kodarma plateaus. The Ranchi plateau is the largest of the plateaus, with an average elevation of 700&nbsp;m (2,300&nbsp;ft). Much of the plateau is forested, covered by the [[Chota Nagpur dry deciduous forest]]s. The plateau is famous for its vast reserves of ores and [[coal]]. Besides the Great Indian peninsula, the [[Kathiawar]] Peninsula in Gujarat is another large peninsula of India. === East coast=== The Eastern Coastal Plain is a wide stretch of land lying between the Eastern Ghats and the Bay of Bengal. It stretches from Tamil Nadu in the south to West Bengal in the north. [[river delta|Deltas]] of many of India's rivers form a major portion of these plains. The [[Mahanadi]], [[Godavari River|Godavari]], [[Kaveri]] and [[Krishna]] rivers drain these plains. The region receives both the Northeast and Southwest monsoon rains with its annual rainfall averaging between 1,000&nbsp;mm (40&nbsp;in) and 3,000&nbsp;mm (120&nbsp;in). The width of the plains varies between 100 to 130&nbsp;km (62 to 80&nbsp;miles).<ref>[http://www.rainwaterharvesting.org/eco/ecp.htm The Eastern Coastal Plain]</ref> The plains are divided into six regions: The Mahanadi delta; the southern Andhra Pradesh plain; the Krishna Godavari deltas; the Kanyakumari coast; [[Coromandel Coast]] and sandy coastal. === West coast=== [[Image:India Goa Coastline Tiracol.jpg|thumb|A view of India's west coast at Goa, near the border with Maharashtra.]] The Western Coastal Plain is a narrow strip of land sandwiched between the Western Ghats and the Arabian Sea. The strip begins in Gujarat in the north and extends across the states of [[Maharashtra]], [[Goa]], [[Karnataka]] and [[Kerala]]. The plains are narrow, and range from 50 to 100&nbsp;km (30 to 60&nbsp;miles) in width. Small rivers and numerous backwaters inundate the region. The rivers, which originate in the Western Ghats, are fast flowing and are mostly perennial. The fast flowing nature of the rivers results in the formation of [[estuary|estuaries]] rather than deltas. Major rivers flowing into the sea are the Tapi, Narmada, [[Mandovi]] and [[Zuari]]. The coast is divided into three regions. The northern region of Maharashtra and Goa is known as the [[Konkan|Konkan Coast]], the central region of Karnataka is known as the [[Kanara|Kanara Coast]] and the southern coastline of Kerala is known as the [[Malabar Coast]]. Vegetation in this region is mostly deciduous. The Malabar Coast has its own unique ecoregion known as the [[Malabar Coast moist forests]]. === Islands === India has two major offshore island possessions: the [[Lakshadweep]] islands and the [[Andaman and Nicobar Islands]]. Both these island groups are administered by the Union government of India as [[Union Territory|Union Territories]]. The Lakshadweep islands lie 200 to 300&nbsp;km (124 to 186&nbsp;miles) off the coast of Kerala in the Arabian Sea. It consists of twelve [[coral]] [[atoll]]s, three [[coral reef]]s, and five banks. Ten of these islands are inhabited. The Andaman & Nicobar Islands are located between 6<sup>o</sup> and 14<sup>o</sup> North latitude and 92<sup>o</sup> and 94<sup>o</sup> East longitude.<ref name=ani1>[http://india.gov.in/knowindia/ut_andaman.php National Portal of India: Know India: State and UTs<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref> The Andaman and Nicobar islands consist of 572 isles which lie in the Bay of Bengal, near the Myanmar coast. It is located 1255&nbsp;km (780&nbsp;miles) from [[Kolkata]] (Calcutta) and 193&nbsp;km (120&nbsp;miles) from [[Cape Negrais]] in Myanmar.<ref name=ani1/> The territory consists of two island groups, the [[Andaman Islands]] and the [[Nicobar Islands]]. The Andaman islands consist of 204 islands having a total length of 352&nbsp;km (220&nbsp;miles). The Nicobar Islands, which lie south of the Andamans, consist of twenty-two islands with a total area of 1,841&nbsp;km² (710&nbsp;mile²). The highest point is [[Mount Thullier]] at 642&nbsp;m (2,140&nbsp;ft). [[Indira Point]], India's southernmost land point is situated in the Nicobar islands, and lies just 189&nbsp;km (117&nbsp;miles) from the Indonesian island of [[Sumatra]] to the southeast. Significant islands just off the Indian coast include [[Diu]], a former [[Portugal|Portuguese]] enclave; [[Majuli]], Asia's largest [[freshwater]] island; [[Salcette Island]], India's most populous island, on which [[Mumbai]] (Bombay) city is located; [[Elephanta]] in [[Bombay Harbour]]; and [[Sriharikota]] [[barrier island]] in Andhra Pradesh. ==Rivers== {{main|Rivers of India}} [[Image:Indiarivers.png|thumb|220px|Rivers in India.]] [[Image:Narmada.jpg|thumb|220px|The [[Narmada River]] in central India.]] All major [[rivers]] of India [[Source (river or stream)|originate]] from one of the three main [[water divide|watershed]]s. They are:<ref name="manorama3"/> #The Himalaya and the Karakoram ranges #Vindhya and Satpura range in central India #Sahyadri or Western Ghats in western India The Himalayan river networks are snow-fed and have a continuous flow throughout the year. The other two networks are dependent on the monsoons and shrink into rivulets during the dry season. Twelve of India's rivers are classified as major, with the total catchment area exceeding 2,528,000&nbsp;km² (976,000&nbsp;mile²).<ref name="manorama3"/> [[Image:River Teesta.jpg|thumb|220px|left|The [[Teesta River]], a tributary of the [[Brahmaputra]] in northern [[West Bengal]].]] Himalayan rivers or the northern rivers that flow westward into Pakistan are the [[Indus River|Indus]], [[Beas River|Beas]], [[Chenab]], [[Ravi River|Ravi]], [[Sutlej]], and [[Jhelum River|Jhelum]].<ref name="manorama4"/> The [[Ganga basin|Ganga-Brahmaputra-Meghana system]] has the largest catchment area of 1,100,000&nbsp;km² (424,700&nbsp;mile²).<ref name="manorama3"/> The river Ganga originates at the [[Gangotri Glacier]] in [[Uttarakhand]].<ref name="manorama4"/> It flows in a south easterly direction, draining into [[Bangladesh]].<ref name="manorama3"/> The [[Yamuna]] and [[Gomti]] rivers also arise in the Western Himalayas and join the Ganga river in the plains.<ref name="manorama3"/> The Brahmaputra, another tributary of the Ganga originates in [[Tibet]] and enters India in the far eastern state of [[Arunachal Pradesh]]. It then proceeds westwards, unifying with the Ganga in Bangladesh.<ref name="manorama3"/> The [[Chambal River|Chambal]], another tributary of the Ganga originates from the Vindhya-Satpura watershed. The river flows eastward. Westward flowing rivers from this watershed are the [[Narmada River|Narmada]] (also called Nerbudda) and [[Tapti]] (also spelled Tapi) rivers which drain into the Arabian Sea in Gujarat. The river network that flows from east to west constitutes 10% of the total outflow. The Western Ghats are the source of all [[Deccan]] rivers. Major rivers in the Deccan include the [[Mahanadi River]] through the [[Mahanadi River Delta]], [[Godavari River]], [[Krishna River]], and [[Kaveri River]] (also spelled Cauvery), all draining into the [[Bay of Bengal]]. These rivers constitute 20% of India's total outflow.<ref name="manorama4">{{cite book | title = Manorama Yearbook 2006 ''(India - The Country)''| publisher = Malayala Manorama | date = 2006 | pages =518| ISSN = 0542-5778}}</ref> <br clear="all"> ==Bodies of water== [[Image:Chilka lake.png|right|thumb|200px|Map of [[lake Chilka]] with near-by settlement of [[Puri]].]] Major gulfs include the [[Gulf of Cambay]], [[Gulf of Kutch]] and the [[Gulf of Mannar]]. Straits include the [[Palk Strait]] which separates India from Sri Lanka and the [[Ten Degree Channel]], separating the Andamans from the Nicobar Islands and the Eight Degree Channel separating the Laccadive and Amindivi Islands from Minicoy Island towards the south. Important capes include the [[Cape Comorin]], the southern tip of mainland India, [[Indira Point]], the southernmost location of India, [[Rama's Bridge]] and [[Point Calimere]]. Arabian Sea is to the west of India. Bay of Bengal is to the eastern side of India while India Ocean is to the South of India. Smaller seas include the [[Laccadive Sea]] and the [[Andaman Sea]]. There are four [[coral reef]]s in India and are located in; the Andaman and Nicobar Islands, [[Gulf of Mannar]], Lakshadweep and [[Gulf of Kutch]].<ref name="manorama5"/> Important lakes include [[Chilka Lake]], the country's largest salt-water lake in Orissa; [[Kolleru Lake]] in Andhra Pradesh; [[Loktak Lake]] in [[Manipur]], [[Dal Lake]] in Kashmir, [[Sambhar Lake]] in Rajasthan, and the [[Sasthamkotta Lake]] in Kerala. ==Wetlands== Wetlands are lands transitional between aquatic and territorial system where water table is usually near the water surface and land is covered by shallow water.<ref name="yearbook1">{{cite book |title=India Yearbook 2007 |publisher=Publications Division, Ministry of Information & Broadcasting, Govt. Of India |isbn=81-230-1423-6 |pages=Pg. 306 }}</ref> They also act as a buffer against the devastating effect of hurricanes and cyclones, thereby stabilizing the shore-line. It also helps in keeping a check on sea and soil erosion. India's wetland ecosystem is widely distributed from the cold and arid; from ones in the [[Ladakh]] region in the state of [[Jammu and Kashmir]] to the ones in the wet and humid climate of peninsula India. Most of the wetlands are directly or indirectly linked to India's river networks. In 1987, National Wetland Conservation Programme was initiated by the government for wetland conservation. Under this programme, the Indian government has identified a total of 71 wetlands for conservation.<ref name="yearbook1"/> Mangrove forests occur all along the Indian coastline, in sheltered estuaries, creeks, backwaters, salt marshes and mud flats. The mangrove area covers a total of 4,461&nbsp;km² (1,722&nbsp;mile²)<ref name="yearbook2">{{cite book |title=India Yearbook 2007 |publisher=Publications Division, Ministry of Information & Broadcasting, Govt. Of India |isbn=81-230-1423-6 |pages=Pg. 309 }}</ref> which comprises 7% of the world's total mangrove cover. The Andaman and Nicobar Islands; the [[Sundarbans]]; [[Gulf of Kutch]]; deltas of the Mahanadi, Godavari and Krishna; and parts of Maharashtra, Karnataka and Kerala have large mangrove covers.<ref name="manorama5">{{cite book | title = Manorama Yearbook 2006 ''(India - Environment)'' | publisher = Malayala Manorama | date = 2006 | pages =580| ISSN = 0542-5778}}</ref> Most of the identified wetlands adjoin or are parts of sanctuaries, national parks and are thus protected. ===The Sundarbans=== [[Image:Ganges River Delta, Bangladesh, India.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Ganges River Delta, Bangladesh and India]] {{main|Sundarbans}} The '''Sundarbans''' [[river delta|delta]] is the largest [[mangrove]] forest in the world. It lies at the mouth of the [[Ganges River|Ganges]] and is spread across areas of [[Bangladesh]] and [[West Bengal]], [[India]]. The Bangladeshi and Indian portions of the jungle are listed in the [[UNESCO]] [[world heritage]] list separately as the Sundarbans and [[Sundarbans National Park]] respectively, though they are parts of the same forest. The Sundarbans are intersected by a complex network of [[tide|tidal]] waterways, [[mudflat]]s and small [[island]]s of salt-tolerant mangrove forests, and presents an excellent example of ongoing [[ecology|ecological]] processes. The area is known for its wide range of fauna. The most famous among these is the [[Bengal Tiger]], but numerous species of [[bird]]s, spotted [[deer]], [[crocodile]]s and [[snake]]s also inhabit it. It is estimated that there are now 400 Bengal tigers and about 30,000 spotted deer in the area. ===Rann of Kutch=== {{main|Rann of Kutch}} The '''Rann of Kutch''' is a [[marsh]]y region located in the Gujarat state of India, which borders the [[Sindh]] region of Pakistan. The name ''Rann'' comes from the [[Hindi]] word ''ran'' meaning "salt marsh." It occupies a total area of 27,900 km² (10,800 mile²).<ref>[http://www.nationalgeographic.com/wildworld/profiles/terrestrial/im/im0901.html Rann of Kutch seasonal salt marsh] ''Source'':[[National Geographic]] Profile of India website</ref> The region was originally a part of the Arabian Sea. Geologic forces, most likely by earthquakes, resulted in the damming up of the region, turning it into a large salt-water [[lagoon]]. This area gradually filled with silt thus turning it into a seasonal salt marsh. During the monsoons, the area turns into a shallow marsh, often flooding to knee-depth height. After the monsoons, the region turns dry and becomes parched. ==Soil== Soils in India can be classified into 8 categories namely, alluvial soil, black soil, red soil, laterite soil, forest soil, arid & desert soil, saline & alkaline soil, and finally peaty & organic soil.<ref>{{cite web | title=India Agronet website|url=http://www.indiaagronet.com/indiaagronet/soil_management/Soil_mgmt.htm| accessmonthday =July 18 |accessyear=2007}}</ref><ref name=fao>{{cite web | title=Food and Agriculture Organization website|url=http://www.fao.org/docrep/009/a0257e/A0257E02.htm| accessmonthday =August 2 |accessyear=2007}}</ref> Of the above eight varieties, the first 4 constitute nearly 80% of total land surface. Alluvial soil constitute the largest soil group in India.<ref name=fao/> It is derived from deposition of silt carried by numerous rivers.<ref name=fao/> Alluvial soils are generally fertile but they lack nitrogen and tend to be phosphoric.<ref name=fao/> These are found in the Great Northern plains from Punjab to Assam valley.<br/> Black soil are well developed in the Deccan lava region of Maharashtra, Gujarat, and Madhya Pradesh.<ref name=krishi>{{cite web | title=Krishi World website|url=http://www.krishiworld.com/html/soils10.html| accessmonthday =July 18 |accessyear=2007}}</ref> These contain high percentage of clay and are thus moisture retentive.<ref name=fao/> Because of these properties they are preferred for dry farming and growing cotton, linseed etc.<br/> Red soil have a wide diffusion of iron content and are found in Tamil Nadu, Karnataka plateau, and Andhra plateau.<ref name=krishi/> The central highlands from Aravallis to Chota Nagpur plateau also have significant tracts of red soil. These are deficient in nitrogen, phosphorus and humus.<ref name=fao/><ref name=krishi/><br/> Laterite soils are formed in tropical regions with heavy rainfall. Heavy rainfall results in leaching out all soluble material of top layer of soil. These are generally found in Western ghats, Eastern ghats and hilly areas of North-Eastern states which receive very heavy rainfall. Forest soils occur on the slopes of mountains and hills in Himalayas, Western Ghats and Eastern Ghats. These generally consist of large amounts of dead leaves and other organic matter called humus. These soils are used for tea and coffee plantations. == Climate == {{main|Climate of India}} {{See also|Climatic Regions of India}} The climate of India is comprised of a wide range of weather conditions across a vast geographic scale and varied topography, making generalisations difficult. Based on the [[Köppen climate classification|Köppen system]], [[India]] hosts six major climatic subtypes, ranging from arid desert in the west, alpine tundra and glaciers in the north, and humid tropical regions supporting rainforests in the southwest and the island territories. Many regions have starkly different [[microclimate]]s. The nation has four seasons: [[winter]] (January–February), [[summer]] (March–May), a [[monsoon]] (rainy) season (June–September), and a post-monsoon period (October–December).<ref name="manorama4"/> India's unique geography and [[geology of India|geology]] strongly influence its climate; this is particularly true of the [[Himalayas]] in the north and the [[Thar Desert]] in the northwest. The Himalayas act as a barrier to the frigid [[katabatic wind]]s flowing down from [[Central Asia]]. Thus, [[North India]] is kept warm or only mildly cooled during winter; in summer, the same phenomenon makes India relatively hot. Although the [[Tropic of Cancer]]—the boundary between the tropics and subtropics—passes through the middle of India, the whole country is considered to be tropical. [[Image:Indiatemperaturetemp.png|thumb|240px|Temperature averages in India; units are in degree Celsius.]] Summer lasts between March and June in most parts of India. Temperatures exceed 40&nbsp;°C (104&nbsp;°F) during the day. The coastal regions exceed 30&nbsp;°C (86&nbsp;°F) coupled with high levels of [[humidity]]. In the Thar desert area temperatures can exceed 45&nbsp;°C (113&nbsp;°F). Summer is followed by the southwest [[monsoon]] rains that provide most of India with its rainfall. The rain-bearing clouds are attracted to the low-pressure system created by the Thar Desert. The official date for the arrival of the monsoon is [[1 June]], when the monsoon crosses the Kerala coast. The southwest monsoon splits into two arms, the Bay of Bengal arm and the Arabian Sea arm. The Bay of Bengal arm moves northwards crossing northeast India in early June. It then progresses eastwards, crossing Delhi by [[June 29]]. The Arabian Sea arm moves north-wards and deposits much of its rain on the windward side of Western Ghats. By early July, most of India receives rain from the monsoons. The monsoons start retreating by August from northern India and by October from Kerala. This short period after the retreat is known as the retreat of the monsoons and is characterised by still weather. By November, winter starts setting in the northern areas. Winters start in November in northern India and late December in southern India. Winters in peninsula India see mild to warm days and cool nights. Further north the temperature is cooler. Temperatures in some parts of the Indian plains sometimes fall below freezing. Most of northern India is plagued by [[fog]] during this season. The highest temperature recorded in India was 50.6&nbsp;°C (123.08&nbsp;°F) in [[Alwar]] in 1955. The lowest was −45&nbsp;°C (−49&nbsp;°F) in Kashmir. Recent claims of temperatures touching 55&nbsp;°C (131&nbsp;°F) in Orissa have been met with some scepticism by the [[India Meteorological Department|Indian Meteorological Department]], largely on the method of recording of such data. == Geology == {{main|Geology of India}} [[Image:India-geology-map.png|thumb|240px|Geological regions of India]] India has a varied geology spanning the entire spectrum of the geological time period. India's geological features are classified based on their era of formation.<ref name="manorama6"/> The [[Precambrian]] formations of Cudappah and Vindhyan systems are spread out over the eastern and southern states. A small part of this period is spread over western and central India.<ref name="manorama6"/> The [[Paleozoic]] formations from the Cambrian, Ordovician, Silurian and Devonian system are found in the Western Himalaya region in Kashmir and Himachal Pradesh.<ref name="manorama6"/> The [[Mesozoic]] [[Deccan Traps]] formation is seen over most of the northern Deccan. Geologists believe that the Deccan Traps were the result of sub-aerial volcanic activity.<ref name="manorama6"/> The Trap soil is black in colour and conducive to agriculture. The Carboniferous system, Permian System, Triassic and Jurassic systems are seen in the western Himalayas. The Jurassic system is also seen in Rajasthan. [[Tertiary]] imprints are seen in parts of Manipur, Nagaland, parts of Arunachal Pradesh and along the Himalayan belt. The Cretaceous system is seen in central India in the Vindhyas and part of the Indo-Gangetic plains.<ref name="manorama6"/> The Gondowana system is also seen in the Narmada River area in the Vindhyas and Satpuras. The Eocene system is seen in the western Himalayas and Assam. Oligocene formations are seen in Kutch and in Assam.<ref name="manorama6"/> The [[Pleistocene]] system is found over central India. It is rich in minerals such as [[lignite]], [[iron ore]], [[manganese]], and [[aluminium]]. The Andaman and Nicobar Island groups are thought to have been formed in this era by volcanoes.<ref name="manorama6">{{cite book | title = Manorama Yearbook 2006 ''(India - Geology)'' | publisher = Malayala Manorama | date = 2006 | pages =521| ISSN = 0542-5778}}</ref> The Himalayas are a result of the convergence and deformation of the Indo-Australian and Eurasian Plates. Their continued convergence raises the height of the Himalayas by 1&nbsp;cm each year. == Natural resources == India is particularly rich in a variety of natural resources. Along with 56% arable land, it has significant sources of [[coal]] (fourth-largest reserves in the world), [[iron]] ore, [[manganese]], [[mica]], [[bauxite]], [[titanium]] ore, [[chromite]], [[natural gas]], [[diamond]]s, [[petroleum]], [[limestone]].<ref name="CIA">{{cite web |title=CIA Factbook: India |work=CIA Factbook |url=https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/in.html |accessdate=2007-06-16}}</ref> India is self-sufficient in [[thorium]], mined along shores of Kerala, possessing 24% of the world's known and economically available thorium.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.world-nuclear.org/info/inf62.htm|title=Information and Issue Briefs - Thorium|publisher=World Nuclear Association|accessdate=2006-06-01}}</ref> Petroleum is found off the coast of Maharashtra, Gujarat and in Assam, but meets only 40% of India's demand. Increasing amounts of natural gas are being discovered regularly especially off the coast of Andhra Pradesh. [[Uranium]] is mined in Andhra Pradesh and [[gold]] in the [[Kolar gold mine]] in Karnataka. == Natural disasters== {{main|Natural disasters in India}} {{seealso|Drought in India}} [[Image:India climatic disaster risk map en.svg|thumb|right|Disaster-prone regions in India.]] Natural disasters cause massive losses of Indian life and property. Droughts, flash floods, cyclones, avalanches, landslides brought on by torrential rains, and snowstorms pose the greatest threats. Other dangers include frequent summer dust storms, which usually track from north to south; they cause extensive property damage in North India<ref name="Balfour_1976_995">{{harvnb|Balfour|1976|p=995}}.</ref> and deposit large amounts of dust from arid regions. Hail is also common in parts of India, causing severe damage to standing crops such as rice and wheat. In the Lower Himalaya, landslides are common. The young age of the region's hills result in [[lability|labile]] rock formations, which are susceptible to slippages. Parts of the Western Ghats also suffer from low-intensity landslides. Avalanches occur in Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh, and Sikkim. Floods are the most common natural disaster in India. The heavy southwest monsoon rains cause the [[Brahmaputra River|Brahmaputra]] and other rivers to distend their banks, often flooding surrounding areas. Though they provide rice paddy farmers with a largely dependable source of natural irrigation and fertilisation, the floods can kill thousands and displace millions. Excess, erratic, or untimely monsoon rainfall may also wash away or otherwise ruin crops.<ref name="Allaby_1998_42">{{harvnb|Allaby|1998|p=42}}.</ref><ref name="Allaby_1998_15">{{harvnb|Allaby|1998|p=15}}.</ref> Almost all of India is flood-prone, and extreme precipitation events, such as flash floods and torrential rains, have become increasingly common in central India over the past several decades, coinciding with rising temperatures. Mean annual precipitation totals have remained steady due to the declining frequency of weather systems that generate moderate amounts of rain.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Goswami BN, Venugopal V, Sengupta D, Madhusoodanan MS, Xavier PK |title=Increasing trend of extreme rain events over India in a warming environment |journal=Science |volume=314 |issue=5804 |pages=1442–1445 |year=2006 | doi = 10.1126/science.1132027 <!--Retrieved from CrossRef by DOI bot-->}}</ref> Indian agriculture is heavily dependent on the monsoon as a source of water. In some parts of India, the failure of the monsoons result in water shortages, resulting in below-average crop yields. This is particularly true of major drought-prone regions such as southern and eastern Maharashtra, northern Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh, Orissa, Gujarat, and Rajasthan. In the past, droughts have periodically led to [[famine in India|major Indian famine]]s, including the [[Bengal famine of 1770]], in which up to one third of the population in affected areas died; the 1876–1877 famine, in which over five million people died; the 1899 famine, in which over 4.5 million died; and the [[Bengal famine of 1943]], in which over five million died from starvation and famine-related illnesses.<ref name="Nash_2002_22-23">{{harvnb|Nash|2002|pp=22–23}}.</ref><ref name="Collier_2002_67">{{harvnb|Collier|Webb|2002|p=67}}.</ref> According to [[earthquake hazard zoning of India]], [[tectonic plate]]s beneath the earth's surface are responsible for yearly earthquakes along the Himalayan belt and in northeast India. This region is classified as a Zone V, indicating that it is a very high-risk area. Parts of western India, around the [[Kutch]] region in Gujarat and [[Koyna]] in Maharashtra, are classified as a Zone IV region (high risk). Other areas have a moderate to low risk chance of an earthquake occurring.<ref name="manorama5">{{cite book | title = Manorama Yearbook 2006 ''(India - The Country)'' | publisher = Malayala Manorama | date = 2006 | pages =519| ISSN = 0542-5778}}</ref> [[Tropical cyclone]]s, which are severe storms spun off from the [[Intertropical Convergence Zone]], may affect thousands of Indians living in coastal regions. Cyclones bring with them heavy rains, [[storm surge]]s, and winds that often cut affected areas off from relief and supplies. In the North Indian Ocean Basin, the cyclone season runs from April to December, with peak activity between May and November.<ref name="AOML_FAQ_G1">{{cite web |author=[[Atlantic Oceanographic and Meteorological Laboratory]], Hurricane Research Division |title=Frequently Asked Questions: When is hurricane season? |publisher=[[NOAA]] | accessdate=2006-07-25 |url=http://www.aoml.noaa.gov/hrd/tcfaq/G1.html}}</ref> Each year, an average of eight storms with sustained wind speeds greater than {{convert|63|km/h|lk=on}} form; of these, two strengthen into true tropical cyclones, which have sustained gusts greater than {{convert|117|km/h|abbr=on}}. On average, a major ([[Saffir-Simpson Hurricane Scale|Category 3]] or higher) cyclone develops every other year.<ref name = "AOML FAQ G1"/><ref name = "AOML FAQ E10">{{cite web |author=[[Atlantic Oceanographic and Meteorological Laboratory]], Hurricane Research Division |title=Frequently Asked Questions: What are the average, most, and least tropical cyclones occurring in each basin? |publisher=[[NOAA]] |accessdate=2006-07-25 |url=http://www.aoml.noaa.gov/hrd/tcfaq/E10.html}}</ref> In terms of damage and loss of life, [[Cyclone 05B (1999)|Cyclone 05B]], a supercyclone that struck Orissa on [[29 October]] [[1999]], was the worst in more than a quarter-century. A [[tsunami]] caused by the [[2004 Indian Ocean earthquake]] struck the Andaman and Nicobar Islands and India's east coast resulting in the deaths of an estimated 10,000. Until then India was thought to have negligible activity related to tsunamis, though there is historical anecdotal evidence of its occurrence in the past. India has one [[active volcano]]: the [[Barren Island (Andaman Islands)|Barren Island]] volcano which last erupted in May 2005. There is also a [[dormant volcano]] called the [[Narcondum]] and a [[mud volcano]] at [[Baratang]]. All these volcanoes lie in the [[Andaman Islands]]. == International agreements == India is a party to several International agreements related to environment and climate, the most prominent among them are: {| width="100%" bgcolor="#fff4f4" !align="center" colspan="2"|Treaties and Agreements |-align="center" !align="left" valign="top"| Specific Regions and [[Sea]]s |align="left" valign="top"|<small>[[Government of Antarctica|The Antarctic Treaty]], [[Law of the Sea]], Ship Pollution ([[MARPOL 73/78]]), [[International Convention for the Regulation of Whaling|Whaling]]</small> |-align="center" !align="left" valign="top"| [[Earth's atmosphere|Atmosphere]] and [[Climate]] |align="left" valign="top"|<small>[[United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change|Climate Change]], [[Kyoto Protocol]], [[Montreal Protocol|Ozone Layer Protection]], [[Partial Test Ban Treaty|Nuclear Test Ban]]</small> |-align="center" !align="left" valign="top"| [[Biodiversity]], [[environment (biophysical)|Environment]] and [[Forest]]s |align="left" valign="top"|<small>[[United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification|Desertification]], [[Convention on the International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Flora and Fauna|Endangered Species]], [[Convention on the Prohibition of Military or Any Other Hostile Use of Environmental Modification Techniques|Environmental Modification]], [[International Tropical Timber Agreement, 1983|Tropical Timber 83]] and [[International Tropical Timber Agreement, 1994|Tropical Timber 94]], [[Ramsar Convention|Wetland]]s</small> |-align="center" !align="left" valign="top"| [[Wastes]] |align="left" valign="top"|<small>[[Basel Convention|Hazardous Wastes]]</small> |-align="center" !align="left" valign="top"| [[Rivers]] |align="left" valign="top"|<small>[[Indus Waters Treaty]]</small> |} == See also== {{portal|India|Flag of India.svg}} *[[Extreme points of India]] *[[Geology of India]] *[[Climate of India]] *[[Ecoregions of India]] *[[National parks of India]] *[[Regions of India]] *[[Indian subcontinent]] *[[European Digital Archive on Soil Maps of the World]] ==Notes== {{reflist|2}} ==References== <div class="references-small"> * {{harvard reference |Last1=Allaby |Given1=M |Title=Floods |Year=1998 |Publisher=Facts on File |ID=ISBN 0-8160-3520-2}}. * {{harvard reference |Last1=Balfour |Given1=E |Title= Encyclopaedia Asiatica: Comprising Indian Subcontinent, Eastern and Southern Asia |Year=1976 |Publisher=Cosmo Publications |isbn=8170203252}}. * {{harvard reference |Last1=Collier |Given1=W |Last2=Webb |Given2=R |Year=2002 |Title=Floods, Droughts and Climate Change |Publisher=University of Arizona Press |ID=ISBN 0-8165-2250-2}}. * {{harvard reference |Last1=Nash |Given1=JM |Year=2002 |Title=El Niño: Unlocking the Secrets of the Master Weather Maker |Publisher=Warner |ID=ISBN 0-446-52481-6}}. * {{cite web | title=Physical Divisions | work=The Smiling Face of our Mother Land | url=http://www.nios.ac.in/SecSoccour/English/Lesson07.pdf | accessmonthday=June 9 | accessyear=2005}} * {{cite web | title=Deccan Plateau | work=An eye on India | url=http://india.punjabilit.com/land/deccan_plateau.htm | accessmonthday=June 6 | accessyear=2005}} * {{cite web | title=The Eastern Coastal Plain | work=Water Harvesting Techniques Prevalent in the Eastern Coastal Plain | url=http://www.rainwaterharvesting.org/eco/ecp.htm | accessmonthday=June 6 | accessyear=2005}} * {{cite web | title=India | url=http://india.gov.in/knowindia/profile.php| accessmonthday =June 9 |accessyear=2007}} * {{cite web | title=Geology of India | work=geohead:Earth Science on your desktop | url=http://www.geoahead.com/strati/india/index.cfm | accessmonthday=June 6 | accessyear=2005}} * {{cite web | title=The Land | work=The Great Mountains of the North | url=http://www.geocities.com/kkbros.geo/kked8/docs/Geog04.doc | accessmonthday=June 6 | accessyear=2005}} * {{cite web | title=Land and Natural Resources | work=Terrain | url=http://library.thinkquest.org/28853/terrain.htm | accessmonthday=June 6 | accessyear=2005}} * {{cite web | title=The Rann of Kutch | work=Rann Of Kutch, Geography Of Rann Of Kutch | url=http://www.indiasite.com/land/kutch.html | accessmonthday=June 6 | accessyear=2005}} * {{cite web | title=Rann of Kutch seasonal salt marsh | work=Terrestrial Ecoregions &ndash; Rann of Kutch seasonal salt marsh (IM0901) | url=http://www.nationalgeographic.com/wildworld/profiles/terrestrial/im/im0901.html | accessmonthday=June 6 | accessyear=2005}} * [http://www.adrc.or.jp/publications/databook/databook_2003_eng/PDF_Eng/chapter4-2.pdf Asian and ADRC Member Countries and their Disaster Characteristics] (PDF), Accessed on [[June 6]], [[2005]] * {{cite book | author=Various authors | title=Manorama Year Book 2003 | publisher=Malayala Manorama Co. Ltd | year=2003 | id=ISBN 0542-5778 }} * {{cite book |title=India Yearbook 2007 |publisher=Published by Publications Division, Ministry of Information & Broadcasting, Govt. Of India |isbn=81-230-1423-6 }} </div> {{Life in India}} {{GeoSouthAsia}} [[Category:Geography of India| ]] {{Link FA|hr}} [[bn:ভারতের ভূগোল]] [[de:Geographie Indiens]] [[dv:އިންޑިޔާގެ ޖުޣުރާފީ]] [[es:Geografía de la India]] [[fr:Géographie de l'Inde]] [[hr:Zemljopis Indije]] [[he:גאוגרפיה של הודו]] [[nl:Geografie van India]] [[ja:インドの地理]] [[pt:Geografia da Índia]] [[ro:Geografia Indiei]] [[sr:Географија Индије]] [[sh:Zemljopis Indije]] [[sv:Indiens geografi]] [[ta:இந்தியாவின் புவியியல்]] [[vi:Địa lý Ấn Độ]] [[zh:印度地理]]