Globalization 46313 226163912 2008-07-17T02:57:08Z 24.77.65.238 /* Effects of globalization */ [[Image:Shanghai Skyscape.jpg|thumb|right|270px|[[Puxi]] side of [[Shanghai]], China.]] '''Globalization''' (or '''globalisation''') in its literal sense is the process of making, transformation of some things or phenomena into global ones. It can be described as a process by which the people of the world are unified into a single society and function together. This process is a combination of economic, technological, sociocultural and political forces.<ref>Sheila L. Croucher. ''Globalization and Belonging: The Politics of Identity a Changing World.'' Rowman & Littlefield. (2004). p.10</ref> Globalization is often used to refer to economic globalization, that is, integration of national economies into the international economy through trade, foreign direct investment, capital flows, migration, and the spread of technology.<ref name='bhagwati'>{{cite book | last = Bhagwati | first = Jagdish | authorlink = | coauthors = | title = In Defense of Globalization | publisher = Oxford University Press | date = 2004 | location = Oxford, New York | pages = | url = | doi = | id = | isbn = }}</ref> [[Thomas L. Friedman]] "examines the impact of the 'flattening' of the globe", and argues that [[Global trade|globalized trade]], [[outsourcing]], [[supply chain|supply-chaining]], and political forces have changed the world permanently, for both better and worse. He also argues that the pace of globalization is quickening and will continue to have a growing impact on business organization and practice.<ref> Friedman,Thomas L. "The Dell Theory of Conflict Prevention." ''Emergin: A Reader.'' Ed. Barclay Barrios. Boston: Bedford, St. Martins, 2008. 49</ref> [[Noam Chomsky]] argues that the word globalization is also used, in a doctrinal sense, to describe the neoliberal form of [[economic globalization]].<ref>[http://www.zmag.org/content/showarticle.cfm?ItemID=9780 ZNet, Corporate Globalization, Korea and International Affairs, Noam Chomsky interviewed by Sun Woo Lee, Monthly JoongAng, 22 February 2006]</ref> Herman E. Daly argues that sometimes the terms internationalization and globalization are used interchangeably but there is a slight formal difference. The term "internationalization" refers to the importance of international trade, relations, treaties etc. International means between or among nations. "Globalization" means erasure of national boundaries for economic purposes; international trade (governed by [[comparative advantage]]) becomes inter-regional trade (governed by absolute advantage).<ref>{{cite journal | last = Daly | first = Herman | authorlink = Herman E. Daly | title = Globalization versus Internationalization - Some Implications | journal = Ecological Economics | volume = 31 | pages = 31–37 | publisher = Elsevier | date = 1999 }} [http://www.uvm.edu/%7Ejdericks/EEtheory/Daly_on_Globalization.pdf] </ref> ==History== The term "'''globalization'''" has been used by economists since the 1980s although it was used in social sciences in the 1960s; however, its concepts did not become popular until the latter half of the 1980s and 1990s. The earliest written theoretical concepts of globalization were penned by an American entrepreneur-turned-minister [[Charles Taze Russell]] who coined the term 'corporate giants' in 1897.<ref>[http://www.pastor-russell.com/volumes/V4/Study_07.html ''The Battle of Armageddon'', October, 1897 pages 365-370]</ref> Globalization is viewed as a centuries long process, tracking the expansion of [[human population]] and the growth of [[civilization]], that has accelerated dramatically in the past 50 years. Early forms of globalization existed during the [[Roman Empire]], the [[Parthian]] empire, and the [[Han Dynasty]], when the [[Silk Road]] started in China, reached the boundaries of the Parthian empire, and continued onwards towards Rome. The [[Islamic Golden Age]] is also an example, when [[Islamic Golden Age#Economy|Muslim traders]] and [[Islamic Golden Age#Age of discovery|explorers]] established an early [[global economy]] across the [[Old World]] resulting in a [[Muslim Agricultural Revolution|globalization of crops]], trade, knowledge and technology; and later during the [[Mongol Empire]], when there was greater integration along the [[Silk Road]]. Globalization in a wider context began shortly before the turn of the 16th century, with [[Spain]] and [[Portugal]]. Portugal's global explorations in the [[16th century]], especially, linked continents, economies and cultures to a massive extent. A wave of [[global trade]], [[colonization]], and [[enculturation]] reached all corners of the world. Global integration continued through the expansion of European trade in the 16th and 17th centuries, when the [[Portuguese Empire|Portuguese]] and [[Spanish Empire]]s expanded to the [[Americas]], followed eventually by France and Britain. Globalization has had a tremendous impact on [[transformation of culture|cultures]], particularly indigenous cultures, around the world. In the [[17th century]], globalization became a business phenomenon when the [[Dutch East India Company]], which is often described as the first [[multinational corporation]], was established. Because of the high risks involved with international trade, the Dutch East India Company became the first company in the world to share risk and enable joint ownership of companies through the issuance of [[shares]] of stock: an important driver for globalization. Globalisation was also achieved by the [[British Empire]] (the largest empire in history) due to its sheer size and power. British ideals and culture were imposed on other nations during this period. The [[19th century]] is sometimes called "The First Era of Globalization." It was a period characterized by rapid growth in international trade and investment between the European imperial powers, their colonies, and, later, the [[United States]]. It was in this period that areas of sub-saharan Africa and the Island Pacific were incorporated into the world system. The "First Era of Globalization" began to break down at the beginning of the [[20th century]] with the first World War, and later collapsed during the [[gold standard|gold standard crisis]] in the late 1920s and early 1930s. ==Modern globalization== Globalization in the era since World War II is largely the result of planning by economists, business interests, and politicians who recognized the costs associated with [[protectionism]] and declining international economic integration. Their work led to the [[Bretton Woods conference]] and the founding of several international institutions intended to oversee the renewed processes of globalization, promoting growth and managing adverse consequences. These institutions include the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development (the [[World Bank]]), and the [[International Monetary Fund]]. Globalization has been facilitated by advances in technology which have reduced the costs of trade, and trade negotiation rounds, originally under the auspices of [[GATT]], which led to a series of agreements to remove restrictions on [[free trade]]. Since World War II, barriers to international trade have been considerably lowered through international agreements - [[General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade]] (GATT). Particular initiatives carried out as a result of GATT and the [[World Trade Organization]] (WTO), for which GATT is the foundation, have included: * Promotion of free trade: ** Reduction or elimination of [[tariff]]s; creation of [[free trade zone]]s with small or no tariffs ** Reduced transportation costs, especially resulting from development of [[containerization]] for ocean shipping. ** Reduction or elimination of [[capital controls]] ** Reduction, elimination, or harmonization of [[subsidy|subsidies]] for local businesses * Restriction of free trade: ** Harmonization of [[intellectual property]] laws across the majority of states, with more restrictions. ** Supranational recognition of intellectual property restrictions (e.g. [[patent]]s granted by [[China]] would be recognized in the United States) The [[Uruguay Round]] (1984 to 1995) led to a treaty to create the [[World Trade Organization]] (WTO) to mediate trade disputes and set up a uniform platform of trading. Other bilateral and multilateral trade agreements, including sections of Europe's [[Maastricht Treaty]] and the [[North American Free Trade Agreement]] (NAFTA) have also been signed in pursuit of the goal of reducing tariffs and barriers to trade. World exports rose from 8.5% of [[gross world product]] in 1970 to 16.1% of gross world product in 2001.[http://www.globalpolicy.org/socecon/trade/tables/exports2.htm] The use of the term globalization (in the doctrinal sense), in the context of these developments has been analysed by many including Noam Chomsky who states <ref>[https://www.zcommunications.org/forums/viewtopic.php?id=136] ZForums, Chomsky Chat, >(2) What are the direct relationships between 9/11 and globalization?</ref> {{cquote| ... That enhances what's called "globalization," a term of propaganda used conventionally to refer to a certain particular form of international integration that is (not surprisingly) beneficial to its designers: Multinational corporations and the powerful states to which they are closely linked. }} Critics have observed that the term's contemporary usage comprises several meanings, for example Noam Chomsky states that: <ref>[http://www.chomsky.info/debates/20060324.htm Noam Chomsky chats with Washington Post readers, The Washington Post, March 24, 2006]</ref> {{cquote| The term "globalization," like most terms of public discourse, has two meanings: its literal meaning, and a technical sense used for doctrinal purposes. In its literal sense, "globalization" means international integration. Its strongest proponents since its origins have been the workers movements and the left (which is why unions are called "internationals"), and the strongest proponents today are those who meet annually in the World Social Forum and its many regional offshoots. In the technical sense defined by the powerful, they are described as "anti-globalization," which means that they favor globalization directed to the needs and concerns of people, not investors, financial institutions and other sectors of power, with the interests of people incidental. That's "globalization" in the technical doctrinal sense.}} ==Measuring globalization== [[Image:Hksycss.jpg|thumb|237px|Globalization has had an impact on different cultures around the world.]] Looking specifically at economic globalization, it can be measured in different ways. These center around the four main economic flows that characterize globalization: * Goods and services, e.g. exports plus imports as a proportion of national income or per capita of population * Labor/people, e.g. net migration rates; inward or outward migration flows, weighted by population * Capital, e.g. inward or outward direct investment as a proportion of national income or per head of population * Technology, e.g. international research & development flows; proportion of populations (and rates of change thereof) using particular inventions (especially 'factor-neutral' technological advances such as the telephone, motorcar, broadband) As globalization is not only an economic phenomenon, a multivariate approach to measuring globalization is the recent [[Globalization Index|index]] calculated by the Swiss [[think tank]] KOF. The index measures the three main dimensions of globalization: economic, social, and political. In addition to three indices measuring these dimensions, an overall index of globalization and sub-indices referring to actual economic flows, economic restrictions, data on personal contact, data on information flows, and data on cultural proximity is calculated. Data is available on a yearly basis for 122 countries, as detailed in Dreher, Gaston and Martens (2008).<ref>Axel Dreher, Noel Gaston, Pim Martens, ''Measuring Globalisation: Gauging Its Consequences'', Springer, ISBN 978-0-387-74067-6.</ref> According to the index, the world's most globalized country is [[Belgium]], followed by [[Austria]], [[Sweden]], the [[United Kingdom]] and the [[Netherlands]]. The least globalized countries according to the KOF-index are [[Haiti]], [[Myanmar]] the [[Central African Republic]] and [[Burundi]].<ref>[http://www.globalization-index.org/ KOF Index of Globalization]</ref> Other measures conceptualize Globalization as diffusion and develop interactive procedure to capture the degree of its impact Jahn 2006. [[A.T. Kearney]] and [[Foreign Policy]] Magazine jointly publish another [[Globalization Index]]. According to the 2006 index, [[Singapore]], [[Republic of Ireland|Ireland]], [[Switzerland]], the [[U.S.]], the [[Netherlands]], [[Canada]] and [[Denmark]] are the most globalized, while [[Egypt]], [[Indonesia]], [[India]] and [[Iran]] are the least globalized among countries listed. ==Effects of globalization== {{Refimprovesect|date=March 2008}} Globalization has various aspects which affect the world in several different ways such as: * ''Industrial'' (alias ''trans nationalization'') - emergence of worldwide production markets and broader access to a range of foreign products for consumers and companies. Particularly movement of material and goods between and within transnational corporations, and access to goods by wealthier nations and individuals at the expense of poorer nations and individuals who supply the labour. * ''Financial'' - emergence of worldwide financial markets and better access to external financing for corporate, national and subnational borrowers. Simultaneous though not necessarily purely globalist is the emergence of under or un-regulated foreign exchange and speculative markets leading to inflated wealth of investors and artificial inflation of commodities, goods, and in some instances entire nations as with the Asian economic boom-bust that was brought on externally by [[Free trade|"free" trade]]. * ''Economic'' - realization of a global common market, based on the freedom of exchange of goods and capital. * ''Political'' - political globalization is the creation of a world government which regulates the relationships among nations and guarantees the rights arising from social and economic globalization. <ref>Stipo, Francesco. ''World Federalist Manifesto. Guide to Political Globalization'', ISBN 978-0-9794679-2-9, http://www.worldfederalistmanifesto.com </ref> Politically, the [[United States]] has enjoyed a position of power among the world powers; in part because of its strong and wealthy economy. With the influence of globalization and with the help of The United States’ own economy, the [[People's Republic of China]] has experienced some tremendous growth within the past decade. If China continues to grow at the rate projected by the trends, then it is very likely that in the next twenty years, there will be a major reallocation of power among the world leaders. China will have enough wealth, industry, and technology to rival the United States for the position of leading world power. <ref>Hurst E. Charles. Social Inequality: Forms, Causes, and consequences, 6th ed. P.91</ref> The [[European Union]], [[Russian Federation]] and [[India]] are among the other already-established world powers which may have the ability to influence future world politics. * ''Informational'' - increase in information flows between geographically remote locations. Arguably this is a technological change with the advent of fibre optic communications, satellites, and increased availability of telephony and [[Internet]], possibly ancillary or unrelated to the globalist ideology. * ''Cultural'' - growth of cross-cultural contacts; advent of new categories of [[consciousness]] and identities such as ''Globalism'' - which embodies cultural diffusion, the desire to [[consumerism| consume]] and enjoy foreign products and ideas, adopt new technology and practices, and participate in a "world culture"; loss of languages (and corresponding loss of ideas), also see [[Transformation of culture]] * ''Ecological''- the advent of global environmental challenges that can not be solved without international cooperation, such as [[climate change]], cross-boundary water and air pollution, over-fishing of the ocean, and the spread of invasive species. Many factories are built in developing countries where they can pollute freely. Globalism and free trade interplay to increase pollution and accelerate it in the name of an ever expanding capitalist growth economy in a non-expanding world. The detriment is again to the poorer nations while the benefit is allocated to the wealthier nations. * ''Social'' - increased circulation by people of all nations with fewer restrictions. Provided that the people of those nations are wealthy enough to afford international travel, which the majority of the world's population is not. An illusory 'benefit' recognized by the elite and wealthy, and increasingly so as fuel and transport costs rise. * ''Transportation'' - fewer and fewer European cars on European roads each year (the same can also be said about American cars on American roads) and the death of distance through the incorporation of technology to decrease travel time.{{Clarifyme|date=March 2008}} This would appear to be a technological advancement recognized by those who work in information, rather than labour intensive markets, accessible to the few rather than the many, and if it is indeed an effect of globalism, reflects the disproportionate inequitable allocation of resources rather than a benefit to humanity overall. * ''International cultural exchange'' ** Spreading of [[multiculturalism]], and better individual access to [[cultural diversity]] (e.g. through the export of [[Hollywood]] and [[Bollywood]] movies). However, the imported culture can easily supplant the local culture, causing reduction in diversity through hybridization or even [[cultural assimilation|assimilation]]. The most prominent form of this is [[Westernization]], but [[Sinicization]] of cultures has taken place over most of Asia for many centuries. Arguably the hegemonic efects of globalism and homogenization of culture as the capitalist globalist economy becomes the "only" way that countries may participate through the IMF and World Bank leads to a destruction rather than an appreciation of differences in culture. ** Greater international [[travel]] and [[tourism]] for the few who can afford international travel and tourism. ** Greater [[immigration]], including [[illegal immigration]], except for those countries around the world including the UK, Canada, and the United States who have in 2008 accelerated removal of illegal migrants and modified laws to increase the ease of removing those who have entered the country illegally, while ensuring that immigration policies allow those more favourable to the stimulation of economy to enter, primarily focusing on the capital that immigrants can move into a country with them. ** Spread of local consumer products (e.g. food) to other countries (often adapted to their culture) including genetically modified organisms. A new and novel feature of the globalist growth economy is the birth of the licensed seed which will only be viable for one season and can not be replanted in a subsequent season - ensuring a [[captive market]] to a corporation. Entire nations may have their food supply controlled by a company successful in implementing such GMOs potentially through World Bank or IMF loan conditions. ** World-wide fads and pop culture such as [[Pokémon]], [[Sudoku]], [[Numa Numa]], [[Origami]], [[Idol series]], [[YouTube]], [[Orkut]], [[Facebook]], and [[MySpace]]. Accessible to those who have Internet or Television, leaving out a substantial segment of the Earth's population. ** World-wide sporting events such as [[FIFA World Cup]] and the [[Olympic Games]]. ** Formation or development of a set of [[universal value]]s - Homogenization of Culture * ''Technical'' ** Development of a [[global telecommunications infrastructure]] and greater transborder data flow, using such technologies as the [[Internet]], [[communication satellites]], [[Submarine communications cable|submarine fiber optic cable]], and [[Mobile phone|wireless telephones]] ** Increase in the number of standards applied globally; e.g. [[copyright law]]s, [[patent]]s and world trade agreements. * ''Legal/Ethical'' ** The creation of the [[international criminal court]] and [[International Court of Justice|international justice movements]]. ** [[Crime importation]] and raising awareness of global crime-fighting efforts and cooperation. ** Sexual awareness – It is often easy to only focus on the economic aspects of Globalization. This term also has strong social meanings behind it. Globalization can also mean a cultural interaction between different countries. Globalization may also have social effects such changes in sexual inequality, and to this issue brought about a greater awareness of the different (often more brutal) types of gender discrimination throughout the world. For example, women and girls in African countries have long been subjected to [[female circumcision]]- such a harmful procedure has been since exposed to the world, and the practice is now decreasing in occurrence. ** Increasing concentration of wealth in fewer and fewer hands. Media and other multinational mergers leading to fewer corporations controlling vaster segments of society and production. The decrease in the middle class, and the increase in poverty observed within Globalized and deregulated nations. Globalization was responsible for the largest sovereign debt default in world history, bankrupting the entire nation of Argentina in 2002. Globalization did, however, benefit business and finance in that large corporations and multinational banks were able to move over $40BN in cash out of Argentina literally in the dead of night as there were no regulations in this deregulated and globalized country to prevent them from doing so. Opponents of globalization argue that the banks locking the citizens out of their own accounts, the 60% and above unemployment rate, and the bankruptcy of an entire nation are arguments against globalization. ==Pro-globalization (globalism)== [[Image:Less than $2 a day.png|thumb|325px|Globalization advocates such as [[Jeffrey Sachs]] point to the above average drop in poverty rates in countries, such as China, where globalization has taken a strong foothold, compared to areas less affected by globalization, such as Sub-Saharan Africa, where poverty rates have remained stagnant.<ref name="The End of Poverty">{{cite book | last = Sachs | first = Jeffrey | authorlink = | coauthors = | year = 2005 | title = The End of Poverty | publisher = The Penguin Press | location = New York, New York | id = 1-59420-045-9}}</ref>]] <!-- Unsourced image removed: [[Image:Bangalore.jpg|thumb|230px|Globalization has brought foreign companies to [[Bangalore]], [[India]]]] --> Generally, the ideas of [[free Trade]], [[capitalism]], and [[democracy]] are widely believed to facilitate globalization. Supporters of [[free trade]] claim that it increases economic prosperity as well as opportunity, especially among developing nations, enhances civil liberties and leads to a more efficient allocation of resources. Economic theories of [[comparative advantage]] suggest that free trade leads to a more efficient allocation of resources, with all countries involved in the trade benefiting. In general, this leads to lower prices, more employment, higher output and a higher standard of living for those in developing countries.<ref name="The End of Poverty">{{cite book | last = Sachs | first = Jeffrey | authorlink = | coauthors = | year = 2005 | title = The End of Poverty | publisher = The Penguin Press | location = New York, New York | id = 1-59420-045-9}}</ref><ref name="World Bank, Poverty Rates, 1981 - 2002">{{cite web|url=http://siteresources.worldbank.org/DATASTATISTICS/Resources/table2-7.pdf|title=World Bank, Poverty Rates, 1981 - 2002|accessdate=2007-06-04}}</ref> {{quote|One of the ironies of the recent success of India and China is the fear that... success in these two countries comes at the expense of the United States. These fears are fundamentally wrong and, even worse, dangerous. They are wrong because the world is not a zero-sum struggle... but rather is a positive-sum opportunity in which improving technologies and skills can raise living standards around the world.|[[Jeffrey D. Sachs]]|The End of Poverty, 2005 }} [[Libertarians]] and proponents of [[laissez-faire capitalism]] say that higher degrees of political and [[economic freedom]] in the form of [[democracy]] and [[capitalism]] in the developed world are ends in themselves and also produce higher levels of material wealth. They see globalization as the beneficial spread of liberty and capitalism. <ref name="The End of Poverty">{{cite book | last = Sachs | first = Jeffrey | authorlink = | coauthors = | year = 2005 | title = The End of Poverty | publisher = The Penguin Press | location = New York, New York | id = 1-59420-045-9}}</ref> Supporters of [[democratic globalization]] are sometimes called pro-globalists. They believe that the first phase of globalization, which was market-oriented, should be followed by a phase of building global political institutions representing the will of [[world citizen]]s. The difference from other globalists is that they do not define in advance any ideology to orient this will, but would leave it to the free choice of those citizens via a democratic process {{Fact|date=February 2007}}. Some, such as [[Canadian Senate|Senator]] [[Douglas Roche]], [[Order of Canada|O.C.]], simply view globalization as inevitable and advocate creating institutions such as a [[direct election|directly-elected]] [[United Nations Parliamentary Assembly]] to exercise oversight over unelected international bodies. Supporters of globalization argue that the anti-globalization movement uses [[anecdotal evidence]]{{Fact|date=July 2007}} to support their protectionist view, whereas worldwide statistics strongly support globalization: * From 1981 to 2001, according to World Bank figures, the number of people living on $1 a day or less declined from 1.5 billion to 1.1 billion in absolute terms. At the same time, the world population increased, so in percentage terms the number of such people in developing nations declined from 40% to 20% of the population.<ref>"How Have the World's Poorest Fared Since the Early 1980s?" by Shaohua Chen and Martin Ravallion. [http://econ.worldbank.org/external/default/main?ImgPagePK=64202990&entityID=000112742_20040722172047&menuPK=64168175&pagePK=64210502&theSitePK=477894&piPK=64210520] </ref> with the greatest improvements occurring in economies rapidly reducing barriers to trade and investment; yet, some critics argue that more detailed variables measuring poverty should be studied instead <ref>[http://www.transnational.org/features/chossu_worldbank.html Michel Chossudovsky, ''"Global Falsehoods"'']</ref>. * The percentage of people living on less than $2 a day has decreased greatly in areas effected by globalization, whereas poverty rates in other areas have remained largely stagnant. In East-Asia, including China, the percentage has decreased by 50.1% compared to a 2.2% increase in Sub-Saharan Africa.<ref name="World Bank, Poverty Rates, 1981 - 2002">{{cite web|url=http://siteresources.worldbank.org/DATASTATISTICS/Resources/table2-7.pdf|title=World Bank, Poverty Rates, 1981 - 2002|accessdate=2007-06-04}}</ref> {| class="wikitable" style="text-align:right;" !Area !Demographic !1981 !1984 !1987 !1990 !1993 !1996 !1999 !2002 !Percentage Change 1981-2002 |- | rowspan=2|East Asia and Pacific || Less than $1 a day || 57.7% || 38.9% || 28.0% || 29.6% || 24.9% || 16.6% || 15.7% || 11.1% || align=center|-80.76% |- | Less than $2 a day || 84.8% || 76.6% || 67.7% || 69.9% || 64.8% || 53.3% || 50.3% || 40.7% || align=center|-52.00% |- | rowspan=2|Latin America || Less than $1 a day || 9.7% || 11.8% || 10.9% || 11.3% || 11.3% || 10.7% || 10.5% || 8.9% || align=center|-8.25% |- | Less than $2 a day || 29.6% || 30.4% || 27.8% || 28.4% || 29.5% || 24.1% || 25.1% || 23.4% || align=center|-29.94% |- | rowspan=2|Sub-Saharan Africa || Less than $1 a day || 41.6% || 46.3% || 46.8% || 44.6% || 44.0% || 45.6% || 45.7% || 44.0% || align=center|+5.77% |- | Less than $2 a day || 73.3% || 76.1% || 76.1% || 75.0% || 74.6% || 75.1% || 76.1% || 74.9% || align=center|+2.18% |} ''''SOURCE: World Bank, Poverty Estimates''', 2002'''<ref name="World Bank, Poverty Rates, 1981 - 2002">{{cite web|url=http://siteresources.worldbank.org/DATASTATISTICS/Resources/table2-7.pdf|title=World Bank, Poverty Rates, 1981 - 2002|accessdate=2007-06-04}}</ref> * [[Income inequality]] for the world as a whole is diminishing.<ref>[http://www.columbia.edu/~xs23/papers/worldistribution/NYT_november_27.htm David Brooks, ''"Good News about Poverty"'']</ref> Due to definitional issues and data availability, there is disagreement with regards to the pace of the decline in extreme poverty. As noted below, there are others disputing this. The economist [[Xavier Sala-i-Martin]] in a 2007 analysis argues that this is incorrect, income inequality for the world as a whole has diminished. [http://www.heritage.org/research/features/index/chapters/htm/index2007_chap1.cfm]. Regardless of who is right about the past trend in income inequality, it has been argued that improving absolute poverty is more important than relative inequality.[http://www.nytimes.com/2007/01/25/business/25scene.html?ex=1327381200&en=47c55edd9529cae7&ei=5090&partner=rssuserland&emc=rss/] * [[Life expectancy]] has almost doubled in the developing world since [[World War II]] and is starting to close the gap between itself and the developed world where the improvement has been smaller. Even in Sub-Saharan Africa, the least developed region, life expectancy increased from 30 years before World War II to about a peak of about 50 years before the AIDS pandemic and other diseases started to force it down to the current level of 47 years. [[Infant mortality]] has decreased in every developing region of the world.<ref>[http://www.theglobalist.com/DBWeb/StoryId.aspx?StoryId=2429 Guy Pfefferman, ''"The Eight Losers of Globalization"'']</ref> * Democracy has increased dramatically from there being almost no nations with [[universal suffrage]] in 1900 to 62.5% of all nations having it in 2000.<ref>[http://www.freedomhouse.org/reports/century.html Freedom House]</ref> * [[Feminism]] has made advances in areas such as [[Bangladesh]] through providing women with jobs and economic safety.<ref name="The End of Poverty">{{cite book | last = Sachs | first = Jeffrey | authorlink = | coauthors = | year = 2005 | title = The End of Poverty | publisher = The Penguin Press | location = New York, New York | id = 1-59420-045-9}}</ref> * The proportion of the world's population living in countries where per-capita food supplies are less than 2,200 [[calorie]]s (9,200 [[kilojoules]]) per day decreased from 56% in the mid-1960s to below 10% by the 1990s.<ref>[http://reason.com/news/show/34961.html BAILEY, R.(2005).</ref> * Between 1950 and 1999, global literacy increased from 52% to 81% of the world. Women made up much of the gap: female literacy as a percentage of male literacy has increased from 59% in 1970 to 80% in 2000.<ref>[http://reason.com/news/show/34961.html BAILEY, R.(2005). The poor may not be getting richer but they are living longer.]</ref> * The percentage of children in the labor force has fallen from 24% in 1960 to 10% in 2000.<ref>[http://www.oxfordleadership.com/DataFiles/homePage/Projects/OLA_Mexico%20_Award_Oct%2020_2006.pdf Oxford Leadership Academy.]</ref> * There are increasing trends in the use of electric power, cars, radios, and telephones per capita, as well as a growing proportion of the population with access to clean water.<ref>[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.worlddev.2004.06.016 Charles Kenny, Why Are We Worried About Income? Nearly Everything that Matters is Converging, World Development, Volume 33, Issue 1, January 2005, Pages 1-19]</ref> * The book ''[[The Improving State of the World]]'' also finds evidence for that these, and other, measures of human well-being has improved and that globalization is part of the explanation. It also responds to arguments that environmental impact will limit the progress. Although critics of globalization complain of [[Westernization]], a 2005 UNESCO report<ref> [http://www.uis.unesco.org/template/pdf/cscl/IntlFlows_EN.pdf 2005 UNESCO report]</ref> showed that cultural exchange is becoming mutual. In 2002, China was the third largest exporter of cultural goods, after the UK and US. Between 1994 and 2002, both North America's and the European Union's shares of cultural exports declined, while Asia's cultural exports grew to surpass North America. ==Anti-globalization (mundialism)== {{main|Anti-globalization}} '''Anti-globalization''' is a term used to describe the political stance of people and groups who oppose the [[neoliberal]] version of globalization. “Anti-globalization" may involve the process or actions taken by a state in order to demonstrate its sovereignty and practice democratic decision-making. Anti-globalization may occur in order to put brakes on the international transfer of people, goods and ideology, particularly those determined by the organizations such as the [[IMF]] or the [[WTO]] in imposing the radical deregulation program of [[free market fundamentalism]] on local governments and populations. Moreover, as Canadian journalist [[Naomi Klein]] argues in her book [[No Logo: Taking Aim at the Brand Bullies]] (also subtitled No Space, No Choice, No Jobs) anti-globalism can denote either a single [[social movement]] or an [[umbrella term]] that encompasses a number of separate social movements <ref> No Logo: No Space, No Choice, No Jobs by Canadian journalist Naomi Klein.</ref> such as nationalists and socialists. In either case, participants stand in opposition to the unregulated political power of large, multi-national corporations, as the corporations exercise power through leveraging trade agreements which damage in some instances the [[democratic]] rights of citizens, the [[natural environment|environment]] particularly [[air quality index]] and [[rain forests]], as well as national governments sovereignty to determine [[labor rights]] including the right to unionize for better pay, and better working conditions, or laws as they may otherwise infringe on cultural practices and traditions of [[developing countries]]. Most people who are labeled "anti-globalization" consider the term to be too vague and inaccurate <ref>Morris, Douglas "Globalization and Media Democracy: The Case of Indymedia", ''Shaping the Network Society'', [[MIT Press]] 2003. <small>Courtesy link to(pre-publication version) [http://www3.fis.utoronto.ca/research/iprp/c3n/CI/DMorris.htm]</small></ref><ref> [http://convention.allacademic.com/asa2003/view_paper_info.html?pub_id=179&part_id1=13161] Podobnik, Bruce, ''Resistance to Globalization: Cycles and Evolutions in the Globalization Protest Movement'', p. 2.</ref> Podobnik states that "the vast majority of groups that participate in these protests draw on international networks of support, and they generally call for forms of globalization that enhance democratic representation, human rights, and egalitarianism." Joseph Stiglitz and Andrew Charlton write<ref>Stiglitz, Joseph & Charlton ''Fair Trade for All: How Trade Can Promote Development''. 2005 p. 54 n. 23</ref>: {{cquote|The anti-globalization movement developed in opposition to the perceived negative aspects of globalization. The term 'anti-globalization' is in many ways a misnomer, since the group represents a wide range of interests and issues and many of the people involved in the anti-globalization movement do support closer ties between the various peoples and cultures of the world through, for example, aid, assistance for refugees, and global environmental issues.}} Members aligned with this viewpoint prefer instead to describe themselves as the '''[[Global Justice Movement]]''', the '''Anti-Corporate-Globalization Movement''', the '''Movement of Movements''' (a popular term in Italy), the "'''[[Alter-globalization]]'''" movement (popular in France), the "'''Counter-Globalization'''" movement, and a number of other terms. Critiques of the current wave of economic globalization typically look at both the damage to the planet, in terms of the perceived unsustainable harm done to the biosphere, as well as the perceived human costs, such as increased poverty, inequality, miscegenation, injustice and the erosion of traditional culture which, the critics contend, all occur as a result of the economic transformations related to globalization. They challenge directly the metrics, such as GDP, used to measure progress promulgated by institutions such as the World Bank, and look to other measures, such as the [[Happy Planet Index]],<ref>[http://www.neweconomics.org/gen/uploads/dl44k145g5scuy453044gqbu11072006194758.pdf The Happy Planet Index]</ref> created by the [[New economics foundation|New Economics Foundation]]<ref>[http://www.neweconomics.org/gen The New Economics Foundation]</ref>. They point to a "multitude of interconnected fatal consequences--social disintegration, a breakdown of democracy, more rapid and extensive deterioration of the environment, the spread of new diseases, increasing poverty and alienation"<ref name="The Hidden Connections">{{cite book | last = Capra | first = Fritjof | authorlink = | coauthors = | year = 2002 | title = The Hidden Connections | publisher = Random House | location = New York, New York | id = 0-385-49471-8}}</ref> which they claim are the unintended but very real consequences of globalization. The terms globalization and anti-globalization are used in various ways. [[Noam Chomsky]] states that<ref>Noam Chomsky Znet May 07, 2002 / The Croatian Feral Tribune April 27, 2002 [http://www.zmag.org/content/TerrorWar/chomskygab.cfm]</ref><ref>Interview by Sniježana Matejčić, June 2005 [http://www.galerija-rigo.hr/05/chomsky en 2.htm]</ref> {{cquote|The term "globalization" has been appropriated by the powerful to refer to a specific form of international economic integration, one based on investor rights, with the interests of people incidental. That is why the business press, in its more honest moments, refers to the "free trade agreements" as "free investment agreements" (Wall St. Journal). Accordingly, advocates of other forms of globalization are described as "anti-globalization"; and some, unfortunately, even accept this term, though it is a term of [[propaganda]] that should be dismissed with ridicule. No sane person is opposed to globalization, that is, international integration. Surely not the left and the workers movements, which were founded on the principle of international solidarity - that is, globalization in a form that attends to the rights of people, not private power systems. }} {{cquote|"The dominant propaganda systems have appropriated the term "globalization" to refer to the specific version of international economic integration that they favor, which privileges the rights of investors and lenders, those of people being incidental. In accord with this usage, those who favor a different form of international integration, which privileges the rights of human beings, become "anti-globalist." This is simply vulgar propaganda, like the term "anti-Soviet" used by the most disgusting commissars to refer to dissidents. It is not only vulgar, but idiotic. Take the [[World Social Forum]], called "anti-globalization" in the propaganda system -- which happens to include the media, the educated classes, etc., with rare exceptions. The WSF is a paradigm example of globalization. It is a gathering of huge numbers of people from all over the world, from just about every corner of life one can think of, apart from the extremely narrow highly privileged elites who meet at the competing World Economic Forum, and are called "pro-globalization" by the propaganda system. An observer watching this farce from Mars would collapse in hysterical laughter at the antics of the educated classes."}} Critics argue that: ** '''Poorer countries''' are sometimes at '''disadvantage''': While it is true that globalization encourages free trade among countries on an international level, there are also negative consequences because some countries try to save their national markets. The main export of poorer countries is usually agricultural goods. It is difficult for these countries to compete with stronger countries that subsidize their own farmers. Because the farmers in the poorer countries cannot compete, they are forced to sell their crops at much lower price than what the market is paying. <ref>Hurst E. Charles. Social Inequality: Forms, Causes, and consequences, 6th ed. P.41</ref> ** '''Exploitation''' of foreign impoverished workers: The deterioration of protections for weaker nations by stronger industrialized powers has resulted in the exploitation of the people in those nations to become cheap labor. Due to the lack of protections, companies from powerful industrialized nations are able to offer workers enough salary to entice them to endure extremely long hours and unsafe working conditions, though economists question if consenting workers in a competitive employers' market can be decried as "exploitation". The abundance of cheap labor is giving the countries in power incentive not to rectify the inequality between nations. If these nations developed into industrialized nations, the army of cheap labor would slowly disappear alongside development. It is true that the workers are free to leave their jobs, but in many poorer countries, this would mean starvation for the worker, and possible even his/her family if their previous jobs were unavailable.<ref>Chossudovsky, Michel. The globalization of poverty and the new world order / by Michel Chossudovsky. Edition 2nd ed. Imprint Shanty Bay, Ont. : Global Outlook, c2003.</ref> ** The shift to '''service work''': The low cost of offshore workers have enticed corporations to move production to foreign countries. The laid off unskilled workers are forced into the service sector where wages and benefits are low, but turnover is high. This has contributed to the widening economic gap between skilled and unskilled workers. The loss of these jobs has also contributed greatly to the slow decline of the middle class which is a major factor in the increasing economic inequality in the United States. Families that were once part of the middle class are forced into lower positions by massive layoffs and outsourcing to another country. This also means that people in the lower class have a much harder time climbing out of poverty because of the absence of the middle class as a stepping stone. <ref>The Declining Middle Class: A Further Analysis, Journal article by Patrick J. Mcmahon, John H. Tschetter; Monthly Labor Review, Vol. 109, 1986</ref> ** '''Weak labor unions''': The surplus in cheap labor coupled with an ever growing number of companies in transition has caused a weakening of labor unions in the United States. Unions lose their effectiveness when their membership begins to decline. As a result unions hold less power over corporations that are able to easily replace workers, often for lower wages, and have the option to not offer unionized jobs anymore. <ref>Hurst E. Charles. Social Inequality: Forms, Causes, and consequences, 6th ed. P.41</ref> In December 2007, World Bank economist Branko Milanovic has called much previous empirical research on global poverty and inequality into question because, according to him, improved estimates of purchasing power parity indicate that developing countries are worse off than previously believed. Milanovic remarks that "literally hundreds of scholarly papers on convergence or divergence of countries’ incomes have been published in the last decade based on what we know now were faulty numbers. With the new data, economists will revise calculations and possibly reach new conclusions" moreover noting that "implications for the estimates of global inequality and poverty are enormous. The new numbers show global inequality to be significantly greater than even the most pessimistic authors had thought. Until the last month, global inequality, or difference in real incomes between all individuals of the world, was estimated at around 65 Gini points – with 100 denoting complete inequality and 0 denoting total equality, with everybody’s income the same – a level of inequality somewhat higher than that of South Africa. But the new numbers show global inequality to be 70 Gini points – a level of inequality never recorded anywhere." <ref>[http://www.carnegieendowment.org/publications/index.cfm?fa=view&id=19907&prog=zch,zgp&proj=zsa,zted Developing Countries Worse Off Than Once Thought - Carnegie Endowment for International Peace<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref> The critics of globalization typically emphasize that globalization is a process that is mediated according to corporate interests, and typically raise the possibility of alternative global institutions and policies, which they believe address the moral claims of poor and working classes throughout the globe, as well as environmental concerns in a more equitable way.<ref>[http://www.forumsocialmundial.org.br/index.php?cd_language=2&id_menu= Fórum Social Mundial]</ref> The movement is very broad, including church groups, national liberation factions, [[peasant]] unionists, intellectuals, artists, protectionists, [[anarchism|anarchists]], those in support of relocalization and others. Some are [[reformist]], (arguing for a more humane form of capitalism) while others are more [[revolutionary]] (arguing for what they believe is a more humane system than capitalism) and others are [[reactionary]], believing globalization destroys national industry and jobs. One of the key points made by critics of recent economic globalization is that income inequality, both between and within nations, is increasing as a result of these processes. One article from 2001 found that significantly, in 7 out of 8 metrics, income inequality has increased in the twenty years ending 2001. Also, "incomes in the lower deciles of world income distribution have probably fallen absolutely since the 1980s". Furthermore, the World Bank's figures on absolute poverty were challenged. The article was skeptical of the World Bank's claim that the number of people living on less than $1 a day has held steady at 1.2 billion from 1987 to 1998, because of biased methodology.<ref>Wade, Robert Hunter. 'The Rising Inequality of World Income Distribution', Finance & Development, Vol 38, No 4 December 2001</ref> A chart that gave the inequality a very visible and comprehensible form, the so-called 'champagne glass' effect,<ref>[http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m1141/is_n13_v31/ai_16531823 Xabier Gorostiaga,''"World has become a 'champagne glass' globalization will fill it fuller for a wealthy few' National Catholic Reporter, Jan 27, 1995 ']</ref> was contained in the 1992 United Nations Development Program Report, which showed the distribution of global income to be very uneven, with the richest 20% of the world's population controlling 82.7% of the world's income.<ref>United Nations Development Program. 1992 Human Development Report, 1992 (New York, Oxford University Press)</ref> {| class="wikitable" | + Distribution of world GDP, 1989 |- ! Quintile of Population ! Income |- | Richest 20% | 82.7% |- | Second 20% | 11.7% |- | Third 20% | 2.3% |- | Fourth 20% | 1.4% |- | Poorest 20% | 1.2% |} '''''SOURCE: United Nations Development Program. 1992 Human Development Report'''''<ref name="1992 Human Development Report">{{cite web|url=http://hdr.undp.org/reports/global/1992/en/|title=Human Development Report 1992|accessdate=2007-07-08}}</ref> Economic arguments by [[fair trade]] theorists claim that unrestricted [[free trade]] benefits those with more [[financial leverage]] (i.e. the rich) at the expense of the poor.<ref>[http://www.epinet.org/content.cfm?id=1589= NAFTA at 10, Jeff Faux, Economic Policy Institute, D.C.]</ref> Americanization related to a period of high political American clout and of significant growth of America's shops, markets and object being brought into other countries. So globalization, a much more diversified phenomenon, relates to a multilateral political world and to the increase of objects, markets and so on into each others countries. Some opponents of globalization see the phenomenon as the promotion of [[corporatism|corporatist]] interests.<ref>{{cite news | first = Laurence | last = Lee | title = WTO blamed for India grain suicides | url = http://english.aljazeera.net/NR/exeres/2ED53A8B-1058-49CF-B9FF-3D96639456D1.htm | publisher = [[Al Jazeera]] | date = [[17 May]], [[2007]] | accessdate = 2007-05-17 | language = English }}</ref> They also claim that the increasing autonomy and strength of [[corporate entity|corporate entities]] shapes the political policy of countries.<ref name="The Corporation">{{cite book | last = [[Joel Bakan|Bakan]] | first = Joel | authorlink = | coauthors = | year = 2004 | title = The Corporation | publisher = Simon & Schuster | location = New York, New York | id = 0-7432-4744-2}}</ref> <ref name="Confessions of an Economic Hit Man">{{cite book | last = [[John Perkins|Perkins]] | first = John | authorlink = | coauthors = | year = 2004 | title = Confessions of an Economic Hit Man | publisher = Berrett-Koehler | location = San Francisco, California | id = 1-57675-301-8}}</ref> ===Social=== '''International Social Forums''' ''See main articles:'' [[European Social Forum]], the [[Asian Social Forum]], [[World Social Forum]] (WSF). The first WSF was an initiative of the administration of [[Porto Alegre]] in [[Brazil]]. The slogan of the World Social Forum was "Another World Is Possible". It was here that the WSF's Charter of Principles was adopted to provide a framework for the forums. The WSF became a periodic meeting: in 2002 and 2003 it was held again in Porto Alegre and became a rallying point for worldwide protest against the American invasion of Iraq. In 2004 it was moved to [[Mumbai]] (formerly known as Bombay, in [[India]]), to make it more accessible to the populations of Asia and Africa. This last appointment saw the participation of 75,000 delegates. In the meantime, regional forums took place following the example of the WSF, adopting its Charter of Principles. The first [[European Social Forum]] (ESF) was held in November 2002 in [[Florence]]. The slogan was "Against the war, against racism and against neo-liberalism". It saw the participation of 60,000 delegates and ended with a huge demonstration against the war (1,000,000 people according to the organizers). The other two ESFs took place in Paris and London, in 2003 and 2004 respectively. Recently there has been some discussion behind the movement about the role of the social forums. Some see them as a "popular university", an occasion to make many people aware of the problems of globalization. Others would prefer that delegates concentrate their efforts on the coordination and organization of the movement and on the planning of new campaigns. However it has often been argued that in the dominated countries (most of the world) the WSF is little more than an 'NGO fair' driven by Northern NGOs and donors most of which are hostile to popular movements of the poor.<ref>[http://www.pambazuka.org/en/category/features/39464 Pambazuka News<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref> ==References== {{reflist|3}} ==Further reading== *{{cite book | last = von Braun | first = Joachim | coauthors = Eugenio Diaz-Bonilla | title = Globalization of Food and Agriculture and the Poor| publisher = Oxford University Press | date = 2007 |location = Oxford| pages = | url = http://www.ifpri.org/PUBS/otherpubs/globalpoor.asp | doi = | id = | isbn = 9780195695281}} *{{cite book | last = Haggblade | first = Steven | coauthors = et all| title = Transforming the Rural Nonfarm Economy: Opportunities and Threats in the Developing World | publisher = Johns Hopkins University Press | date = 2007 |location = | pages = 512 | url = http://www.ifpri.org/pubs/jhu/transformrural.asp | doi = | id = | isbn = 978-0-8018-8663-8}} * [[Peter Berger]], ''[http://www.thefreelibrary.com/Four+faces+of+global+culture-a020319595 Four Faces of Global Culture]'' (The National Interest, Fall 1997). * {{cite book | last = Friedman | first = Thomas L. | authorlink = Thomas L. Friedman | coauthors = | title = [[The World Is Flat]] | publisher = Farrar, Straus and Giroux | date = 2005 | location = New York | pages = | url = | doi = | id = | isbn = 0-374-29288-4 }} * {{cite book | last = Kitching | first = Gavin | authorlink = Gavin Kitching | title = Seeking Social Justice through Globalization. Escaping a Nationalist Perspective | publisher = Penn State Press | date= 2001 | url = http://www.gavinkitching.com/africa_3.htm | id = ISBN 0271021624 }} * {{cite book | last = [[Jerry Mander|Mander, Jerry]] | first = | authorlink = | coauthors = [[Edward Goldsmith]] | title = The case against the global economy : and for a turn toward the local | publisher = Sierra Club Books | date = 1996 | location = San Francisco | pages = | url = | doi = | id = | isbn = 0-87156-865-9 }} * {{cite book | last = Murray | first = Warwick E. | authorlink = | coauthors = | title = Geographies of Globalization | publisher = Routledge/Taylor and Francis | date = 2006 | location = New York | pages = | url = | doi = | id = | isbn = 0415317991 }} * {{cite book | last = Sen | first = Amartya | authorlink = Amartya Sen | coauthors = | title = [[Development as Freedom]] | publisher = Oxford University Press | date = 1999 | location = Oxford, New York | pages = | url = | doi = | id = | isbn = 019289330 }} * {{cite book | last = Steger | first = Manfred | authorlink = | coauthors = | title = Globalization: A Very Short Introduction | publisher = Oxford University Press | date = 2003 | location = Oxford, New York | pages = | url = | doi = | id = | isbn = 0-19-280359-X }} * {{cite book | last = Stiglitz | first = Joseph E. | authorlink = Joseph E. Stiglitz | coauthors = | title = [[Globalization and Its Discontents]] | publisher = W.W. Norton | date = 2002 | location = New York | pages = | url = | doi = | id = | isbn = 0-393-32439-7 }} * {{cite book | last = Stiglitz | first = Joseph E. | authorlink = Joseph E. Stiglitz | coauthors = | title = [[Making Globalization Work]] | publisher = W.W. Norton | date = 2006 | location = New York | pages = | url = | doi = | id = | isbn = 0-393-06122-1 }} * {{cite book | last = Wolf | first = Martin | authorlink = Martin Wolf | coauthors = | title = Why Globalization Works | publisher = Yale University Press | date = 2004 | location = New Haven | pages = | url = | doi = | id = | isbn = 978-0300102529 }} ==See also== {{Postmodernism}} <div class="references-small" style="-moz-column-count:3; column-count:3;"> * [[Anti-globalization]] * [[Borderless Selling]] * [[Columbian Exchange]] * [[Deglobalization]] * [[Dependency theory]] * [[Development criticism]] * [[Global citizens movement]] * [[Global empire]] * [[Global justice]] * [[Global Policy Institute]] * [[Globalization and disease]] * [[Globalization and Health]] * [[Globalization Index]] * [[Globally Integrated Enterprise]] * [[Great Transition]] * [[History of ideas]] * [[Marketization]] * [[Mundialization]] * [[Neo-medievalism]] * [[Netocracy]] * [[New world order]] * [[Offshoring]] * [[Oil price increases since 2003]] * [[Outsourcing]] * [[Overconsumption]] * [[Overpopulation]] * [[The Global Economy]] * [[The World Is Flat]] * [[Transformation of culture]] * [[Walmarting]] * [[Westernization]] * [[World economy]] * [[World Trade Organization]] * [[World-systems theory]] * [[2007–2008 world food price crisis]] </div> ==External links== {{external links}} {{wikiquote}} {{Wiktionarypar2|globalisation|globalization}}{{commons}} *[http://www.globalpolicy.org/socecon/trade/unctad/2004/0614devglob.pdf 2004 Development and Globalization. Facts and Figures] * The William Davidson Institute at the University of Michigan, http://www.wdi.umich.edu/ * [http://www.caei.com.ar/en/home.htm Argentine Center of International Studies] * [http://utip.gov.utexas.edu/ Inequality Project] from [[University of Texas]] * [http://irows.ucr.edu Institute for Research on World-Systems] at [[UC Riverside]] * [http://www.ecologyandsociety.org/vol12/iss1/art24/main.html Resilience, Panarchy, and World-Systems Analysis] from the [[Ecology and Society]] Journal * [http://www.federalreserve.gov/boarddocs/speeches/2007/20070501/default.htm Embracing the Challenge of Free Trade: Competing and Prospering in a Global Economy] a speech by [[Federal Reserve]] chairman [[Ben Bernanke]] * [http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/business/6279679.stm Globalisation shakes the world] BBC News * [http://csab.wustl.edu/workingpapers/GlobalizationLondon123.pdf Globalization: Wonder Land or Waste Land] by Murray Weidenbaum * [http://www.sussex.ac.uk/Users/ssfa2/thirdwaveweb.htm Globalization Theories] by Luke Martell ===Multimedia=== * [http://archives.cbc.ca/economy_business/business/clip/12844/ CBC Archives] CBC Television reports on the opening of Moscow McDonalds (1990) - sample of Western business expanding into former communist countries. {{Trade}} {{Supranationalism/World government topics|state=autocollapse}} [[Category:Globalization|*]] [[Category:Theories of history]] [[Category:Sociocultural evolution]] [[Category:Economic geography]] [[Category:Cultural geography]] [[Category:World government]] Brief notes: http://globalisation.page.tl/ {{Link FA|mk}} {{Link FA|id}} [[af:Globalisering]] [[ar:عولمة]] [[an:Globalizazión]] [[ast:Globalización]] [[bs:Globalizacija]] [[bg:Глобализация]] [[ca:Globalització]] [[cs:Globalizace]] [[cy:Globaleiddio]] [[da:Globalisering]] [[de:Globalisierung]] [[et:Globaliseerumine]] [[es:Globalización]] [[eo:Tutmondiĝo]] [[eu:Globalizazioa]] [[fa:جهانی‌سازی]] [[fr:Mondialisation]] [[ga:Domhandas]] [[gl:Globalización]] [[ko:세계화]] [[hr:Globalizacija]] [[id:Globalisasi]] [[is:Hnattvæðing]] [[it:Globalizzazione]] [[he:גלובליזציה]] [[jv:Globalisasi]] [[ka:გლობალიზაცია]] [[kk:Жаһандану]] [[lv:Globalizācija]] [[lt:Globalizacija]] [[hu:Globalizáció]] [[mk:Глобализација]] [[ml:ആഗോളവത്കരണം]] [[ms:Globalisasi]] [[nl:Mondialisering]] [[ja:グローバリゼーション]] [[no:Globalisering]] [[nn:Globalisering]] [[pms:Mondialisassion]] [[pl:Globalizacja]] [[pt:Globalização]] [[ru:Глобализация]] [[simple:Globalization]] [[sl:Globalizacija]] [[sr:Глобализација]] [[fi:Globalisaatio]] [[sv:Globalisering]] [[ta:உலகமயமாதல்]] [[tt:Globalizasía]] [[te:ప్రపంచీకరణ]] [[th:โลกาภิวัตน์]] [[vi:Toàn cầu hóa]] [[tr:Küreselleşme]] [[uk:Глобалізація]] [[yi:גלאבאליזאציע]] [[zh-yue:全球化]] [[zh:全球化]]