Gran Colombia-Peru War 5255302 215941105 2008-05-30T11:08:59Z Bluezy 403508 /* Notes */ {{Unreferenced|date=May 2007}} {{Warbox |conflict=Gran Colombia-Perú War |partof= |campaign= |image= [[Image:Peru-Gran Colombia map 1828.PNG|300px]] |caption= <small>''Map of the [[Gran Colombia]] Federation and the Republic of Peru in [[1828]] <br/>Peru in red, Gran Colombia in blue, disputed territory striped''</small> |date= June 3, 1828 - February 28, 1829 |place= [[Ecuador]], [[Peru]] and [[Colombia]] |casus = Territorial dispute over Jaén and Maynas territories |result= [[Larrea-Gual Treaty]] <br />''[[status quo ante bellum]]'' |combatant1=[[Image:FlagGranColombia1821.png|22px]] [[Gran Colombia|Republic of Gran Colombia]] |combatant2=[[Image:Flag of Peru (1825 - 1950).svg|22px]] [[Peru|Republic of Perú]] |commander1=[[Antonio José de Sucre]] |commander2=[[Jose de La Mar]]<br />[[Agustín Gamarra]] }} The '''Gran Colombia-Peru War''' of 1828 and 1829 was the first international conflict fought by the [[Peru|Republic of Peru]], which had gained its independence from Spain in 1824, and [[Gran Colombia]], a confederation of the modern-day countries of [[Colombia]], [[Ecuador]], [[Panama]], and [[Venezuela]] that existed between 1819 and 1830. ==Causes== The issues that led to war were Gran Colombian claims, dating from colonial times, concerning control of the territories of [[Jaén]] and [[Maynas Province|Maynas]]. The [[Royal Audience of Quito]] ([[Spanish language|Spanish]]: Real Audiencia de Quito) was established in 1563 by a royal decree of the King of Spain. Its territories included, to the north, [[Pasto]], [[Popayán]], [[Cali]], [[Buenaventura]], and [[Buga]] in what is now Colombia; to the south, it extended as far as [[Piura]] in what is now Peru{{Fact|date=May 2007}}. The Royal Audience of Quito was part of the [[Viceroyalty of Peru]] (also known as the Viceroyalty of Lima) until 1717, when it became part of the [[Viceroyalty of New Granada]] (previously known as the Viceroyalty of Santa Fé de Bogotá){{Fact|date=May 2007}}. <sup>1</sup> Borders at the time were imprecise, especially to the east, beyond the Andean cordillera, because of a lack of geographical knowledge and the low importance accorded to unpopulated and largely inaccessible territories. ² The first controversy between the Viceroyalty of Peru and the Real Audiencia de Quito erupted in 1802, when the military and ecclesiastic administration of both Jaén and Maynas were transferred to the Viceroyalty of Peru by royal decree. To this day, there is some dispute as to whether this was a territorial concession as well. This lack of clarity formed the basis for territorial disputes between Ecuador and Peru when, a few years later, these two nations obtained their independence from Spain. ³ A similar event occurred in 1803, when the Spanish crown decided that the military affairs of the Province of Guayaquil, whose capital was the port city of the same name, would be run from Lima, Peru. Further, in 1810, all administrative and economic affairs for the Province of Guayaquil were turned over to the Viceroyalty of Peru, a situation that would endure until 1819 (and the formation of Gran Colombia, which included Guayaquil.) ==''Uti possidetis juris''== Even before the battles for the freedom of the South American colonies were over, [[Simón Bolivar]] established the ''[[uti possidetis juris]]'' principle as the basis for the territorial demarcation of the new nation-states that were to be born of the ancient colonial jurisdictions. In essence, the principle, as it applied to the international borders of that time, meant that '''the borders of the new countries should correspond to the Spanish administrative borders as they were in 1809'''{{Fact|date=May 2007}}. This presented considerable difficulty due to a lack of geographical knowledge, and also because much of the territory in question was unpopulated (or sparsely populated) and unexplored. According to the principle, the territory of the Viceroyalty of Lima would then become part of Peru, and the territory of the Viceroyalty of New Granada part of Gran Colombia. However, much of what would become Ecuador fell into a "gray area" with plausible claims by both Peru (successor to the Viceroyalty of Lima) and Gran Colombia (successor to the Viceroyalty of New Granada) still in conflict. ==Conflict over Bolivia== The federation of Gran Colombia, formed in 1819, was the kernel of Bolivar's grander scheme to unite the former Spanish colonies in Central and South America under his rule. Prior to becoming the titular head of Gran Colombia, Bolivar had been, briefly, the president of the newly-independent state of Bolivia, his namesake. Bolivia had formerly been a province of Peru, known as Upper Peru, and, once Bolivar relinquished the presidency of Bolivia to his revolutionary compatriot, [[Antonio José de Sucre]] Alcalá, in 1826, the Peruvians saw an opportunity. Early in [[1828]], Peru launched a campaign against Bolivia to reclaim its former territory. Bolivar in Bogotá reacted by dispatching a Colombian army to Bolivia to prop up the Sucre régime. However, the Peruvians quickly forced the Colombians out of Bolivia{{Fact|date=May 2007}}. ==Initial engagements== Furious about the news from Bolivia{{Fact|date=May 2007}} (that the Colombian army had been expelled), President Bolivar resolved to declare war against Peru on [[3 June]] [[1828]]. [[Antonio José de Sucre]], who had been the President of Bolivia since 1826, resigned his office (under duress) and was appointed Commander of the Gran Colombian Army. The Peruvian declaration of war against Gran Colombia occurred on [[3 July]] [[1828]] when the [[Government of Peru|Peruvian Government]], under President [[Jose de La Mar]], ordered a mobilization of its ground and naval forces. The first engagement of the conflict took place on [[August 31]] of that year when the Peruvian [[corvette]] ''Freedom'', under the command of [[Carlos García del Postigo]], on patrol in international waters to the west of the [[Gulf of Guayaquil]] with the purpose of blockading that port, was attacked by the [[Gran Colombia]]n ships ''Pichincha'' and ''Guayaquileña'' off [[Punta Malpelo]]. The Colombians were forced to retire with heavy loss of life on-board their vessels{{Fact|date=May 2007}}. Shortly thereafter, Peruvian naval forces extended the blockade of [[Guayaquil]] to the entire [[Gran Colombia]]n coast from [[Tumbes]] to [[Panama]]{{Fact|date=May 2007}}. ==Assault on Guayaquil== The Peruvian squadron, commanded by a former British naval officer, [[Martin Guise (Royal Navy officer)|Martin Guise]] (a.k.a., Jorge Martin Guise), made a number of raids in the [[Guayaquil]] area before directly attacking the defenses of that city from [[22 November]] to [[24 November]], [[1828]]. In this campaign, he managed to eliminate the Colombian defenses afloat and to silence much of the enemy artillery, but, on the night of the [[23 November]], the Peruvian frigate ''President'' ran aground, and the Colombians took advantage of the situation to counterattack. At dawn, with the arrival of high tide, the frigate was refloated under fire. Among the last enemy sniper shots hit Guise, mortally wounding him. Control of the squadron was assumed by his first lieutenant, José Boterín, who continued the siege. The city finally surrendered on [[19 January]] [[1829]]. After this victory, the corvette ''Arequipeña'' and the brig ''Congress'' repaired to Panama to rescue a Peruvian merchant ship that had been captured by the [[Gran Colombia]]ns. [[Guayaquil]] would remain under [[Peru]]vian occupation until [[21 July]] [[1829]]. ==Land war== Peruvian President Jose de La Mar had been born in the city of Cuenca, a place in present-day Ecuador that was, in 1828, part of the disputed territory and ''de facto'' a part of Gran Colombia. Shortly after the siege of Guayaquil, conducted by the Peruvian Navy, was concluded, the Peruvian Army seized the city of [[Loja, Ecuador|Loja]] by winning the [[Battle of Saraguro]] on [[13 February]] 1829, and then it pushed north into [[Guayas]], the district surrounding the city of Guayaquil. En route, forces under La Mar and General [[Agustín Gamarra]] occupied Cuenca as well. Holding Cuenca was, however, short-lived. The Venezuelan general, [[Antonio José de Sucre]], and his compatriot, General [[Juan José Flores]], mounted a counterattack and decisively defeated the Peruvians near the city of Cuenca, at the [[Battle of Portete de Tarqui]] (also known as the Battle of Tarqui) on [[26 February]] and [[27 February]], [[1829]]. Effectively, this ended the major hostilities of the war. Without reinforcement by land, the Peruvian occupation of Guayaquil was destined to fail, but Gran Colombia's assertion of rights to the territories of [[Jaén]] and [[Maynas Province|Maynas]], were similarly frustrated. On [[28 February]], 1829, La Mar and Sucre signed a surrender document that became known as the [[La Mar-Sucre Convention]]. ==Aftermath== A coup supported by General Gamarra of the Peruvian Army against President La Mar paved the way for a peace treaty. Subsequently, the [[Convenio de Girón]] between Peru and Gran Colombia recognized as borders the "same ones as the corresponding Viceroyalties before independence." Since this ''status quo ante'' solution was based on borders that had never been adequately defined, future territorial disputes between Peru and Ecuador and Colombia were virtually inevitable. On [[10 July]], [[1829]], the [[Armistice of Piura]] recognised the annexation of Guayaquil to Gran Colombia, and, on September 22 of that year, the war between Peru and Gran Colombia officially came to an end when the armistice was ratified.<sup>4</sup> A broader agreement, a formal peace treaty, known as the [[Gual-Larrea Treaty]] or the [[Larrea-Gual Treaty]] (depending on your nationality), was signed on the very same day, [[September 22]] 1829. The ''uti possidetis principle'' was affirmed, but the text also acknowledges that small concessions by each side may become desirable in order to define a "more natural and precise border", which is the basis for avoiding further conflict. The parties agreed to form a binational commission to establish a permanent border. <sup>6</sup> ==Was Gran Colombia a nation or a confederation?== The term Gran Colombia is used today to refer to the federation that was formed between the Republics of Ecuador, Venezuela, and Colombia (with its province, Panama) before 1830. However, Gran Colombia is, in a sense, an artificial term, as the country has always been referred to simply as Colombia. This is clear to anyone who examines the many treaties signed between Colombia and Peru before 1830. In Peru, however, the dissolution of Gran Colombia is seen as a country ceasing to exist, giving way to the formation of new nation-states. The significance of this view is that the treaties Peru had signed with Gran Colombia became void when the countersignatory ceased to exist. The three new states, the Republic of New Granada (which later changed its name to [[Republic of Colombia]]), the [[Bolivarian Republic of Venezuela|Republic of Venezuela]], and the [[Republic of Ecuador]], in the Peruvian view, started with a clean diplomatic slate. An alternative view is that Ecuador and Venezuela separated from the Gran Colombia Federation and inherited all of the treaty obligations that Gran Colombia had assumed, as least to the extent that they apply to their respective territories. There are indications that Colombia itself maintained this position, because, clearly, Gran Colombia and the successor state, the Republic of Colombia, shared a capital city, a subset of the same territory, and much the same citizenry. It would be unnatural to disavow their common histories. The question of the status of treaties and accords dating to the revolutionary period (1809-1819) and Gran Colombia period (1819-1830) has a profound effect on international relations up to the present day. ==Pedemonte-Mosquera Protocol== To illustrate the current relevance of the Gran Colombia-Peru War, Ecuador asserts that there was an agreement signed in Lima between the foreign ministers of Peru and Gran Colombia on [[11 August]] [[1830]]. Known as the [[Pedemonte-Mosquera protocol]], the agreement, based on the military result at the Battle of Portete de Tarqui and the [[Gual-Learra Treaty]] then in effect, settled the placement of the border between the two nations definitively and for all time. Ecuador has used the Pedemonte-Mosquera Protocol as its primary legal support for land claims against Peru. However, Peru disputes its credibility and its very existence. Peru notes that the original document has never been produced by Colombia or by Ecuador. Peru also claims that there is evidence that Pedemonte and Mosquera were not even in the same place on the day in question, so they could not possibly have concluded any agreement at all. Further, according to Peru, the protocol, if it did exist, was never ratified by either country's congress. Besides, to the Peruvian way of thinking, even if the protocol was signed, the Gran Colombia Federation had been effectively dissolved well before [[11 August]], [[1830]], so any agreement concluded on that day was undertaken by a man without portfolio, that is, a diplomat representing no nation at all. (Ecuador was born as a country on [[13 May]], [[1830]] and began its separate existence with the adoption of a Constitution on [[23 September]], [[1830]].) Even though it is unlikely that Ecuador might have concocted an historical treaty of this nature, the Peruvian arguments cannot be dismissed out-of-hand. Ecuador has produced a copy of the Pedemonte-Mosquea protocol, made in 1870, that the Colombian embassy in Lima sent to Bogotá. The copy in question was obtained from a diplomat's personal collection. However, it has not been satisfactorily authenticated, and it remains in dispute. The Mosquera-Pedemonte protocol is mentioned in a Colombian document titled Legislative Act No. 3, published [[31 October]] [[1910]].<sup>5</sup> This document explains how the borders between Colombia and its neighbors had been established. With respect to its border with Peru, it indicates that the borders are ''"those adopted by Mosquera-Pedemonte, in development of the treaty of [[22 September]] [[1829]]."'' ==See also== For further discussion of these thorny issues, consult: * http://www.diccionariobiograficoecuador.com/tomos/tomo9/p3.htm (Ecuadorian viewpoint) * http://www.up.edu.pe/ciup/data%5C98-6.pdfwww.congreso.gob.pe/libro1/3volum/11tudela.htm (Peruvian viewpoint) ==Notes== # http://www.8ung.at/griesse/spanisch/themen/Peru-ec/2informe.htm # http://www.geocities.com/equatorial2000 [[Category:19th century conflicts]] [[Category:History of South America]] [[Category:Wars involving Peru]] [[Category:Wars involving Ecuador]] [[es:Guerra Gran Colombo-Peruana]]