Grape
12436
226044307
2008-07-16T16:05:17Z
76.187.218.111
/* Distribution and production */ added
{{two other uses|the fruits of the genus [[Vitis]]|the European grapevine|Vitis vinifera|the computer programming environment|GRAPE}}
{{nutritionalvalue
| name=Grapes, red or green
| kJ=288
| protein=0.72 g
| fat=0.16 g
| carbs=18.1 g
| fiber=0.9 g
| sugars=15.48 g
| glucose=7.2 g
| fructose=8.13 g
| iron_mg=0.36
| opt1n=[[Manganese]] 0.071 mg
| opt1v=3.5%
| calcium_mg=10
| magnesium_mg=7
| phosphorus_mg=20
| potassium_mg=191
| zinc_mg=0.07
| vitC_mg=10.8
| pantothenic_mg=0.05
| vitB6_mg=0.086
| folate_ug=2
| thiamin_mg=0.069
| riboflavin_mg=0.07
| niacin_mg=0.188
| right=1
| source_usda=1 }}
A '''grape''' is the non-[[Climacteric (biology)#In_botany|climacteric]] [[fruit]] that grows on the [[Perennial plant|perennial]] and [[deciduous]] woody [[vine]]s of the [[genus]] ''[[Vitis]]''. Grapes can be eaten raw or used for making [[jam]], [[grape juice|juice]], [[Jelly (fruit preserves)|jelly]], [[vinegar]], [[wine]], [[grape seed extract]]s and [[grape seed oil]].
==Description==
[[Image:Close up grapes.jpg|thumb|left|180px|[[Red Wine]] grapes]]
Grapes grow in clusters of 6 to 300, and can be crimson, black, dark blue, yellow, green and pink. However, "white" grapes are actually green in color, and are evolutionarily derived from the red grape. Mutations in two regulatory genes of white grapes turn off production of [[anthocyanin]]s which are responsible for the color of red grapes.<ref>{{cite journal|title=White grapes arose through the mutation of two similar and adjacent regulatory genes|author=Walker AR, Lee E, Bogs J, McDavid DA, Thomas MR, Robinson SP|journal=Plant J|year=2007|volume=49|issue=5|pages=772–85|pmid=17316172 | doi = 10.1111/j.1365-313X.2006.02997.x <!--Retrieved from Yahoo! by DOI bot-->}}</ref> Anthocyanins and other [[pigment]] chemicals of the larger family of [[polyphenol]]s in red grapes are responsible for the varying shades of purple in red wines.<ref>Waterhouse AL. Wine phenolics. Ann N Y Acad Sci. 2002 May;957:21-36.[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12074959]</ref><ref>Brouillard R, Chassaing S, Fougerousse A. Why are grape/fresh wine anthocyanins so simple and why is it that red wine color lasts so long? Phytochemistry. 2003 Dec;64(7):1179-86.[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/14599515]</ref>
== Grapevines ==
{{main|Vitis}}
[[Image:Palatina.jpg|thumb|right|Palatina, a Hungarian grape<ref>{{cite book
| last = Pernesz
| first = G.
| title = [http://www.actahort.org/members/showpdf?booknrarnr=652_41 New Resistant Table Grape Cultivars Bred in Hungary]
| publisher = International Society for Horticultural Science
| accessdate = 2008-02-25}}</ref>
]]
[[Image:grapevine.jpg|thumb|Grapevine from the Village of [[Aita al-Foukhar]] in [[Lebanon]]]]
Most grapes come from [[List of grape varieties|cultivars]] of ''[[Vitis vinifera]]'', the European grapevine native to the Mediterranean and Central Asia. Minor amounts of fruit and wine come from American and Asian species such as:
*''[[Vitis labrusca]]'', the North American table and grape juice grapevines (including the [[concord (grape)|concord]] cultivar), sometimes used for wine. Native to the [[Eastern United States]] and [[Canada]].
*''[[Vitis riparia]]'', a wild vine of [[North America]], sometimes used for winemaking and for jam. Native to the entire [[Eastern U.S.]] and north to [[Quebec]].
*''[[Vitis rotundifolia]]'', the [[muscadine]]s, used for jams and wine. Native to the [[Southeastern United States]] from [[Delaware]] to the [[Gulf of Mexico]].
*''Vitis vulpina'' Frost grape. Native to the [[United States]] [[Midwest]] east to the coast up through [[New York]].
*''[[Vitis amurensis]]'' Most important Asian species.
The sea grape ''[[Coccoloba uvifera]]'' is actually a member of the Buckwheat family ''[[Polygonaceae]]'' and is native to the islands of the [[Caribbean Sea]].
== Distribution and production ==
[[Image:GrapeField.jpg|thumb|250px|Grapevines]]
[[Image:2005grape.PNG|thumb|right|250px|Grape production in 2005]]
According to the [[Food and Agriculture Organization]] (FAO), 75,866 square kilometres of the world are dedicated to grapes. Approximately 71% of world grape production is used for wine, 27% as fresh fruit, and 2% as [[dried fruit]]. A portion of grape production goes to producing grape juice to be reconstituted for fruits canned "with no added sugar" and "100% natural". The area dedicated to vineyards is increasing by about 2% per year. <!-- references needed: Popularity for the purple grape has increased tremendously over the past decade. In March 2006, the purple grape reached its peak in popularity by being preferred 83% of the time over green grapes in a University of Michigan poll. -->
The following table of top wine-producers shows the corresponding areas dedicated to grapes for wine making:
{|class="wikitable"
!Country
!Area Dedicated
|-
| Spain
| align="center"| 11,750 km²
|-
| France
| align="center"| 8,640 km²
|-
| Italy
| align="center"| 8,270 km²
|-
| Turkey
| align="center"| 8,120 km²
|-
| United States
| align="center"| 4,150 km²
|-
| Iran
| align="center"| 2,860 km²
|-
| Romania
| align="center"| 2,480 km²
|-
| Portugal
| align="center"| 2,160 km²
|-
| Argentina
| align="center"| 2,080 km²
|-
| Australia
| align="center"| 1,642 km²
|-
| Lebanon
| align="center"| 1,122 km²
|-
|}
== Seedless grapes ==
Seedlessness is a highly desirable subjective quality in table grape selection, and seedless cultivars now make up the overwhelming majority of table grape plantings. Because grapevines are [[Vegetative reproduction|vegetatively propagated]] by cuttings, the lack of seeds does not present a problem for reproduction. It is, however, an issue for breeders, who must either use a seeded variety as the female parent or rescue embryos early in development using [[Plant tissue culture|tissue culture]] techniques.
There are several sources of the seedlessness trait, and essentially all commercial cultivators get it from one of three sources: Thompson Seedless, Russian Seedless, and Black Monukka, all being cultivars of ''[[Vitis vinifera]]''. Numerous seedless cultivars, such as Einset Seedless, Reliance and Venus, have been specifically cultivated for hardiness and quality in the relatively cold climates of north-eastern United States and southern [[Ontario]].<ref>Reisch BI, Peterson DV, Martens M-H. Table Grape Varieties for Cool Climates, Information Bulletin 234, Cornell University, New York State Agricultural Experiment Station[http://www.nysaes.cornell.edu/hort/faculty/reisch/bulletin/table/tabletext3.html]</ref> Bright green and elongated or round, the popular Sugraone grape offers a light, sweet flavor and distinctive crunch.
Contrary to the improved eating quality of seedlessness is the loss of potential health benefits provided by the enriched [[phytochemical]] content of grape seeds (see [[#Health claims|Health claims]]).<ref>{{cite paper
| author = Shi J, Yu J, Pohorly JE, Kakuda Y.
| title = Polyphenolics in grape seeds-biochemistry and functionality.
| date = 2003 Winter
| publisher = J Med Food. 2003 Winter;6(4):291-9.
| url = http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/sites/entrez?Db=pubmed&Cmd=ShowDetailView&TermToSearch=14977436&ordinalpos=1&itool=EntrezSystem2.PEntrez.Pubmed.Pubmed_ResultsPanel.Pubmed_RVDocSum
| accessdate = 2007-08-16
}}</ref><ref>{{cite paper
| author = Parry J, Su L, Moore J, Cheng Z, Luther M, Rao JN, Wang JY, Yu LL.
| title = Chemical compositions, antioxidant capacities, and antiproliferative activities of selected fruit seed flours.
| date = 2006-05-31
| publisher = J Agric Food Chem. 2006 May 31;54(11):3773-8.
| url = http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/sites/entrez?Db=pubmed&Cmd=ShowDetailView&TermToSearch=16719495&ordinalpos=3&itool=EntrezSystem2.PEntrez.Pubmed.Pubmed_ResultsPanel.Pubmed_RVDocSum
| accessdate = 2007-08-16
}}</ref>
== Raisins, currants, and sultanas ==
{{seealso|Dried vine fruit}}
[[Image:Raisins 01.jpg|thumb|right|Raisins]]In most of Europe, dried grapes are universally referred to as 'raisins' or the local equivalent. In the UK, three different varieties are recognized, forcing the EU to use the term "[[Dried vine fruit]]" in official documents.
A ''[[raisin]]'' is any dried grape. While ''raisin'' is a French [[loanword]], the word in French refers to the fresh fruit; ''grappe'' (whence the English ''grape'' is derived) refers to the bunch (as in ''une grappe de raisins'').
A ''[[Zante currant|currant]]'' is a dried [[Zakynthos|Zante]] grape, the name being a corruption of the [[French language|French]] ''raisin de Corinthe'' ([[Corinth]] grape). Note also that ''currant'' has come to refer also to the [[blackcurrant]] and [[redcurrant]], two berries completely unrelated to grapes.
A ''[[sultana (grape)|sultana]]'' was originally a raisin made from a specific type of grape of Turkish origin, but the word is now applied to raisins made from common grapes and chemically treated to resemble the traditional sultana.
==Health claims==
[[Image:Ripe grapes.jpg|right|thumb|Ripe table grapes ready to be eaten]]
{{main|French Paradox|Resveratrol}}
===French Paradox===
Comparing diets among western countries, researchers have discovered that although the French tend to eat higher levels of animal fat, surprisingly the incidence of [[heart disease]] remains low in France, a phenomenon named the [[French Paradox]] thought to occur from protective benefits of regularly consuming red wine. Apart from potential benefits of alcohol itself, including reduced [[platelet]] aggregation and [[vasodilation]]<ref>Providência R. (2006). Cardiovascular protection from alcoholic drinks: scientific basis of the French Paradox. Rev Port Cardiol. 2006 Nov;25(11):1043-58. [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=retrieve&db=pubmed&list_uids=17274460 Abstract.]</ref>, [[polyphenol]]s (e.g., [[resveratrol]]) mainly in the grape skin provide other suspected health benefits, such as:<ref>Opie LH, Lecour S. (2007). The red wine hypothesis: from concepts to protective signalling molecules. Eur Heart J. 2007 Jul;28(14):1683-93. [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=retrieve&db=pubmed&list_uids=17561496 Abstract.]</ref>
* alteration of molecular mechanisms in blood vessels, reducing susceptibility to vascular damage
* decreased activity of [[angiotensin]], a systemic hormone causing blood vessel constriction that would elevate blood pressure
* increased production of the [[vasodilator]] hormone, [[nitric oxide]] ([[endothelium-derived relaxing factor]])
Although adoption of wine consumption is not recommended by some health authorities,<ref>American Heart Association, Alcohol, wine and cardiovascular disease.[http://www.americanheart.org/presenter.jhtml?identifier=4422]</ref> a significant volume of research indicates moderate consumption, such as one glass of red wine a day for women and two for men, may confer health benefits.<ref>[http://www.hsph.harvard.edu/nutritionsource/alcohol.html Alcohol. Harvard School of Public Health]</ref><ref>Mukamal KJ, Kennedy M, Cushman M, Kuller LH, Newman AB, Polak J, Criqui MH, Siscovick DS. Alcohol consumption and lower extremity arterial disease among older adults: the cardiovascular health study. Am J Epidemiol. 2008 Jan 1;167(1):34-41.[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17971339 Abstract]</ref><ref>de Lange DW, van de Wiel A. Drink to prevent: review on the cardioprotective mechanisms of alcohol and red wine polyphenols. Semin Vasc Med. 2004 May;4(2):173-86.[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15478039 Abstract]</ref> Emerging evidence is that wine [[polyphenol]]s like [[resveratrol]]<ref>Das S, Das DK. Resveratrol: a therapeutic promise for cardiovascular diseases. Recent Patents Cardiovasc Drug Discov. 2007 Jun;2(2):133-8.[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18221111 Abstract]</ref> provide physiological benefit whereas alcohol itself may have protective effects on the cardiovascular system.<ref>Sato M, Maulik N, Das DK. Cardioprotection with alcohol: role of both alcohol and polyphenolic antioxidants. Ann N Y Acad Sci. 2002 May;957:122-35. [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12074967 Abstract]</ref><ref>Wollin SD, Jones PJ. Alcohol, red wine and cardiovascular disease. J Nutr. 2001 May;131(5):1401-4.[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11340089 Abstract]</ref>
===Resveratrol===
Grape [[phytochemical]]s such as [[resveratrol]], a [[polyphenol antioxidant]], have been positively linked to inhibiting [[cancer]], [[heart disease]], degenerative [[nerve]] disease, [[viral]] infections and mechanisms of [[Alzheimer's disease]].<ref>Shankar S, Singh G, Srivastava RK. Chemoprevention by resveratrol: molecular mechanisms and therapeutic potential.
Front Biosci. 2007 Sep 1;12:4839-54.[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17569614 Abstract]</ref><ref>Mancuso C, Bates TE, Butterfield DA, Calafato S, Cornelius C, De Lorenzo A, Dinkova Kostova AT, Calabrese V. Natural antioxidants in Alzheimer's disease. Expert Opin Investig Drugs. 2007 Dec;16(12):1921-31.[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18042001 Abstract]</ref>
Protection of the genome through [[antioxidant]] actions may be a general function of resveratrol.<ref>Gatz SA, Wiesmüller L. Take a break--resveratrol in action on DNA. Carcinogenesis. 2008 Feb;29(2):321-32.[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18174251 Abstract]</ref> In laboratory studies, resveratrol bears a significant [[transcription (genetics)|transcriptional]] overlap with the beneficial effects of [[calorie restriction]] in [[heart]], [[skeletal muscle]] and [[brain]]. Both dietary interventions inhibit [[gene expression]] associated with heart and skeletal muscle [[aging]], and prevent age-related heart failure.<ref>Barger JL, Kayo T, Vann JM, Arias EB, Wang J, et al. (2008) A Low Dose of Dietary Resveratrol Partially Mimics Caloric Restriction and Retards Aging Parameters in Mice. PLoS ONE 3(6): e2264. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0002264[http://www.plosone.org/article/fetchArticle.action?articleURI=info:doi/10.1371/journal.pone.0002264]</ref>
Resveratrol is the subject of several human [[clinical trial]]s,<ref>Listing of resveratrol clinical trials, ClinicalTrials.gov, a service of the US National Institutes of Health[http://clinicaltrials.gov/ct2/results?term=resveratrol]</ref> among which the most advanced is a one year dietary regimen in a Phase III study of elderly patients with [[Alzheimer's disease]].<ref>Randomized Trial of a Nutritional Supplement in Alzheimer's Disease, US Department of Veterans Affairs, Mount Sinai School of Medicine, May 2008
[http://clinicaltrials.gov/ct2/show/NCT00678431?term=resveratrol&rank=5]</ref>
Synthesized by many plants, resveratrol apparently serves [[antifungal drug|antifungal]] and other defensive properties. Dietary resveratrol has been shown to modulate the metabolism of [[lipid]]s and to inhibit oxidation of low-density lipoproteins and aggregation of [[platelet]]s.<ref>Chan, W. K., & Delucchi, A. B. (2000). Resveratrol, a red wine constituent, is a mechanism-based inactivator of cytochrome P450 3A4. ''Life Sci'' 67 (25): 3103-3112. [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=retrieve&db=pubmed&list_uids=11125847 Abstract.]</ref>
Resveratrol is found in wide amounts among grape varieties, primarily in their skins and seeds which, in [[muscadine]] grapes, have about one hundred times higher concentration than pulp.<ref name = "guhqhr">LeBlanc, MR (2005). Cultivar, Juice Extraction, Ultra Violet Irradiation and Storage Influence the Stilbene Content of Muscadine Grapes (Vitis Rotundifolia Michx.). PhD Dissertation, Louisiana State University[http://etd.lsu.edu/docs/available/etd-01202006-082858/]</ref> Fresh grape skin contains about 50 to 100 micrograms of resveratrol per gram.<ref>Li X, Wu B, Wang L, Li S. (2006). Extractable amounts of trans-resveratrol in seed and berry skin in Vitis evaluated at the germplasm level. J Agric Food Chem. 2006 Nov 15;54(23):8804-11. [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=retrieve&db=pubmed&list_uids=17090126 Abstract.]</ref>
===Anthocyanins and other phenolics===
Anthocyanins tend to be the main [[polyphenol]]ics in red grapes whereas [[flavan-3-ols]] (e.g., [[catechins]]) are the more abundant phenolic in white varieties.<ref name = "hozczp">Cantos E, Espín JC, Tomás-Barberán FA. (2002). Varietal differences among the polyphenol profiles of seven table grape cultivars studied by LC-DAD-MS-MS. J Agric Food Chem. 2002 Sep 25;50(20):5691-6. [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=retrieve&db=pubmed&list_uids=12236700 Abstract.]</ref> Total phenolic content, an index of dietary antioxidant strength, is higher in red varieties due almost entirely to anthocyanin density in red grape skin compared to absence of anthocyanins in white grape skin.<ref name = "hozczp"/> It is these anthocyanins that are attracting the efforts of scientists to define their properties for human health.<ref>Gross PM (2007). Scientists zero in on health benefits of berry pigments. Natural Products Information Center 2007 Jul 9. [http://www.npicenter.com/anm/templates/newsATemp.aspx?articleid=18944&zoneid=201]</ref> Phenolic content of grape skin varies with [[cultivar]], soil composition, climate, geographic origin, and cultivation practices or exposure to diseases, such as fungal infections.
Red [[wine]] offers health benefits more so than white because many beneficial compounds are present in grape skin, and only red wine is fermented with skins. The amount of fermentation time a wine spends in contact with grape skins is an important determinant of its resveratrol content.[http://www.pbrc.edu/Division_of_Education/pdf/PNS_resveratrol.pdf] Ordinary non-[[muscadine]] [[red wine]] contains between 0.2 and 5.8 mg/L <ref> Gu X, Creasy L, Kester A, et al., Capillary electrophoretic determination of resveratrol in wines. J Agric Food Chem 47:3323-3277, 1999</ref>, depending on the grape variety, because it is [[fermentation (food)|fermented]] with the skins, allowing the wine to absorb the resveratrol. By contrast, a [[white wine]] contains lower phenolic contents because it is fermented after removal of skins.
Wines produced from [[muscadine]] grapes may contain more than 40 mg/L, an exceptional phenolic content.<ref> Ector BJ, Magee JB, Hegwood CP, Coign MJ. Resveratrol Concentration in Muscadine Berries, Juice, Pomace, Purees, Seeds, and Wines. [http://www.ajevonline.org/cgi/content/abstract/47/1/57]</ref><ref name = "guhqhr"/> In muscadine skins, [[ellagic acid]], [[myricetin]], [[quercetin]], [[kaempferol]], and trans-resveratrol are major phenolics.<ref>Pastrana-Bonilla E, Akoh CC, Sellappan S, Krewer G. (2003). Phenolic content and antioxidant capacity of muscadine grapes. J Agric Food Chem. 2003 Aug 27;51(18):5497-503 [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=retrieve&db=pubmed&list_uids=12926904 Abstract.]</ref> Contrary to previous results, ellagic acid and not resveratrol is the major phenolic in muscadine grapes.
===Seed constituents===
Since the 1980s, biochemical and medical studies have demonstrated significant [[antioxidant]] properties of grape seed [[oligomeric proanthocyanidins]]<ref>{{cite paper
| author = Bagchi D, Bagchi M, Stohs SJ, Das DK, Ray SD, Kuszynski CA, Joshi SS, Pruess HG.
| title = Free radicals and grape seed proanthocyanidin extract: importance in human health and disease prevention.
| date = 2000-08-07
| publisher = Toxicology. 2000 Aug 7;148(2-3):187-97.
| url = http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/sites/entrez?Db=pubmed&Cmd=ShowDetailView&TermToSearch=10962138&ordinalpos=6&itool=EntrezSystem2.PEntrez.Pubmed.Pubmed_ResultsPanel.Pubmed_RVDocSum
| accessdate = 2007-08-16
}}</ref>. Together with [[tannins]], [[polyphenols]] and [[polyunsaturated]] [[fatty acids]], these seed constituents display inhibitory activities against several experimental disease models, including [[cancer]], [[heart failure]] and other disorders of [[oxidative stress]].<ref>{{cite paper
| author = Agarwal C, Singh RP, Agarwal R.
| title = Grape seed extract induces apoptotic death of human prostate carcinoma DU145 cells via caspases activation accompanied by dissipation of mitochondrial membrane potential and cytochrome c release.
| date = 2002-11-23
| publisher = Carcinogenesis. 2002 Nov;23(11):1869-76.
| url = http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/sites/entrez?Db=pubmed&Cmd=ShowDetailView&TermToSearch=12419835&ordinalpos=5&itool=EntrezSystem2.PEntrez.Pubmed.Pubmed_ResultsPanel.Pubmed_RVDocSum
| accessdate = 2007-08-16
}}</ref><ref>{{cite paper
| author = Bagchi D, Sen CK, Ray SD, Das DK, Bagchi M, Preuss HG, Vinson JA.
| title = Molecular mechanisms of cardioprotection by a novel grape seed proanthocyanidin extract.
| date = 2003-02-01
| publisher = Mutat Res. 2003 Feb-Mar;523-524:87-97.
| url = http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/sites/entrez?Db=pubmed&Cmd=ShowDetailView&TermToSearch=12628506&ordinalpos=4&itool=EntrezSystem2.PEntrez.Pubmed.Pubmed_ResultsPanel.Pubmed_RVDocSum
| accessdate = 2007-08-16
}}</ref>
[[Grape seed oil]] from crushed seeds is used in [[cosmeceutical]]s and [[skincare]] products for many perceived health benefits. Grape seed oil is notable for its high contents of [[tocopherol]]s ([[vitamin E]]), [[phytosterol]]s, and polyunsaturated [[fatty acid]]s such as [[linoleic acid]], [[oleic acid]] and [[alpha-linolenic acid]].<ref>Beveridge TH, Girard B, Kopp T, Drover JC. Yield and composition of grape seed oils extracted by supercritical carbon dioxide and petroleum ether: varietal effects. J Agric Food Chem. 2005 Mar 9;53(5):1799-804. [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15740076]</ref><ref>Crews C, Hough P, Godward J, Brereton P, Lees M, Guiet S, Winkelmann W. Quantitation of the main constituents of some authentic grape-seed oils of different origin. J Agric Food Chem. 2006 Aug 23;54(17):6261-5. [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16910717]</ref><ref>Tangolar SG, Ozoğul Y, Tangolar S, Torun A. Evaluation of fatty acid profiles and mineral content of grape seed oil of some grape genotypes. Int J Food Sci Nutr. 2007 Sep 19;:1-8 [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17886077]</ref>
===Concord grape juice===
Commercial juice products from [[Concord grape]]s have been applied in medical research studies, showing potential benefits against the onset stage of [[cancer]]<ref>Jung KJ, Wallig MA, Singletary KW. Purple grape juice inhibits 7,12-dimethylbenz[a]anthracene (DMBA)-induced rat mammary tumorigenesis and in vivo DMBA-DNA adduct formation. Cancer Lett. 2006 Feb 28;233(2):279-88. [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15878797]</ref>, [[platelet]] aggregation and other risk factors of [[atherosclerosis]]<ref>Shanmuganayagam D, Warner TF, Krueger CG, Reed JD, Folts JD. Concord grape juice attenuates platelet aggregation, serum cholesterol and development of atheroma in hypercholesterolemic rabbits. Atherosclerosis. 2007 Jan;190(1):135-42. [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16780846]</ref>, loss of physical performance and mental acuity during aging<ref>Shukitt-Hale B, Carey A, Simon L, Mark DA, Joseph JA. Effects of Concord grape juice on cognitive and motor deficits in aging. Nutrition. 2006 Mar;22(3):295-302. [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16412610]</ref> and [[hypertension]] in humans<ref>Park YK, Kim JS, Kang MH. Concord grape juice supplementation reduces blood pressure in Korean hypertensive men: double-blind, placebo controlled intervention trial. Biofactors. 2004;22(1-4):145-7. [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15630270]</ref>. Interpretation of these results has implicated the exceptional content of Concord grape [[anthocyanin]]s -- as many as 31 different pigment chemicals in this one species<ref>Wu X, Prior RL. Systematic identification and characterization of anthocyanins by HPLC-ESI-MS/MS in common foods in the United States: fruits and berries. J Agric Food Chem. 2005 Apr 6;53(7):2589-99. [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15796599]</ref> -- for contributing to these and other potential benefits of having Concord grape products in the diet<ref>The Berry Doctor. Berry king - Concord grape. The Berry Doctor's Journal, February 26, 2008 [http://www.berrydoctor.com/broadcast/2008/berryking.htm]</ref>.
==See also==
*[[List of grape varieties]]
==Sources==
{{Refbegin}}
* [http://news.reseau-concept.net/images/oiv_uk/Client/Stat_2002_def2_EN.pdf Organisation Internationale de la Vigne et du Vin (pdf)]
* [https://www.awbc.com.au/winefacts/data/free.asp?subcatid=102 Australian Wine and Brandy Corporation].
{{Refend}}
;Footnotes
{{Reflist|2}}
==External links==
{{wiktionarypar|grape}}{{commonscat|Grapes}}
* [http://www.ars-grin.gov/cgi-bin/npgs/html/tax_search.pl?Vitis Taxonomic listings for Vitis genus, US Department of Agriculture, Germplasm Resources Information Network]
* [http://www.fcps.k12.va.us/StratfordLandingES/Ecology/mpages/wild_grape.htm Wild Grapes]
* [http://www.frenchscout.com/types-of-wines Major wine varieties]
* [http://www.safecrop.org/english/output/proceedings.html SAFECROP - Proceedings of the 5th International Workshop on Grapevine Downy and Powdery Mildew]
* [http://whfoods.com/genpage.php?tname=nutrientprofile&dbid=55 World's Healthiest Foods, in-depth nutrient profile for grapes]
*[http://winegrapes.wsu.edu/virology/ Information on virus diseases of wine grapes]
[[Category:Grape varieties| ]]
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[[yi:וויינטרויבן]]
[[zh:葡萄]]
[[tl:Ubas (prutas)]]
[[zh-yue:提子]]