Great Barrier Reef
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2008-07-16T07:53:13Z
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Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/121.220.7.140|121.220.7.140]] to last version by AlexiusHoratius (using [[WP:HG|Huggle]])
{{Infobox World Heritage Site
| WHS = Great Barrier Reef
| Image = [[Image:Map of Great Barrier Reef Demis.png|center|250px|The Great Barrier Reef lies off the coast of Queensland in northeast Australia]]
| State Party = {{AUS}}
| Type = Natural
| Criteria = vii, viii, ix, x
| ID = 154
| Region = [[List of World Heritage Sites in Asia and Australasia|Asia-Pacific]]
| Year = 1981
| Session = 5th
| Link = http://whc.unesco.org/en/list/154
}}
The '''Great Barrier Reef''' is the world's largest [[coral reef]] system,<ref name = UNEP>{{cite web|author=UNEP World Conservation Monitoring Centre |year=1980|title=Protected Areas and World Heritage - Great Barrier Reef World Heritage Area|url=http://sea.unep-wcmc.org/sites/wh/gbrmp.html|publisher=[[Department of the Environment and Heritage]]|accessdate=2006-06-10}}</ref><ref name = GBRWHV>{{cite web|author= |year=|title=Great Barrier Reef World Heritage Values|url=http://www.deh.gov.au/heritage/worldheritage/sites/gbr/values.html|accessdate=2006-11-10}}</ref> composed of over 2,900 individual reefs<ref>The [[Great Barrier Reef World Heritage Area]], which is 348 000 km squared, has 2900 reefs. However, this does not include the reefs found in the [[Torres Strait]], which is estimated at an area of 37 000 km squared and with a possible 750 reefs and shoals. (Hopley ''et al.'', 2007, p.1)</ref> and 900 islands stretching for 2,600 kilometres (1,600 mi) over an area of approximately {{convert|344400|km2|lk=on}}.<ref>{{cite web|author=Fodor's|title=Great Barrier Reef Travel Guide|url=http://www.fodors.com/miniguides/mgresults.cfm?destination=great_barrier@230&cur_section=ove|accessdate=2006-08-08}}</ref><ref name = 1975review>{{cite web|author=Department of the Environment and Heritage|title=Review of the Great Barrier Reef Marine Park Act 1975|url=http://www.deh.gov.au/coasts/publications/gbr-marine-park-act.html|accessdate=2006-11-02}}</ref> The reef is located in the [[Coral Sea]], off the coast of [[Queensland]] in northeast [[Australia]].
The Great Barrier Reef can be seen from [[outer space]] and is the world's biggest single structure made by living organisms.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.ga.gov.au/media/releases/2002/1013133456_20385.jsp |title=Great Barrier Reef: no buried treasure |author=Sarah Belfield |publisher=Geoscience Australia (Australian Government) |date=2002-02-08 |accessdate=2007-06-11}}</ref> This reef structure is composed of and built by billions of tiny organisms, known as [[coral]] [[polyp]]s.<ref name=billions>{{cite web |url=http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m1590/is_1_57/ai_65370824 |author=Sharon Guynup |date=2000-09-04 |publisher=[[Science World (magazine)|Science World]] |title=Australia's Great Barrier Reef |accessdate=2007-06-11}}</ref> The Great Barrier Reef supports a wide diversity of life, and was selected as a [[World Heritage Site]] in 1981.<ref name="UNEP"/><ref name="GBRWHV"/> [[CNN]] has labelled it one of the [[Seven Wonders of the World#Natural wonders|seven natural wonders of the world]].<ref>{{cite web|author=CNN|year=1997|title=The Seven Natural Wonders of the World|url=http://www.cnn.com/TRAVEL/DESTINATIONS/9711/natural.wonders/|accessdate=2006-08-06}}</ref> The Queensland National Trust has named it a state icon of Queensland.<ref>{{cite web|author=National Trust Queensland | title= Queensland Icons| url=http://www.nationaltrustqld.org/qldicons.htm| accessdate=2006-10-17}}</ref>
A large part of the reef is protected by the [[Great Barrier Reef Marine Park]], which helps to limit the impact of human use, such as overfishing and tourism. Other environmental pressures to the reef and its [[ecosystem]] include water quality from [[runoff]], climate change accompanied by mass [[coral bleaching]], and cyclic outbreaks of the [[crown-of-thorns starfish]].
==Physiography==
The Great Barrier Reef is a distinct physiographic province of the larger [[East Australian Cordillera]] division. It encompasses the smaller [[Murray Islands]] physiographic section.<ref>''Physiographic Diagram of Australia'', A.K. Lobeck, by The Geological Press, Columbia University, New York, 1951. ... "to accompany text description and geological sections which were prepared by Joseph Gentilli and R.W. Fairbridge of the [[University of Western Australia]]"</ref>
===Geology and geography===
[[Image:GreatBarrierReef-EO.JPG|thumb|right|Satellite image of part of the Great Barrier Reef adjacent to the Queensland coastal areas of [[Proserpine, Queensland|Proserpine]] and [[Mackay, Queensland|Mackay]]]]
[[Image:GBRplane.JPG|200px|thumb|right|The Great Barrier Reef is clearly visible from jet planes flying over it]]
Australia has [[continental drift|moved northwards]] at a rate of {{convert|7|cm|in|abbr=on}} per year, starting during the [[Cainozoic]].<ref name="Geomorphology pp.18"/> Eastern Australia experienced a period of [[tectonic uplift]], leading to the [[drainage divide]] in Queensland moving {{convert|400|km|mi|abbr=on}} inland. Also during this time, Queensland experienced volcanic eruptions leading to central and shield [[volcano]]es and basalt flows.<ref name="Geomorphology pp.19">{{cite book
| last = Hopley
| first = David
| coauthors = Smithers, Scott G.; Parnell, Kevin E.
| title = The geomorphology of the Great Barrier Reef : development, diversity, and change
| year = 2007
| publisher = Cambridge : Cambridge University Press
| isbn = 0521853028
| page = pp.19
}}</ref> Some of these granitic outcrops have become [[high island]]s.<ref name="Geomorphology pp.26">{{cite book
| last = Hopley
| first = David
| coauthors = Smithers, Scott G.; Parnell, Kevin E.
| title = The geomorphology of the Great Barrier Reef : development, diversity, and change
| year = 2007
| publisher = Cambridge : Cambridge University Press
| isbn = 0521853028
| page = pp.26
}}</ref> After the [[Coral Sea]] [[Basin (geology)|Basin]] was formed, coral reefs began to grow in the Basin, but until about 25 million years ago, northern Queensland was still in temperate waters south of the tropics - too cool to support coral growth.<ref name="Geomorphology pp.27">{{cite book
| last = Hopley
| first = David
| coauthors = Smithers, Scott G.; Parnell, Kevin E.
| title = The geomorphology of the Great Barrier Reef : development, diversity, and change
| year = 2007
| publisher = Cambridge : Cambridge University Press
| isbn = 0521853028
| page = pp.27
}}</ref> The history of the development of the Great Barrier Reef is complex; after Queensland drifted into tropical waters, the history is largely influenced by how reefs fluctuate (grow and recede) as the [[sea level]] changes.<ref name="Geomorphology pp.27-28">{{cite book
| last = Hopley
| first = David
| coauthors = Smithers, Scott G.; Parnell, Kevin E.
| title = The geomorphology of the Great Barrier Reef : development, diversity, and change
| year = 2007
| publisher = Cambridge : Cambridge University Press
| isbn = 0521853028
| page = pp.27-28
}}</ref> They can increase in diameter from {{convert|1|to|3|cm|in}} per year, and grow vertically anywhere from 1 to 25 centimetres (0.4–12 [[Inch|in]]) per year; however, they are limited to growing above a depth of {{convert|150|m|ft|lk=on}} due to their need for sunlight, and cannot grow above sea level.<ref>{{cite web|author=MSN Encarta|year=2006 |title=Great Barrier Reef| url=http://encarta.msn.com/encyclopedia_761575831/Great_Barrier_Reef.html|accessdate=2006-12-11}}</ref> The land that formed the [[wiktionary:substrate|substrate]] of the current Great Barrier Reef was a [[coastal plain]] formed from the eroded sediments of the [[Great Dividing Range]] with some larger hills (some of which were themselves remnants of older reefs<ref name ="AIMSage">{{cite web | last = Tobin | first = Barry | title = How the Great Barrier Reef was formed | publisher = Australian Institute of Marine Science | date= 1998, revised 2003 | url = http://www.aims.gov.au/pages/research/project-net/reefs/apnet-reefs00.html | accessdate = 2006-11-22 }}</ref> or volcanoes<ref name="Geomorphology pp.26"/>).<ref name="Geomorphology pp.18"/> When Queensland moved into tropical waters 24 million years ago, some coral grew,<ref name="Geomorphology pp.29">{{cite book
| last = Hopley
| first = David
| coauthors = Smithers, Scott G.; Parnell, Kevin E.
| title = The geomorphology of the Great Barrier Reef : development, diversity, and change
| year = 2007
| publisher = Cambridge : Cambridge University Press
| isbn = 0521853028
| page = pp.29
}}</ref> but a [[sedimentation]] [[regime]] quickly developed with erosion of the [[Great Dividing Range]]; creating [[river delta]]s, [[Pelagic sediments|oozes]] and [[turbidite]]s, which would have been unsuitable conditions for coral growth. 10 million years ago, the sea level significantly lowered, which further enabled the sedimentation. The substrate of the GBR may have needed to build up from the sediment until the edge of the substrate was too far away for suspended sediments to have an inhibiting effect on coral growth. In addition, approximately 400,000 years ago there was a particularly warm interglacial period with higher sea levels and a 4 degree Celsius change in water temperature.<ref name="Geomorphology pp.37">{{cite book
| last = Hopley
| first = David
| coauthors = Smithers, Scott G.; Parnell, Kevin E.
| title = The geomorphology of the Great Barrier Reef : development, diversity, and change
| year = 2007
| publisher = Cambridge : Cambridge University Press
| isbn = 0521853028
| page = pp.37
}}</ref>
The Reef Research Centre, a [[Cooperative Research Centre]], has found coral 'skeleton' [[Deposit (geology)|deposits]] that date back half a million years.<ref name = "CRCage">{{cite web|author=CRC Reef Research Centre Ltd|title=What is the Great Barrier Reef?|url=http://www.reef.crc.org.au/discover/coralreefs/coralgbr.html|accessdate=2006-05-28}}</ref> The GBRMPA considers the earliest evidence to suggest complete reef structures to have been 600,000 years ago.<ref name = "GBRMPAage">{{cite web|author=Great Barrier Reef Marine Park Authority|year=2006|title=A "big picture" view of the Great Barrier Reef|url=http://www.gbrmpa.gov.au/__data/assets/pdf_file/0017/12437/Reef-Facts-01.pdf |work=Reef Facts for Tour Guides|format=PDF|accessdate=2007-06-18}}</ref>
According to the [[Great Barrier Reef Marine Park Authority]], the current, living reef structure is believed to have begun growing on the older platform about 20,000 years ago.<ref name = "GBRMPAage"/> The [[Australian Institute of Marine Science]] agrees, which places the beginning of the growth of the current reef at the time of the [[Last Glacial Maximum]]. At around that time, the sea level was {{convert|120|m|ft}} lower than it is today.
[[Image:Heron Island, Australia - View of Island from helicopter.JPG|right|thumb|[[Heron Island, Australia|Heron Island]], a coral cay in the southern Great Barrier Reef]]
From 20,000 years ago until 6,000 years ago, the [[Sea level rise|sea level rose]] steadily. As it rose, the corals could then grow higher on the hills of the coastal plain. By around 13,000 years ago the sea level was {{convert|60|m|ft}} lower than the present day, and corals began to grow around the hills of the coastal plain, which were, by then, [[Island#Continental islands|continental islands]]. As the sea level rose further still, most of the continental islands were submerged. The corals could then overgrow the hills, to form the present [[cay]]s and reefs. Sea level on the Great Barrier Reef has not risen significantly in the last 6,000 years.<ref name="AIMSage"/>The CRC Reef Research Centre estimates the age of the present, living reef structure at 6,000 to 8,000 years old.<ref name="CRCage"/>
The remains of an ancient barrier reef similar to the Great Barrier Reef can be found in [[The Kimberley]], a northern region of [[Western Australia]].<ref>{{cite web|author=Western Australia's Department of Environment and Conservation|year=2007|title=The Devonian 'Great Barrier Reef'|url=http://www.naturebase.net/content/view/668/96/|accessdate=2007-03-12}}</ref>
The [[Great Barrier Reef World Heritage Area]] has been divided into 70 [[bioregion]]s,<ref>{{cite web|author=Great Barrier Reef Marine Park Authority|title=Representative Areas in the Marine Park|url=http://www.gbrmpa.gov.au/corp_site/key_issues/conservation/rep_areas|accessdate=2007-03-23}}</ref> of which 30 are reef bioregions,<ref>{{cite web|author=Great Barrier Marine Park Authority|title=Protecting the Bioregions of the Great Barrier Reef|url=http://www.gbrmpa.gov.au/__data/assets/pdf_file/0003/7329/reef.pdf}}</ref> and 40 are non-reef bioregions.<ref>{{cite web |author=Great Barrier Reef Marine Park Authority |url=http://www.gbrmpa.gov.au/corp_site/key_issues/conservation/rep_areas/consultation/bio-region_information_sheets_test|title=Bio-region Information Sheets|accessdate=2007-03-23}}</ref> In the northern part of the Great Barrier Reef, [[ribbon reef]]s and [[deltaic reef]]s have formed; these structures are not found in the rest of the Great Barrier Reef system.<ref name = "CRCage"/> There are no [[atoll]]s in the system,<ref name ="Geomorphology pp.7">{{cite book
| last = Hopley
| first = David
| coauthors = Smithers, Scott G.; Parnell, Kevin E.
| title = The geomorphology of the Great Barrier Reef : development, diversity, and change
| year = 2007
| publisher = Cambridge : Cambridge University Press
| isbn = 0521853028
| page = pp.7
}}</ref> and reefs attached to the mainland are rare.<ref name="Geomorphology pp.18">{{cite book
| last = Hopley
| first = David
| coauthors = Smithers, Scott G.; Parnell, Kevin E.
| title = The geomorphology of the Great Barrier Reef : development, diversity, and change
| year = 2007
| publisher = Cambridge : Cambridge University Press
| isbn = 0521853028
| page = pp.18
}}</ref>
[[Fringing reef]]s are distributed widely, but are most common towards the southern part of the Great Barrier Reef, attached to high islands, for example, the [[Whitsunday Islands]]. [[Lagoonal reef]]s are also found in the southern Great Barrier Reef, but there are some of these found further north, off the coast of [[Princess Charlotte Bay]]. [[Cresentic reef]]s are the most common shape of reef in the middle of the Great Barrier Reef system, for example the reefs surrounding [[Lizard Island]]. Cresentic reefs are also found in the far north of the Great Barrier Reef Marine Park, and in the Swain Reefs (20-22 degrees South). [[Planar reef]]s are found in the northern and southern parts of the Great Barrier Reef, near Cape York, Princess Charlotte Bay, and Cairns. Most of the islands on the reef are found on planar reefs.<ref name="Geomorphology pp.158-160">{{cite book
| last = Hopley
| first = David
| coauthors = Smithers, Scott G.; Parnell, Kevin E.
| title = The geomorphology of the Great Barrier Reef : development, diversity, and change
| year = 2007
| publisher = Cambridge : Cambridge University Press
| isbn = 0521853028
| page = pp.158-160
}}</ref>
===Ecology===
[[Image:Turtle06.jpg|right|thumb|[[Green sea turtle]] on the Great Barrier Reef]]
The Great Barrier Reef supports a diversity of life, including many [[Vulnerable species|vulnerable]] or [[Endangered species|endangered]] [[species]], some of which may be [[Endemism|endemic]] to the reef system.<ref>{{cite web|author=CSIRO|year=2006|title=Snapshot of life deep in the Great Barrier Reef|url=http://www.csiro.au/news/ps19x.html|accessdate=2007-03-13}}</ref><ref name="GBRMPA Fauna and Flora">{{cite web|author=Great Barrier Reef Marine Park Authority|year=2000|title=Fauna and Flora of the Great Barrier Reef World Heritage Area|url=http://www.gbrmpa.gov.au/corp_site/info_services/publications/misc_pub/fauna_flora|accessdate=2006-11-24}}</ref>
Thirty species of whales, dolphins, and porpoises have been recorded in the Great Barrier Reef, including the [[Minke Whale|dwarf minke whale]], [[Humpback dolphin|Indo-Pacific humpback dolphin]], and the [[humpback whale]]. Large populations of [[dugong]]s live there.<ref name ="CRC species">{{cite web|author=CRC Reef Research Centre Ltd|title=REEF FACTS: Plants and Animals on the Great Barrier Reef|url=http://www.reef.crc.org.au/discover/plantsanimals/facts_plantanimal.htm|accessdate=2006-07-14}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |author=Great Barrier Reef Marine Park Authority |url=http://www.gbrmpa.gov.au/corp_site/info_services/publications/sotr/latest_updates/marine_mammals |year=2004 |title=Environmental Status: Marine Mammals |work=The State of the Great Barrier Reef Report - latest updates |accessdate=2007-03-13}}</ref><ref name="GBRMPA Fauna and Flora"/>
Six species of [[sea turtle]]s come to the reef to breed – the [[green sea turtle]], [[leatherback sea turtle]], [[hawksbill turtle]], [[loggerhead sea turtle]], [[flatback turtle]], and the [[Olive Ridley|olive ridley]]. The green sea turtles on the Great Barrier Reef have two [[Population genetics|genetically distinct populations]], one in the northern part of the reef and the other in the southern part.<ref name="rap turtle dugong">{{cite book |last= Dobbs |first= Kirstin |title= Marine turtle and dugong habitats in the Great Barrier Reef Marine Park used to implement biophysical operational principles for the Representative Areas Program |publisher= Great Barrier Marine Park Authority |year= 2007 |url=http://www.gbrmpa.gov.au/__data/assets/pdf_file/0007/18799/rap_turtle_and_dugong_bop.pdf }}</ref> Fifteen species of seagrass in beds attract the dugongs and turtles,<ref name ="CRC species"/> and provide a habitat for fish.<ref name ="Geomorphology pp.133">{{cite book
| last = Hopley
| first = David
| coauthors = Smithers, Scott G.; Parnell, Kevin E.
| title = The geomorphology of the Great Barrier Reef : development, diversity, and change
| year = 2007
| publisher = Cambridge : Cambridge University Press
| isbn = 0521853028
| page = pp.133
}}</ref> The most common [[genus|genera]] of seagrasses are ''Halophila'' and ''Halodule''.<ref>{{cite web|author=Great Barrier Reef Marine Park Authority |url=http://www.gbrmpa.gov.au/corp_site/info_services/publications/sotr/latest_updates/seagrasses |year=2005 |title=Environmental Status: Seagrasses |work=The State of the Great Barrier Reef Report - latest updates |accessdate=2007-05-23}}</ref>
[[Salt water crocodile]]s live in mangrove and saltmarshes on the coast near the reef.<ref>{{cite web|author=Great Barrier Reef Marine Park Authority |year=2005 |url=http://www.gbrmpa.gov.au/corp_site/info_services/publications/sotr/latest_updates/marine_reptiles|title=Environmental Status: Marine Reptiles}}</ref> Nesting has not been reported, and the salt water crocodile population in the GBRWHA is wide-ranging and with a low [[population density]].<ref name="Flora and Fauna 2"/> Around 125 species of shark, stingray, skates or chimera live on the reef.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.gbrmpa.gov.au/corp_site/info_services/publications/sotr/latest_updates/sharks_rays|title=Environmental Status: Sharks and rays|work=The State of the Great Barrier Reef Report - latest updates|accessdate=2007-05-23}}</ref><ref name="Flora and Fauna 4">{{cite web|url=http://www.gbrmpa.gov.au/corp_site/info_services/publications/misc_pub/fauna_flora/appendix_04.html|title=Appendix 4- Other species of conservation concern |year=2000|work=Fauna and Flora of the Great Barrier Reef World Heritage Area|accessdate=2007-09-13}}</ref> Close to 5,000 species of [[mollusc]]<!--The spelling "mollusc" is Australian English.--> have been recorded on the reef, including the [[giant clam]] and various [[nudibranch]]s and [[cone snail]]s.<ref name ="CRC species"/> Forty-nine species of [[pipefish]] and nine species of [[seahorse]] have been recorded.<ref name="Flora and Fauna 2"/> At least seven species of frog can be found on the islands.<ref name="Flora and Fauna 5">{{cite web|url=http://www.gbrmpa.gov.au/corp_site/info_services/publications/misc_pub/fauna_flora/appendix_05.html|title=Appendix 5- Island Flora and Fauna |year=2000|work=Fauna and Flora of the Great Barrier Reef World Heritage Area|accessdate=2007-09-13}}</ref>
215 species of birds (including 22 species of seabirds and 32 species of shorebirds) are attracted to the reef or nest or roost on the islands,<ref name ="Geomorphology pp.450-451">{{cite book
| last = Hopley
| first = David
| coauthors = Smithers, Scott G.; Parnell, Kevin E.
| title = The geomorphology of the Great Barrier Reef : development, diversity, and change
| year = 2007
| publisher = Cambridge : Cambridge University Press
| isbn = 0521853028
| page = pp.450-451
}}</ref> including the [[white-bellied sea eagle]] and [[roseate tern]].<ref name ="CRC species"/> Most nesting sites are on islands in the northern and southern regions of the Great Barrier Reef, with 1.4-1.7 million birds using the sites to breed.<ref>{{cite web|author=Great Barrier Reef Marine Park Authority |url=http://www.gbrmpa.gov.au/corp_site/info_services/publications/sotr/latest_updates/seabirds/|title=Environmental status: birds |work=The State of the Great Barrier Reef Report - latest updates|accessdate=2007-05-23}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.gbrmpa.gov.au/corp_site/info_services/publications/sotr/latest_updates/seabirds/condition|title=Environmental status: birds Condition |work=The State of the Great Barrier Reef Report - latest updates|accessdate=2007-05-23}}</ref> The islands of the Great Barrier Reef also support 2,195 known plant species; three of these are endemic. The northern islands have 300-350 plant species which tend to be woody, whereas the southern islands have 200 which tend to be herbaceous; the Whitsunday region is the most diverse, supporting 1,141 species. The plant species are spread by birds.<ref name="Flora and Fauna 5"/>
Seventeen species of [[sea snake]] live on the Great Barrier Reef. They take three or four years to reach sexual maturity and are long-lived but with low fertility. They are usually [[benthic]], but the species that live on the soft sediment differ from those that live on the reefs themselves. They live in warm waters up to {{m to ft|50|spell=UK|precision=0|}} deep and are more common in the southern than in the northern part of the reef. None of the sea snakes found in the Great Barrier Reef World Heritage Area are endemic to the reef, nor are any of them endangered.<ref name="Flora and Fauna 2">{{cite web|url=http://www.gbrmpa.gov.au/corp_site/info_services/publications/misc_pub/fauna_flora/appendix_02.html|year=2000|title=Appendix 2 - Listed Marine Species |work=Fauna and Flora of the Great Barrier Reef World Heritage Area|accessdate=2007-05-23}}</ref>
More than 1,500 species of fish live on the reef, including the [[clownfish]], [http://www.amonline.net.au/fishes/fishfacts/fish/lbohar.htm red bass], [http://www.sea-ex.com/fishphotos/emperor,.htm red-throat emperor], and several species of [[snapper]] and [[coral trout]].<ref name ="CRC species"/> Forty-nine species are known to mass spawn, with eighty-four other species found on the reef spawning elsewhere in their range.<ref>{{cite web|author=Great Barrier Reef Marine Park Authority|url=http://www.gbrmpa.gov.au/corp_site/key_issues/fisheries/spawning_sites|title=Fish Spawning Aggregation Sites On The Great Barrier Reef}}</ref>
There are at least 330 species of [[ascidian]]s found on the reef system, ranging in size from 1 mm-10 cm in diameter. Between 300-500 species of [[bryozoan]]s are found on the reef system.<ref name="Flora and Fauna 4"/>
Four hundred species of corals, both [[hard coral]]s and [[soft coral]]s are found on the reef.<ref name ="CRC species"/> The majority of these spawn gametes, breeding in [[mass spawning]] events that are controlled by the rising sea temperatures of spring and summer, the lunar cycle, and the diurnal cycle. Reefs in the inner Great Barrier Reef spawn during the week after the full moon in October, but the outer reefs spawn in November and December.<ref>{{cite web |author=Great Barrier Reef Marine Park Authority |date=2006 |url=http://www.gbrmpa.gov.au/__data/assets/pdf_file/0005/8879/Fact_Sheet_20_Coral_Spawning.pdf|title=Information Fact Sheets #20 Coral Spawning|format=PDF|accessdate=2007-05-27}}</ref> The common soft corals on the Great Barrier Reef belong to 36 genera.<ref>{{cite web |author=Australian Institute of Marine Science |date=2002 |url=http://www.aims.gov.au/pages/research/soft-corals/soft-corals00.html|title=Soft coral atlas of the Great Barrier Reef|accessdate=2007-05-27}}</ref> Five hundred species of [[marine algae]] or [[seaweed]] live on the reef,<ref name ="CRC species"/> including thirteen species of the genus ''[[Halimeda]]'', which deposit calcareous mounds up to {{convert|100|m|yd|}} wide, creating mini-ecosystems on their surface which have been compared to rainforest cover.<ref name ="Geomorphology pp.185">{{cite book
| last = Hopley
| first = David
| coauthors = Smithers, Scott G.; Parnell, Kevin E.
| title = The geomorphology of the Great Barrier Reef : development, diversity, and change
| year = 2007
| publisher = Cambridge : Cambridge University Press
| isbn = 0521853028
| page = pp.185
}}</ref>
==Environmental threats==
{{main|Environmental threats to the Great Barrier Reef}}
[[Image:Coral-reef-bioerosion.jpg|thumbnail|right|''[[Bioerosion]]'' (coral damage) such as this may be caused by [[coral bleaching]].<ref>{{cite web| url=http://www.biology.iastate.edu/intop/1Australia/Australia%20papers/Bioerosion.htm|title=Bioerosion: an essential, and often overlooked, aspect of reef ecology | date = [[17 April]] [[2003]] | accessdate = 2006-11-02 | author = Ryan Holl| publisher = [[Iowa State University]]}}</ref>]]
The most significant threat to the Great Barrier Reef is [[climate change]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.150.theage.com.au/view_bestofarticle.asp?straction=update&inttype=1&intid=1850|title=Global climate change, the Great Barrier Reef and our obligations|publisher=The National Forum|accessdate=2007-09-26|date=[[November 19]], [[2004]]|author=Rothwell, Don; Stephens, Tim}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.gbrmpa.gov.au/corp_site/info_services/publications/misc_pub/climate_change_vulnerability_assessment/our_changing_climate|title=Our changing climate|accessdate=2007-09-26|author=Great Barrier Reef Marine Park Authority}}</ref> Mass [[coral bleaching]] events due to rising ocean temperatures occurred in of the summers of 1998, 2002 and 2006,<ref>{{cite web|author=Great Barrier Reef Marine Park Authority|title=Coral Bleaching and Mass Bleaching Events|url=http://www.gbrmpa.gov.au/corp_site/info_services/science/climate_change/coral_bleaching.html|accessdate=2006-05-30}}</ref> and coral bleaching will likely become an annual occurrence.<ref name="tele">The [[The Daily Telegraph (Australia)|The Daily Telegraph]] - January 30, 2007 - [http://www.news.com.au/story/0,10117,21141105-1702,00.html?from=public_rss Online version]</ref> Climate change has implications for other forms of life on the Great Barrier Reef as well - some fish's preferred temperature range lead them to seek new areas to live, thus causing chick mortality in seabirds that prey on the fish. Climate change will also affect the population and available habitat of sea turtles.<ref name="GBRMPAclimatechange">{{cite web |author=Great Barrier Reef Marine Park Authority |url=http://www.gbrmpa.gov.au/corp_site/info_services/science/climate_change|title=Climate change and the Great Barrier Reef|accessdate=2007-03-16}}</ref>
[[Image:Sea Temperature and Bleaching of the Great Barrier Reef.jpg|thumb|left|Sea temperature and bleaching of the Great Barrier Reef]]
Another key threat faced by the Great Barrier Reef is pollution and declining water quality. The rivers of north eastern Australia provide significant pollution of the Reef during tropical flood events with over 90% of this pollution being sourced from farms.<ref>{{cite web|date=2003|url=http://www.epa.qld.gov.au/register/p01258bs.pdf|title=Coastal water quality |work=The State of the Environment Report Queensland 2003 |publisher=Environment Protection Agency Queensland|format=PDF|accessdate=2007-06-07}}</ref> Farm run-off is polluted as a result of overgrazing and excessive [[fertiliser]] and pesticide use. Due to the range of human uses made of the water catchment area adjacent to the Great Barrier Reef, [[Water pollution|water quality]] has declined owing to the sediment and chemical [[Surface runoff|runoff]] from farming, and to loss of coastal [[wetland]]s which are a natural filter.<ref name= wetlands>{{cite web|author=Great Barrier Reef Marine Park Authority|year=|title=Wetlands|url=http://www.gbrmpa.gov.au/corp_site/key_issues/water_quality/wetlands|accessdate=2007-03-13}}</ref><ref name= "Brodie07">{{cite web |date=2007 |author=Brodie, J.|url=http://www.actfr.jcu.edu.au/Publications/ACTFRreports/06-07_NMZ%20technical%20final%20March%202007%20main.pdf|title=Nutrient management zones in the Great Barrier Reef Catchment: A decision system for zone selection|publisher=Australian Centre for Tropical Freshwater Research|format=PDF|accessdate=2007-06-07}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|author=Australian Government Productivity Commission|year=2003|title=Industries, Land Use and Water Quality in the Great Barrier Reef Catchment - Key Points|url=http://www.pc.gov.au/study/gbr/finalreport/keypoints.html|accessdate=2006-05-29}}</ref> It is thought that the mechanism behind poor water quality affecting the reefs is due to increased light and oxygen [[Competition (biology)|competition]] from [[algae]].<ref name= waterquality>{{cite web|author=Great Barrier Reef Marine Park Authority|year=2006|title=Principal water quality influences on Great Barrier Reef ecosystems|url=http://www.gbrmpa.gov.au/corp_site/key_issues/water_quality/principal_influences.html|accessdate=2006-10-22}}</ref>
[[Image:CrownofThornsStarfish Fiji 2005-10-12.jpg|thumb|140px|right|Crown-of-thorns starfish]]
The [[crown-of-thorns starfish]] is a coral reef predator which preys on coral polyps. Large outbreaks of these starfish can devastate reefs. In 2000, an outbreak contributed to a loss of 66% of live coral cover on sampled reefs in a study by the CRC Reefs Research Centre.<ref name="cots 1999-2000">{{cite web|url=http://www.reef.crc.org.au/publications/techreport/techrept32.htm|title=CRC REEF RESEARCH CENTRE TECHNICAL REPORT No. 32 — Crown-of-thorns starfish(Acanthaster planci) in the central Great Barrier Reef region. Results of fine-scale surveys conducted in 1999-2000.|accessdate=2007-06-07}}</ref> Outbreaks are believed to occur in natural cycles, [[wikt:exacerbate|exacerbated]] by poor water quality and overfishing of the starfish's predators.<ref name="cots 1999-2000"/><ref>{{cite web|author=CRC Reef Research Centre|title=Crown-of-thorns starfish on the Great Barrier Reef| url=http://www.reef.crc.org.au/publications/brochures/COTS_web_Nov2003.pdf| accessdate=2006-08-28}} (PDF)</ref>
The unsustainable [[overfishing]] of [[keystone species]], such as the [[Triton (mollusk)|Giant Triton]], can cause disruption to [[food chain]]s vital to life on the reef. Fishing also impacts the reef through increased pollution from boats, [[by-catch]] of unwanted species (such as dolphins and turtles) and reef [[habitat destruction]] from [[trawling]], [[anchors]] and nets.<ref>{{cite web|author=CSIRO Marine Research|year=1998|title=Environmental Effects of Prawn Trawling|url=http://www.marine.csiro.au/LeafletsFolder/26trawl/26.html|accessdate=2006-05-28}}</ref> As of the middle of 2004, approximately one-third of the [[Great Barrier Reef Marine Park]] is protected from species removal of any kind, including fishing, without written permission.<ref>{{cite web|author=Great Barrier Reef Marine Park Authority|title=Marine Park Zoning|url=http://www.gbrmpa.gov.au/corp_site/management/zoning/index.html|accessdate=2006-08-08}}</ref>
Other threats to the Great Barrier Reef include shipping accidents, oil spills, and tropical cyclones.
==Human use==
The Great Barrier Reef has long been known to and utilised by the [[Aboriginal Australian]] and [[Torres Strait Islander]] peoples. Aboriginal Australians have been living in the area from at least 40,000 years ago,<ref>{{cite web|author=Great Barrier Reef Marine Park Authority|date=2006 date|title=Fact Sheet No. 4 - Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander People and the Great Barrier Reef Region|url=http://www.gbrmpa.gov.au/__data/assets/pdf_file/0009/2142/Fact_Sheet_04_IPLU.pdf|accessdate=2006-05-28}}</ref> and Torres Strait Islanders since about 10,000 years ago.<ref>{{cite web|author=Great Barrier Reef Marine Park Authority|date=|title=reefED - GBR Traditional Owners|url=http://www.reefed.edu.au/explorer/traditional_owners/index.html|accessdate=2006-05-28}}</ref> For these 70 or so clan groups, the reef is also an important part of their culture and spirituality.<ref name= traditionalfishing>{{cite web|author=Great Barrier Reef Marine Park Authority|url=http://www.gbrmpa.gov.au/corp_site/key_issues/conservation/natural_values/indigenous|title=Aboriginal & Torres Strait Islander Culture & Dugongs and Turtles|accessdate=2007-05-23}}</ref>
The reef first became known to [[European ethnic groups|Europeans]] when the [[HM Bark Endeavour|HM Bark ''Endeavour'']], captained by explorer [[James Cook]], ran [[wiktionary:aground|aground]] there on [[June 11]] [[1770]], sustaining considerable damage. It was finally saved after lightening the ship as much as possible and re-floating it during an incoming tide.<ref name="cook">{{gutenberg|no=8106|name=Captain Cook's Journal During the First Voyage Round the World}}</ref> One of the most famous wrecks was that of the [[HMS Pandora (1779)|HMS ''Pandora'']], which sank on [[August 29]], [[1791]], killing 35. The [[Queensland Museum]] has been leading archaeological digs to the ''Pandora'' since 1983.<ref>{{cite web| author=Queensland Museum| year=| title=HMS Pandora| url=http://www.qm.qld.gov.au/features/pandora/pandora.asp| accessdate=2006-10-12}}</ref> However, as there were no atolls on the reef system, it was largely unstudied in the 19th century.<ref name ="Geomorphology pp.7"/> During this time, some of the islands on the Great Barrier Reef were mined for deposits of [[guano]], and lighthouses were built as beacons through the system,<ref name ="Geomorphology pp.452">{{cite book
| last = Hopley
| first = David
| coauthors = Smithers, Scott G.; Parnell, Kevin E.
| title = The geomorphology of the Great Barrier Reef : development, diversity, and change
| year = 2007
| publisher = Cambridge : Cambridge University Press
| isbn = 0521853028
| page = pp.452
}}</ref> as in [[Raine Island]], the earliest example.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.epa.qld.gov.au/environmental_management/coast_and_oceans/great_barrier_reef/raine_island_corporation/|title=Raine Island Corporation|accessdate=2007-11-20}}</ref> The [[Great Barrier Reef Committee]] was set up in 1922 which carried out much of the early research on the reef.<ref name ="Geomorphology pp.9">{{cite book
| last = Hopley
| first = David
| coauthors = Smithers, Scott G.; Parnell, Kevin E.
| title = The geomorphology of the Great Barrier Reef : development, diversity, and change
| year = 2007
| publisher = Cambridge : Cambridge University Press
| isbn = 0521853028
| page = pp.9
}}</ref>
[[Image:Blue Linckia Starfish.JPG|left|thumb|Starfish on coral - typically, tourists photograph the natural beauty of the reef.]]
===Management===
{{main|Great Barrier Reef Marine Park}}
After the Royal Commissions' findings, in 1975 the [[Government of Australia]] created the Great Barrier Reef [[Marine Park]] and defined what activities were prohibited on the Great Barrier Reef.<ref>{{cite web| author=Commonwealth of Australia| year=1975| title=Great Barrier Reef Marine Park Act 1975| url=http://www.austlii.edu.au/au/legis/cth/consol_act/gbrmpa1975257/index.html| accessdate=2006-08-30}}</ref> The park is managed, in partnership with the [[Government of Queensland]], through the Great Barrier Reef Marine Park Authority to ensure that it is widely understood and used in a sustainable manner. A combination of zoning, management plans, permits, education and incentives (such as [[eco-tourism]] certification) are used in the effort to conserve the Great Barrier Reef.
In July 2004, a new zoning plan was brought into effect for the entire Marine Park, and has been widely acclaimed as a new global benchmark for the conservation of [[marine ecosystem]]s.<ref>{{cite web|author=Great Barrier Reef Marine Park Authority|year=2003|title=Zoning Plan 2003|url=http://www.gbrmpa.gov.au/__data/assets/pdf_file/10591/Zoning_Plan.pdf|accessdate=2006-10-02}} (PDF)</ref> The rezoning was based on the application of systematic conservation planning techniques, using the [[marxan|MARXAN]] software.<ref>Fernandes et al. (2005) ''Establishing representative no-take areas in the Great Barrier Reef: large-scale implementation of theory on marine protected areas'', Conservation Biology, 19(6), 1733-1744.</ref> While protection across the Marine Park was improved, the highly protected zones increased from 4.5% to over 33.3%.<ref>{{cite web|author=World Wildlife Fund Australia|year=|title=Great Barrier Reef - WWF-Australia|url=http://www.wwf.org.au/ourwork/oceans/gbr/|accessdate=2006-11-10}}</ref> At the time, it was the largest [[Marine Protected Area|marine protected area]] in the world, although as of 2006, the [[Northwestern Hawaiian Islands National Monument]] is the largest.<ref name=BBC_5083974>[http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/americas/5083974.stm Bush to protect Hawaiian islands], [[BBC News]], [[15 June]] [[2006]]</ref>
In 2006, a review was undertaken of the ''Great Barrier Reef Marine Park Act 1975''. Some recommendations of the review are that there should be no further zoning plan changes until 2013, and that every five years, a [[Peer review|peer-reviewed]] Outlook Report should be published, examining the health of the Great Barrier Reef, the management of the reef, and environmental pressures.<ref name="1975review"/><ref>{{cite web
| title = Great Barrier Reef Outlook Report
| publisher = Great Barrier Reef Marine Park Authority
| date= 2007
| url =http://www.gbrmpa.gov.au/corp_site/about_us/great_barrier_reef_outlook_report
| accessdate = 2007-08-31 }}</ref>
[[Image:Giant clam with diver.jpg|Giant Clam on the Great Barrier Reef|right|thumb|A scuba diver looking at a giant clam on the Great Barrier Reef]]
===Tourism===
Due to its vast [[biodiversity]], warm clear waters and its accessibility from the floating guest facilities called '[[live aboard]]s', the reef is a very popular destination for tourists, especially [[scuba diving|scuba divers]]. Many cities along the Queensland coast offer daily boat trips to the reef. Several continental and coral cay islands have been turned into [[resort]]s, including the pristine resort island of [[Lady Elliot Island]].
As the largest commercial activity in the region, it was estimated in 2003 that tourism in the Great Barrier Reef generates over [[Australian dollar|AU$]]4 billion annually.<ref>{{cite web|author=Great Barrier Reef Marine Park Authority|year=2003|title=Summary report of the social and economic impacts of the rezoning of the Great Barrier Reef Marine Park.|url=http://www.reefed.edu.au/rap/pdf/JUG_SR_09-12-03.pdf|accessdate=2006-10-19}} (PDF)</ref> (A 2005 estimate puts the figure at [[AU$]]5.1 billion.<ref name = 2005Brochure>{{cite web|author=Great Barrier Reef Marine Park Authority|year=2005|title=Protecting Biodiversity Brochure 2005|url=http://www.gbrmpa.gov.au/corp_site/info_services/publications/brochures/index.html|accessdate=2006-11-11}}</ref>) Approximately two million people visit the Great Barrier Reef each year.<ref>{{cite web|author=Great Barrier Reef Marine Park Authority|year= |title=Number of Tourists Visiting The Great Barrier Reef Marine Park| url=http://www.gbrmpa.gov.au/corp_site/key_issues/tourism/gbr_visitation/numbers|accessdate=2006-10-12}} </ref> Although most of these visits are managed in partnership with the marine [[Tourism|tourism industry]], there are some very popular areas near shore (such as [[Green Island National Park|Green Island]]) that have suffered damage due to overfishing and land based run off.
A variety of boat tours and cruises are offered, from single day trips, to longer voyages. Boat sizes range from [[dinghies]] to [[superyacht]]s.<ref>{{cite web|author=Great Barrier Reef Marine Park Authority|year=2005|title=What You Do|work= Onboard - The Tourism Operator's Handbook for the Great Barrier Reef|url=http://www.tourismoperators.reefhq.com.au/yourproduct/index.html|accessdate=2006-11-14}}</ref> [[Glass bottom boat|Glass-bottomed boats]] and [[underwater observatory|underwater observatories]] are also popular, as are [[helicopter]] flights. By far, the most popular tourist activities on the Great Barrier Reef are [[snorkelling]] and diving, for which pontoons are often used, and the area is often enclosed by nets. The outer part of the Great Barrier Reef is favoured for such activities, due to water quality.
Management of tourism in the Great Barrier Reef is geared towards making tourism [[ecological sustainability|ecologically sustainable]]. A daily fee is levied that goes towards research of the Great Barrier Reef.<ref name = "2005Brochure"/> This fee ends up being 20% of the GBRMPA's income.<ref>{{cite web|author=Great Barrier Reef Marine Park Authority|year=2005|title=How is the Money Used?|work=Onboard - The Tourism Operator's Handbook for the Great Barrier Reef |url=http://www.tourismoperators.reefhq.com.au/emc/use_of/index.html|accessdate=2006-11-11}}</ref> Plans of management are also in place for the popular tourist destinations of Cairns and the [[Whitsunday Islands]], which account for 85% of the tourism in the region.<ref name = "2005Brochure"/>
Policies on [[cruise ship]]s, [[bareboat charter]]s, and anchorages limit the traffic on the Great Barrier Reef.<ref name = "2005Brochure"/>
===Fishing===
The [[fishing industry]] in the Great Barrier Reef, controlled by the Queensland Government, is worth [[Australian dollar|AU$]]1 billion annually.<ref>{{cite web|author=Access Economics Pty Ltd|year=2005|title=Measuring the economic and financial value of the Great Barrier Reef Marine Park|url=http://www.gbrmpa.gov.au/corp_site/about_us/documents/economic_values_report.pdf|accessdate=2007-03-16}} (PDF)</ref> It employs approximately 2000 people, and fishing in the Great Barrier Reef is pursued commercially, for recreation, and as a traditional means for feeding one's family.<ref name= traditionalfishing/> [[Wonky hole]]s in the reef provide particularly productive fishing areas.
==See also==
*[[:Category:Islands on the Great Barrier Reef|Islands on the Great Barrier Reef]]
*[[Seven Natural Wonders of the World]]
==References==
{{reflist|2}}
==Further reading==
*{{cite book
|last=Bell
|first=Peter
|title=AIMS: The First Twenty-five Years
|date=1998
|publisher=Australian Institute of Marine Science
|location=Townsville
|isbn=9780642322128 }}
* {{cite book
| last = Bowen
| first = James
| coauthors = Bowen, Margarita
| title = The Great Barrier Reef : history, science, heritage
| year = 2002
| publisher = Cambridge : Cambridge University Press
| isbn = 0521824303
}}
*{{Cite journal
| last=Done
| first=T.J.
| year=1982
| title=Patterns in the distribution of coral communities across the central Great Barrier Reef
| journal=Coral Reefs
| volume=1
| issue=2
| pages=95–107
| doi=10.1007/BF00301691
}}
* [[Great Barrier Reef Marine Park Authority]] ''[http://www.gbrmpa.gov.au/corp_site/info_services/publications/research_publications Research Publications]''
* {{cite book
| last = Lucas
| first = P.H.C. ''et al.''
| coauthors =
| title = The outstanding universal value of the Great Barrier Reef World Heritage Area
| year = 1997
| publisher = Great Barrier Reef Marine Park Authority
| isbn = 0642230285
}}
*{{cite book
| editor= Mather, P.; Bennett, I.
| title = A Coral Reef Handbook: A Guide to the Geology, Flora and Fauna of the Great Barrier Reef
| edition = 3rd edition
| year = 1993
| publisher = Surrey Beatty & Sons Pty Ltd
| location = Chipping North
| isbn = 0949324477
}}
==External links==
{{Commons|Great Barrier Reef}}
* [http://adventure.howstuffworks.com/great-barrier-reef.htm How the Great Barrier Reef Works]
* {{wikitravelpar|Great Barrier Reef}}
* [http://environment.gov.au/heritage/places/world/great-barrier-reef/index.html World heritage listing for Great Barrier Reef]
* [http://www.gbrmpa.gov.au/ Great Barrier Reef Marine Park Authority]
* [http://www.reef.crc.org.au/ CRC Reef Research Centre]
* [http://www.aims.gov.au/pages/research/reef-monitoring/reef-monitoring-index.html Biological monitoring of coral reefs of the GBR]
* [http://www.panda.org/about_wwf/where_we_work/ecoregions/great_barrier_reef/index.cfm Great Barrier Reef (World Wildlife Fund)]
* [http://www.nationalgeographic.com/earthpulse/reef/reef1_flash.html Dive into the Great Barrier Reef] from National Geographic
{{World Heritage Sites In Australia}}
{{coor title dms|18|17|10|S|147|42|00|E}}
[[Category:Great Barrier Reef]]
[[Category:Landforms of Australia]]
[[Category:Global 200 ecoregions]]
[[Category:Marine ecoregions]]
[[Category:World Heritage Sites in Australia]]
[[Category:Underwater diving sites]]
[[Category:Visitor attractions in Queensland]]
[[Category:Physiographic provinces]]
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