Greco-Buddhism 515258 move=:edit= 223085649 2008-07-02T14:31:14Z BOTarate 5870361 robot Adding: [[ml:ഗ്രീക്കോ-ബുദ്ധിസം]] [[Image:Gandhara Buddha (tnm).jpeg|thumb|200px|The [[Gautama Buddha|Buddha]], in Greco-Buddhist style, 1st-2nd century CE, [[Gandhara]] (Modern Pakistan). ([[Standing Buddha (Tokyo National Museum)]]).]] {{Buddhism}} '''Greco-Buddhism''', sometimes spelt '''Graeco-Buddhism''', refers to the cultural [[syncretism]] between [[Hellenistic civilization|Hellenistic culture]] and [[Buddhism]], which developed between the 4th century BCE and the 5th century CE in the area covered by modern [[Afghanistan]], [[Pakistan]] and north-western border regions of modern [[India]] namely western portions of [[Jammu and Kashmir]]. It was a cultural consequence of a long chain of interactions begun by Greek forays into India from the time of [[Alexander the Great]], carried further by the establishment of [[Indo-Greek]] rule in the area for some centuries, and extended during flourishing of the Hellenized empire of the [[Kushans]]. Greco-Buddhism influenced the artistic (and perhaps the conceptual) development of Buddhism, particularly [[Mahayana Buddhism]],<ref>"Greek as well as Iranian influences appear to have shaped the evolution of Mahayana images (and perhaps thought as well)", Foltz, p46</ref> before Buddhism was adopted in Central and Northeastern Asia, from the 1st century CE, ultimately spreading to [[China]], [[Korea]] and [[Japan]]. ==Historical outline== {{See also|History of Buddhism}} The interaction between [[Hellenistic Greece]] and Buddhism started when [[Alexander the Great]] conquered the [[Achaemenid Empire]] and further regions of [[Central Asia]] in 334 BCE, crossing the [[Indus River|Indus]] and [[Battle of the Hydaspes River|Jhelum]] rivers, and going as far as the [[Beas River|Beas]], thus establishing direct contact with [[India]], the birthplace of Buddhism.<ref>McEvilley, p357</ref> Alexander founded several cities in his new territories in the areas of the [[Oxus]] and [[Bactria]], and Greek settlements further extended to the [[Khyber Pass]], [[Gandhara]] (see [[Taxila]]) and the [[Punjab region|Punjab]]. These regions correspond to a unique geographical passageway between the [[Himalayas]] and the [[Hindu Kush]] mountains, through which most of the interaction between India and Central Asia took place, generating intense cultural exchange and trade. Following Alexander's death on [[June 10]], 323 BCE, the ''[[Diadochoi]]'' (successors) founded their own kingdoms in [[Asia Minor]] and [[Central Asia]]. General [[Seleucus I Nicator|Seleucus]] set up the [[Seleucid Kingdom]], which extended as far as India. Later, the Eastern part of the Seleucid Kingdom broke away to form the [[Greco-Bactrian Kingdom]] ([[3rd century BCE|3rd]]&ndash;2nd century BCE), followed by the [[Indo-Greek Kingdom]] ([[2nd century BCE|2nd]]&ndash;1st century BCE), and later the [[Kushan Empire]] (1st&ndash;3rd century CE). The interaction of Greek and Buddhist cultures operated over several centuries until it ended in the 5th century CE with the invasions of the [[White Huns]], and later the expansion of [[Islam]]. == Religious interactions == The length of the Greek presence in Central Asia and northern India provided opportunities for interaction, not only on the artistic, but also on the religious plane. ===Alexander the Great in Bactria and India (331–325 BCE)=== When Alexander conquered the [[Bactria]]n and [[Gandhara]]n regions, these areas may already have been under Buddhist influence. According to a legend preserved in [[Pāli|Pali]], the language of the [[Theravada]] canon, two [[merchant]] brothers from Bactria, named Tapassu and Bhallika, visited the Buddha and became his disciples. They then returned to Bactria and built temples to the Buddha (Foltz). In 326 BCE, Alexander invaded India. King [[Taxiles|Ambhi]], ruler of [[Taxila]], surrendered his city, a notable center of Buddhist faith, to Alexander. Alexander fought an epic battle against [[Porus]], a ruler of a region in the [[Punjab region|Punjab]] in the [[Battle of Hydaspes]] in 326 BC. Several philosophers, such as [[Pyrrho]], [[Anaxarchus]] and [[Onesicritus]], are said to have been selected by Alexander to accompany him in his eastern campaigns. During the 18 months they were in India, they were able to interact with Indian religious men, generally described as [[Gymnosophists]] ("naked philosophers"). [[Pyrrho]] (360-270 BCE), returned to Greece and became the first [[Skeptic]] and the founder of the school named [[Pyrrhonism]]. The Greek biographer [[Diogenes Laertius]] explained that Pyrrho's equanimity and detachment from the world were acquired in India.<ref>"He would withdraw from the world and live in solitude, rarely showing himself to his relatives; this is because he had heard an Indian reproach [[Anaxarchus]], telling him that he would never be able to teach others what is good while he himself danced attendance on kings in their court. He would maintain the same composure at all times." (Diogenes Laertius, IX.63 on Pyrrhon)</ref> Few of his sayings are directly known, but they are clearly reminiscent of eastern, possibly Buddhist, thought: :''"Nothing really exists, but human life is governed by convention"'' :''"Nothing is in itself more this than that"'' ([[Diogenes Laertius]] IX.61) Another of these philosophers, [[Onesicritus]], a [[Cynic]], is said by [[Strabo]] to have learnt in India the following precepts: :''"That nothing that happens to a man is bad or good, opinions being merely dreams"'' :''"That the best philosophy [is] that which liberates the mind from [both] pleasure and grief"'' (Strabo, XV.I.65<ref>[http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/ptext?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0239&query=head%3D%23119 Strabo XV.1]</ref>) These contacts initiated the first direct interactions between Greek culture and Indian religions, which were to continue and expand for several more centuries. === The Mauryan empire (322&ndash;183 BCE) === The Indian emperor [[Chandragupta]], founder of the [[Mauryan dynasty]], re-conquered around 322 BCE the northwest Indian territory that had been lost to Alexander the Great. However, contacts were kept with his Greek neighbours in the [[Seleucid Empire]]. [[Seleucid]] king [[Seleucus I]] came to a marital agreement as part of a peace treaty, and several Greeks, such as the historian [[Megasthenes]], resided at the Mauryan court. [[Image:AsokaKandahar.jpg|thumb|250px|Bilingual edict ([[Greek language|Greek]] and [[Aramaic]]) by king Ashoka, from [[Kandahar]]. [[Kabul]] Museum.]] Chandragupta's grandson [[Ashoka]] converted to the Buddhist faith and became a great proselytizer in the line of the traditional Pali canon of Theravada Buddhism, insisting on non-violence to humans and animals ([[ahimsa]]), and general precepts regulating the life of lay people. According to the [[Edicts of Ashoka]], set in stone, some of them written in Greek, he sent Buddhist emissaries to the Greek lands in Asia and as far as the Mediterranean. The edicts name each of the rulers of the [[Ancient Greece|Hellenic]] world at the time: :"The conquest by [[Dharma]] has been won here, on the borders, and even six hundred yojanas (4,000 miles) away, where the Greek king [[Antiochus II Theos|Antiochos]] (Antiyoga) rules, and beyond there where the four kings named [[Ptolemy II of Egypt|Ptolemy]] (Turamaya), [[Antigonus Gonatas|Antigonos]] (Antikini), [[Magas of Cyrene|Magas]] (Maka) and [[Alexander II of Epirus|Alexander]] (Alikasu[n]dara) rule, likewise in the south among the [[Chola]]s, the [[Pandya]]s, and as far as Tamraparni." ([[Edicts of Ashoka|Rock Edict Nb.13]]<ref>Full text of the Edicts of Ashoka. [http://www.cs.colostate.edu/~malaiya/ashoka.html See Rock Edict 13]</ref>). Ashoka also claims he converted to Buddhism Greek populations within his realm: :"Here in the king's domain among the Greeks, the [[Kambojas]], the Nabhakas, the Nabhapamkits, the Bhojas, the Pitinikas, the Andhras and the Palidas, everywhere people are following Beloved-of-the-Gods' instructions in [[Dharma]]." [[Edicts of Ashoka|Rock Edict Nb13]] (S. Dhammika). Finally, some of the emissaries of Ashoka, such as the famous [[Dharmaraksita]], are described in [[Pāli|Pali]] sources as leading Greek ("[[Yona]]") Buddhist monks, active in Buddhist proselytism (the [[Mahavamsa]], XII<ref>Full text of the Mahavamsa [http://lakdiva.org/mahavamsa/chapters.html Click chapter XII]</ref>). '''See also:''' [[Greco-Buddhist monasticism]]. === The Greek presence in Bactria (325 to 125 BCE) === {{main|Greco-Bactrian kingdom}} Alexander had established in Bactria several cities ([[Ai-Khanoum]], [[Bagram|Begram]]) and an administration that were to last more than two centuries under the [[Seleucid Empire|Seleucids]] and the [[Greco-Bactrians]], all the time in direct contact with Indian territory. The Greeks sent ambassadors to the court of the [[Mauryan empire]], such as the historian [[Megasthenes]] under [[Chandragupta Maurya]], and later [[Deimakos]] under his son [[Bindusara]], who reported extensively on the civilization of the Indians. Megasthenes sent detailed reports on Indian religions, which were circulated and quoted throughout the Classical world for centuries:<ref>Surviving fragments of Megasthenes:[http://www.mssu.edu/projectsouthasia/history/primarydocs/Foreign_Views/GreekRoman/Megasthenes-Indika.htm Full text]</ref> :''"Megasthenes makes a different division of the philosophers, saying that they are of two kinds, one of which he calls the [[Brahman|Brachmanes]], and the other the [[Sramana|Sarmanes]]..."'' [[Strabo]] XV. 1. 58-60<ref>[http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/ptext?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0239&query=head%3D%23119 Strabo XV.1]</ref> The [[Greco-Bactrians]] maintained a strong Hellenistic culture at the door of India during the rule of the [[Mauryan empire]] in India, as exemplified by the archaeological site of [[Ai-Khanoum]]. When the Mauryan empire was toppled by the [[Sunga Empire|Sungas]] around 180 BCE, the Greco-Bactrians expanded into India, where they established the [[Indo-Greek]] kingdom, under which Buddhism was able to flourish. === The Indo-Greek kingdom and Buddhism (180 BCE &ndash;10 CE) === {{Main article|Indo-Greek kingdom}} The [[Greco-Bactrians]] conquered parts of northern India from 180 BCE, whence they are known as the [[Indo-Greeks]]. They controlled various areas of the northern Indian territory until 10 CE. Buddhism prospered under the Indo-Greek kings, and it has been suggested that their invasion of India was intended to protect the Buddhist faith from the religious persecutions of the new Indian dynasty of the [[Sunga]]s (185&ndash;73 BCE) which had overthrown the [[Mauryan dynasty|Mauryans]]. ====Coinage==== [[Image:Demetrius I of Bactria.jpg|left|thumb|170px|Silver coin depicting the Greek king [[Demetrius I of Bactria]] wearing an elephant scalp, symbol of his conquest of India in 180 BCE.]] [[Image:MenanderCoinFront.jpg|thumb|170px|right|Silver drachm of the Greek "Saviour King" [[Menander the Just|Menander]] (r.160&ndash;135 BCE)]] The coins of the [[Indo-Greek]] king [[Milinda|Menander]] (reigned 160 to 135 BCE), found from [[Afghanistan]] to central [[India]], bear the inscription "Saviour King Menander" in Greek on the front. Several Indo-Greek kings after Menander, such as [[Zoilos I]], [[Strato I]], [[Heliokles II]], [[Theophilos]], [[Peukolaos]], [[Menander II]] and [[Archebios]] display on their coins the title of "Maharajasa Dharmika" (lit. "King of the [[Dharma]]") in the [[Prakrit]] language and in the [[Kharoshthi]] script. Some of the coins of [[Menander I]] and [[Menander II]] incorporate the Buddhist symbol of the eight-spoked wheel, associated with the Greek symbols of victory, either the palm of victory, or the victory wreath handed over by the goddess [[Nike (mythology)|Nike]]. According to the [[Milinda Panha|Milinda Pañha]], at the end of his reign Menander I became a Buddhist [[arhat]],<ref>Extract of the [[Milinda Panha]]: "And afterwards, taking delight in the wisdom of the Elder, he handed over his kingdom to his son, and abandoning the household life for the houseless state, grew great in insight, and himself attained to [[Arhat|Arahatship]]!" ([[Milinda Panha|The Questions of King Milinda]], Translation by T. W. Rhys Davids, 1890)</ref> a fact also echoed by [[Plutarch]], who explains that his relics were shared and enshrined.<ref>Plutarch on Menander: "But when one Menander, who had reigned graciously over the Bactrians, died afterwards in the camp, the cities indeed by common consent celebrated his funerals; but coming to a contest about his relics, they were difficultly at last brought to this agreement, that his ashes being distributed, everyone should carry away an equal share, and they should all erect monuments to him." (Plutarch, "Political Precepts" Praec. reip. ger. 28, 6) p147–148 [http://oll.libertyfund.org/Texts/Plutarch0206/Morals/0062-05_Bk.pdf Full text]</ref> [[Image:MenanderChakra.jpg|thumb|250px|left|A coin of [[Menander I]] (r.160-135 BCE) with an [[Dharmacakra|eight-spoked wheel]] and a palm.]] The ubiquitous symbol of the elephant in Indo-Greek coinage may also have been associated with Buddhism, as suggested by the parallel between coins of [[Antialcidas]] and [[Menander II]], where the elephant in the coins of Antialcidas holds the same relationship to Zeus and Nike as the Buddhist wheel on the coins of Menander II. When the [[zoroastrian]] [[Indo-Parthian]]s invaded northern India in the 1st century CE, they adopted a large part of the symbolism of Indo-Greek coinage, but refrained from ever using the elephant, suggesting that its meaning was not merely geographical. [[Image:IGMudras.jpg|thumb|150px|''[[Mudra|Vitarka Mudra]]'' [[gesture]]s on Indo-Greek coinage. Top: Divinities [[Tyche]] and [[Zeus]]. Bottom: Depiction of Indo-Greek kings [[Nicias]] and [[Menander II]].]] Finally, after the reign of Menander I, several Indo-Greek rulers, such as [[Amyntas]], [[King Nicias]], [[Peukolaos]], [[King Hermaeus|Hermaeus]], [[Hippostratos]] and [[Menander II]], depicted themselves or their Greek deities forming with the right hand a benediction gesture identical to the Buddhist vitarka [[mudra]] (thumb and index joined together, with other fingers extended), which in Buddhism signifies the transmission of Buddha's teaching. ====Cities==== According to [[Ptolemy]], Greek cities were founded by the Greco-Bactrians in northern [[Pakistan]]. Menander established his capital in [[Sagala]], today's [[Sialkot]] in [[Punjab region|Punjab]], one of the centers of the blossoming Buddhist culture ([[Milinda Panha]], Chap. I). A large Greek city built by [[Demetrius I of Bactria|Demetrius]] and rebuilt by [[Menander I|Menander]] has been excavated at the [[Sirkap|archaeological site of Sirkap]] near [[Taxila]], where Buddhist [[stupa]]s were standing side-by-side with [[Hindu]] and [[Greek temple]]s, indicating religious tolerance and syncretism. ====Scriptures==== Evidence of direct religious interaction between Greek and Buddhist thought during the period include the [[Milinda Panha]], a Buddhist discourse in the [[platonic]] style, held between king [[Milinda|Menander]] and the Buddhist monk [[Nagasena]]. [[Image:Ruvanvelisaya Dagoba.jpg|thumb|250px|According to the [[Mahavamsa]], the [[Ruwanwelisaya|Great Stupa]] in [[Anuradhapura]], [[Sri Lanka]], was dedicated by a 30,000-strong "[[Yona]]" delegation from "[[Alexandria of the Caucasus|Alexandria]]" around 130 BCE.]] Also the [[Mahavamsa]] (Chap. XXIX<ref>Full text of the Mahavamsa [http://lakdiva.org/mahavamsa/chapters.html Click chapter XXIX]</ref>) records that during Menander's reign, "a Greek ("[[Yona]]") Buddhist head monk" named [[Mahadharmaraksita]] (literally translated as 'Great Teacher/Preserver of the Dharma') led 30,000 Buddhist monks from "the Greek city of Alexandria" (possibly Alexandria-of-the-Caucasus, around 150km north of today's [[Kabul]] in Afghanistan), to [[Sri Lanka]] for the dedication of a [[stupa]], indicating that Buddhism flourished in Menander's territory and that Greeks took a very active part in it. Several Buddhist dedications by Greeks in India are recorded, such as that of the Greek [[meridarch]] (civil governor of a province) named [[Theodorus (meridarch)|Theodorus]], describing in [[Kharoshthi]] how he enshrined relics of the Buddha. The inscriptions were found on a vase inside a stupa, dated to the reign of Menander or one his successors in the 1st century BCE (Tarn, p391): :''"Theudorena meridarkhena pratithavida ime sarira sakamunisa bhagavato bahu-jana-stitiye"'': :"The meridarch Theodorus has enshrined relics of Lord [[Shakyamuni]], for the welfare of the mass of the people" :(Swāt relic vase inscription of the Meridarkh Theodoros<ref>Full text of Theodoros in Gandhari script[http://depts.washington.edu/ebmp/etext.php?cki=CKI0032 Text]</ref>) This inscription represents one of the first known mention of the Buddha as a deity, using the Indian [[bhakti]] word [[Bhagavan|Bhagavat]] ("Lord", "All-embracing personal deity"), suggesting the emergence of [[Mahayana]] doctrines in [[Buddhism]]. Finally, Buddhist tradition recognizes Menander as one of the great benefactors of the faith, together with [[Asoka]] and [[Kanishka]]. Buddhist manuscripts in cursive Greek have been found in Afghanistan, praising various Buddhas and including mentions of the Mahayana [[Avalokitesvara|Lokesvara]]-raja Buddha (λωγοασφαροραζοβοδδο). These manuscripts have been dated later than the 2nd century CE. (Nicholas Sims-Williams, "A Bactrian Buddhist Manuscript"). Some elements of the [[Mahayana]] movement may have begun around the 1st century BCE in northwestern India, at the time and place of these interactions. According to most scholars, the main sutras of Mahayana were written after 100 BCE, when sectarian conflicts arose among [[Nikaya Buddhism|Nikaya Buddhist]] sects regarding the humanity or super-humanity of the Buddha and questions of [[Metaphysics|metaphysical]] [[essentialism]], on which Greek thought may have had some influence: "It may have been a Greek-influenced and Greek-carried form of Buddhism that passed north and east along the Silk Road".<ref>McEvilly, "The shape of ancient thought".</ref> === The Kushan empire (1st&ndash;3rd century CE) === {{main|Kushan Empire}} The [[Kushans]], one of the five tribes of the [[Yuezhi]] [[confederation]] settled in Bactria since around 125 BCE when they displaced the Greco-Bactrians, invaded the northern parts of Pakistan and India from around 1 CE. <!-- Image with disputed fair-use status removed: [[Image: KanishkaI.jpg|thumb|300px|right|Gold coin of [[Kushan Empire|Kushan]] emperor [[Kanishka|Kanishka I]] (c.100&ndash;126 CE) with a Hellenistic representation of the [[Gautama Buddha|Buddha]], and the word "Boddo" in Greek script.]] --> By that time they had already been in contact with Greek culture and the Indo-Greek kingdoms for more than a century. They used the Greek script to write their language, as exemplified by their [[coin]]s and their adoption of the [[Greek alphabet]]. The absorption of Greek historical and mythological culture is suggested by Kushan sculptures representing [[Dionysos|Dionysiac]] scenes or even the story of the [[Trojan horse]]<ref>Image of the Indianized Trojan horse story: [http://faculty.maxwell.syr.edu/gaddis/HST210/Oct21/Gandhara%20Trojanhorse.jpg Kushan Trojan horse]</ref> and it is probable that Greek communities remained under Kushan rule. [[Image:Indo-GreekBanquet.JPG|thumb|left|200px|Hellenistic culture in the Indian subcontinent: Greek clothes, [[amphora]]s, wine and music (Detail from [[Chakhil-i-Ghoundi stupa]], [[Hadda]], [[Gandhara]], 1st century CE).]] The Kushan king [[Kanishka]], who honored [[Zoroaster|Zoroastrian]], [[Greek mythology|Greek]] and [[Brahmanism|Brahmanic]] [[List of deities|deities]] as well as the Buddha and was famous for his religious syncretism, convened the [[Buddhist Councils|Fourth Buddhist Council]] around 100 CE in [[Kashmir]] in order to redact the [[Sarvastivadin]] canon. Some of Kanishka's coins bear the earliest representations of the Buddha on a coin (around 120 CE), in Hellenistic style and with the word "Boddo" in Greek script . Kanishka also had the original Gandhari vernacular, or [[Prakrit]], Mahayana Buddhist texts translated into the high literary language of [[Sanskrit]], "a turning point in the evolution of the Buddhist literary canon" (Foltz, Religions on the [[Silk Road]]) The "[[Kanishka casket]]", dated to the first year of [[Kanishka]]'s reign in 127 CE, was signed by a Greek artist named ''Agesilas'', who oversaw work at Kanishka's [[stupa]]s (caitya), confirming the direct involvement of Greeks with Buddhist realizations at such a late date. The new syncretic form of Buddhism expanded fully into [[Eastern Asia]] soon after these events. The Kushan monk [[Lokaksema]] visited the [[Han Dynasty|Han]] Chinese court at [[Loyang]] in 178 CE, and worked there for ten years to make the first known translations of Mahayana texts into Chinese. The new faith later spread into [[Korea]] and [[Japan]], and was itself at the origin of [[Zen]]. <br clear=all> ==Artistic influences== {{main|Greco-Buddhist art}} Numerous works of [[Greco-Buddhist art]] display the intermixing of Greek and Buddhist influences, around such creation centers as [[Gandhara]]. The subject matter of Gandharan art was definitely Buddhist, while most motifs were of [[Southwest Asia|Western Asiatic]] or [[Hellenistic]] origin. ===The anthropomorphic representation of the Buddha=== [[Image:MaraAssault.jpg|thumb|180px|An aniconic representation of [[Mara (demon)|Mara]]'s assault on the Buddha, 2nd century CE, [[Amaravati]], [[India]].]] Although there is still some debate, the first [[anthropomorphic]] representations of the [[Gautama Buddha|Buddha]] himself are often considered a result of the Greco-Buddhist interaction. Before this innovation, Buddhist art was "[[aniconism|aniconic]]": the Buddha was only represented through his symbols (an empty [[throne]], the [[Bodhi]] tree, the [[Buddha footprint|Buddha's footprints]], the [[prayer wheel]]). This reluctance towards anthropomorphic representations of the Buddha, and the sophisticated development of aniconic symbols to avoid it (even in narrative scenes where other human figures would appear), seem to be connected to one of the Buddha’s sayings, reported in the [[Buddhist texts#Long discourses|Digha Nikaya]], that discouraged representations of himself after the extinction of his body.<ref>"Due to the statement of the Master in the ''Dighanikaya'' disfavouring his representation in human form after the extinction of body, reluctance prevailed for some time". Also "''Hinayanis'' opposed image worship of the Master due to canonical restrictions". Professor R.C. Sharma, in "The Art of Mathura, India", Tokyo National Museum 2002, p.11</ref> Probably not feeling bound by these restrictions, and because of "their cult of form, the Greeks were the first to attempt a sculptural representation of the Buddha".<ref>Linssen, "[[Zen]] Living"</ref> In many parts of the Ancient World, the Greeks did develop [[syncretic]] divinities, that could become a common religious focus for populations with different traditions: a well-known example is the syncretic God [[Sarapis]], introduced by [[Ptolemy I of Egypt|Ptolemy I]] in [[Egypt]], which combined aspects of Greek and Egyptian Gods. In India as well, it was only natural for the Greeks to create a single common divinity by combining the image of a Greek God-King (The Sun-God [[Apollo]], or possibly the deified founder of the [[Indo-Greek Kingdom]], [[Demetrius I of Bactria|Demetrius]]), with the traditional [[Physical characteristics of the Buddha|attributes of the Buddha]]. [[Image:StandingBuddha.jpg|thumb|230px|left|Standing [[Gautama Buddha|Buddha]], ancient region of [[Gandhara]], northern [[Pakistan]], 1st century CE.]] Many of the stylistic elements in the representations of the Buddha point to Greek influence: the [[Greco-Roman]] [[toga]]-like wavy robe covering both shoulders (more exactly, its lighter version, the Greek ''[[himation]]''), the [[contrapposto]] stance of the upright figures (see: 1st&ndash;2nd century Gandhara standing Buddhas<ref>Standing Buddhas: [http://faculty.maxwell.syr.edu/gaddis/HST210/Oct21/Gandhara%20Buddha.jpg Image 1], [http://www.kimbellart.org/database/images/jpg/AP1967_01.jpg Image 2] </ref>), the stylicized [[Mediterranean]] curly hair and topknot ([[ushnisha]]) apparently derived from the style of the [[Apollo Belvedere|Belvedere Apollo]] (330 BCE),<ref>The Belvedere Apollo: [http://www.artlex.com/ArtLex/h/images/hellenis_apolbelve.det.lg.JPG Image]</ref> and the measured quality of the faces, all rendered with strong artistic [[Realism (visual arts)|realism]] (See: [[Greek art]]). A large quantity of [[sculpture]]s combining Buddhist and purely Hellenistic styles and [[iconography]] were excavated at the [[Gandhara]]n site of [[Hadda]]. The 'curly hair' of Buddha is described in the famous list of [[Physical characteristics of the Buddha|32 external characteristics of a Great Being]] (mahapurusa) that we find all along the Buddhist sutras. The curly hair, with the curls turning to the right is first described in the Pali canon of the Smaller Vehicle of Buddhism; we find the same description in e.g. the "Dasasahasrika Prajnaparamita". Greek artists were most probably the authors of these early representations of the Buddha, in particular the standing statues, which display "a realistic treatment of the folds and on some even a hint of modelled volume that characterizes the best Greek work. This is Classical or Hellenistic Greek, not archaizing Greek transmitted by [[Persians|Persia]] or [[Bactria]], nor distinctively [[Ancient Rome|Roman]]".<ref>Boardman</ref> The Greek stylistic influence on the representation of the Buddha, through its idealistic realism, also permitted a very accessible, understandable and attractive visualization of the ultimate state of [[Bodhi|enlightenment]] described by Buddhism, allowing it reach a wider audience: "One of the distinguishing features of the Gandharan school of art that emerged in north-west India is that it has been clearly influenced by the naturalism of the Classical Greek style. Thus, while these images still convey the inner peace that results from putting the Buddha's doctrine into practice, they also give us an impression of people who walked and talked, etc. and slept much as we do. I feel this is very important. These figures are inspiring because they do not only depict the goal, but also the sense that people like us can achieve it if we try" (The Dalai Lama<ref>[[Tenzin Gyatso, 14th Dalai Lama|The Dalai Lama]], foreword to "Echoes of Alexander the Great", 2000.</ref>) During the following centuries, this anthropomorphic representation of the Buddha defined the canon of Buddhist art, but progressively evolved to incorporate more [[India]]n and [[Asia]]n elements. === A Hellenized Buddhist pantheon === [[Image:Buddha-Vajrapani-Herakles.JPG|thumb|240px|[[Herakles|Herculean]] depiction of [[Vajrapani]] (right), as the protector of the [[Gautama Buddha|Buddha]], 2nd century CE [[Gandhara]], [[British Museum]].]] Several other Buddhist deities may have been influenced by Greek gods. For example, [[Herakles]] with a lion-skin (the protector deity of [[Demetrius I of Bactria|Demetrius I]]) "served as an artistic model for [[Vajrapani]], a protector of the Buddha" (Foltz, "Religions and the Silk Road") (See<ref>Images of the Herakles-influenced Vajrapani: [http://www.exoticindiaart.com/artimages/BuddhaImage/greece_sm.jpg Image 1], [http://faculty.maxwell.syr.edu/gaddis/HST210/Oct21/Heracles-Vajrapani.jpg Image 2] </ref>). In [[Japan]], this expression further translated into the wrath-filled and muscular [[Nioo|Niō]] guardian gods of the Buddha, standing today at the entrance of many Buddhist temples. According to Katsumi Tanabe, professor at Chūō University, Japan (in "Alexander the Great. East-West cultural contact from Greece to Japan"), besides Vajrapani, Greek influence also appears in several other gods of the [[Mahayana]] pantheon, such as the Japanese Wind God [[Fujin]] inspired from the Greek [[Boreas]] through the Greco-Buddhist [[Wardo]], or the mother deity [[Hariti]]<ref>Images of the evolution of Hariti: [http://www.shiga-miidera.or.jp/treasure/bi/img/jpg/04.jpg Kariteimo] and [http://p77g2t8o.hp.infoseek.co.jp/Kisimozin.jpg Kishibojin] in Japan.</ref> inspired by [[Tyche]]. In addition, forms such as [[garland]]-bearing [[cherub]]s, [[vine]] [[scroll]]s, and such semi-human creatures as the [[centaur]] and [[Triton (mythology)|triton]], are part of the repertory of Hellenistic art introduced by Greco-Roman artists in the service of the Kushan court. '''See also:''' [[Buddhist art]] ==Greco-Buddhism and the rise of the Mahayana== The geographical, cultural and historical context of the rise of Mahayana Buddhism during the 1st century BCE in northwestern [[India]], all point to intense multi-cultural influences: "Key formative influences on the early development of the [[Mahayana]] and [[Pure Land]] movements, which became so much part of [[East Asia]]n [[civilization]], are to be sought in Buddhism's earlier encounters along the [[Silk Road]]" (Foltz, Religions on the Silk Road). As [[Mahayana]] Buddhism emerged, it received "influences from popular Hindu devotional cults ([[bhakti]]), [[Persia]]n and [[Greco-Roman]] theologies which filtered into India from the northwest" (Tom Lowenstein, p63). ===Conceptual influences=== [[Mahayana]] is an inclusive faith characterized by the adoption of new texts, in addition to the traditional [[Pali canon]], and a shift in the understanding of Buddhism. It goes beyond the traditional [[Theravada]] ideal of the release from suffering ([[dukkha]]) and personal enlightenment of the [[arhat]]s, to elevate the [[Gautama Buddha|Buddha]] to a God-like status, and to create a pantheon of quasi-divine [[Bodhisattva]]s devoting themselves to personal excellence, ultimate knowledge and the salvation of humanity. These concepts, together with the sophisticated philosophical system of the Mahayana faith, may have been influenced by the interaction of Greek and Buddhist thought: ====The Buddha as an idealized man-god==== The Buddha was elevated to a man-god status, represented in idealized human form: "One might regard the classical influence as including the general idea of representing a man-god in this purely human form, which was of course well familiar in the West, and it is very likely that the example of westerners' treatment of their gods was indeed an important factor in the innovation... The Buddha, the man-god, is in many ways far more like a Greek god than any other eastern deity, no less for the narrative cycle of his story and appearance of his standing figure than for his humanity".<ref>Boardman, "The Diffusion of Classical Art in Antiquity", p126</ref> The supra-mundane understanding of the Buddha and Bodhisattvas may have been a consequence of the Greek’s tendency to deify their rulers in the wake of Alexander’s reign: "The god-[[Monarch|king]] concept brought by Alexander (...) may have fed into the developing [[bodhisattva]] concept, which involved the portrayal of the Buddha in Gandharan art with the face of the [[Solar deity|sun god]], [[Apollo]]" (McEvilley, "The Shape of Ancient Thought"). ====The Bodhisattva as a Universal ideal of excellence==== [[Image:HaddaTypes.JPG|thumb|230px|Portraits from the site of [[Hadda]], 3rd century CE.]] Lamotte (1954) controversially suggests (though countered by Conze (1973) and others) that Greek influence was present in the definition of the Bodhisattva ideal in the oldest Mahayana text, the "Perfection of Wisdom" or ''[[Prajnaparamita|prajñā pāramitā]]'' literature, that developed between the 1st century BCE and the 1st century CE. These texts in particular redefine Buddhism around the universal Bodhisattva ideal, and its six central virtues of generosity, morality, patience, effort, meditation and, first and foremost, [[wisdom]]. ====Philosophical influences==== The close association between Greeks and Buddhism probably led to exchanges on the philosophical plane as well. Many of the early Mahayana theories of reality and knowledge can be related to Greek philosophical schools of thought. Mahayana Buddhism has been described as the "form of Buddhism which (regardless of how Hinduized its later forms became) seems to have originated in the Greco-Buddhist communities of India, through a conflation of the Greek [[Democritus|Democritean]]-[[Sophism|Sophistic]]-[[Philosophical skepticism|Skeptical]] tradition with the rudimentary and unformalized empirical and skeptical elements already present in early Buddhism" (McEvilly, "The Shape of Ancient Thought", p503). * In the [[Prajnaparamita]], the rejection of the reality of passing phenomena as "empty, false and fleeting" can also be found in Greek [[Pyrrhonism]].<ref>"The most famous, the [[Heart Sutra]], says: "There is no form, nor feeling, nor perception, nor impulse, nor consciousness, no eye, or ear, or nose, or tongue, or body, or mind, no form, nor sound, nor smell, nor taste, or touchable, nor object of mind...". It is worth noting that there are Greek texts that speak in a very similar voice, for example the following (probably Pyrrhonist) statement which is quoted by a commentator on [[Plato]]'s Theatetus: "No form, no words, no object of taste, or smell, or touch, no other object of perception, has any distinctive character"" (Mc Evilley, "The shape of ancient thought", p419) </ref> * The perception of ultimate reality was, for the [[Cynics]] as well as for the [[Madhyamaka]]s and Zen teachers after them, only accessible through a non-conceptual and non-verbal approach (Greek [[Phronesis]]), which alone allowed to get rid of ordinary conceptions.<ref>"For the Cynics, as for Madhyamakas, Zen teachers, and others, phenomena could be dealt with legitimately only in a nonverbal and nonconceptual cognition ([[phronesis]]) the same word Plato used for "unhypothesized knowledge"), which can result only from the ultimate ''[[elenchus]]'' of stripping the mind of all the conceptions with which it ordinarily tries to deal with them" (Mc Evilley, "The shape of ancient thought", p439)</ref> * The mental attitude of equanimity and dispassionate outlook in front of events was also characteristic of the [[Cynic]]s and [[Stoic]]s, who called it "Apatheia"<ref>"The ethics of both the methaphysical and the critical branches of the Greek tradition involves withdrawal from passionate belief and the development of equanimity" (Mc Evilley, "The shape of ancient thought", p420) "Cynic sages, like Buddhist monks, renounced home and possessions and to the streets as wanderers and temple beggars. The closely related concepts ''apatheia'' (non-reaction, non-involvement) and ''adiaphoria'' (non-differentiation) became central to the Cynic discipline." (Mc Evilley, "The shape of ancient thought", p439)</ref> * [[Nagarjuna]]'s [[dialectic]] developed in the [[Madhyamaka]] can be paralleled to the Greek dialectical tradition.<ref>"Nagarjuna's work has the whole pattern of the Greek dialectic, with its complex and extensive system of arguments, which in Greece developed over a period of several centuries; yet it arises suddenly, without evidence of developmental stages, in its own tradition" (Mc Evilly, "The shape of ancient thought", p500)</ref> =====Cynicism, Madhyamaka and Zen===== Numerous parallels exist between the Greek philosophy of the [[Cynics]] and, several centuries later, the Buddhist philosophy of the [[Madhyamika]] and [[Zen]]. The Cynics denied the relevancy of human conventions and opinions (described as ''typhos'', literally "smoke" or "mist", a metaphor for "illusion" or "error"), including verbal expressions, in favor of the raw experience of reality. They stressed the independence from externals to achieve happiness ("Happiness is not pleasure, for which we need external, but virtue, which is complete without external" 3rd epistole of Crates). Similarly the [[Prajnaparamita]], precursor of the [[Madhyamika]], explained that all things are like foam, or bubbles, "empty, false, and fleeting", and that "only the negation of all views can lead to enlightenment" (Nāgārjuna, MK XIII.8). In order to evade the world of illusion, the Cynics recommended the discipline and struggle ("askēsis kai machē") of philosophy, the practice of "autarkia" (self-rule), and a lifestyle exemplified by [[Diogenes of Sinope|Diogenes]], which, like Buddhist monks, renounced earthly possessions. These conceptions, in combination with the idea of "philanthropia" (universal loving kindness, of which [[Crates of Thebes|Crates]], the student of Diogenes, was the best proponent), are strikingly reminiscent of Buddhist [[Prajñā|Prajna]] (wisdom) and [[Karuna]] (compassion).<ref>Mc Evilley, "The shape of ancient thought", p437–444</ref> ====Greco-Persian cosmological influences==== A popular figure in Greco-Buddhist art, the future Buddha [[Maitreya]], has sometimes been linked to the Iranian [[yazata]] ([[Zoroastrianism|Zoroastrian]] divinity) [[Mithra|Miθra]] who was also adopted as a figure in a Greco-Roman syncretistic cult under the name of [[Mithras]]. Maitreya is the fifth Buddha of the present world-age, who will appear at some undefined future epoch. According to Foltz, he "echoes the qualities of the [[Zoroastrian]] Saoshyant and the Christian Messiah".<ref>Foltz, p46</ref> However, in character and function, Maitreya does not much resemble either Mitra, Miθra or Mithras; his name is more obviously derived from the Sanskrit ''maitrī'' "kindliness", equivalent to [[Pāli|Pali]] ''mettā''; the Pali (and probably older) form of his name, Metteyya, does not closely resemble the name Miθra. The Buddha [[Amitabha|Amitābha]] (literally meaning "infinite radiance") with his paradisiacal "[[Pure Land]]" in the West, according to Foltz, "seems to be understood as the Iranian god of light, equated with the sun". This view is however not in accordance with the view taken of Amitābha by present-day Pure Land Buddhists, in which Amitābha is neither "equated with the sun" nor, strictly speaking, a god. ===Gandharan proselytism=== {{See also|Silk Road transmission of Buddhism}} Buddhist monks from the region of [[Gandhara]], where Greco-Buddhism was most influential, played a key role in the development and the transmission of Buddhist ideas in the direction of northern Asia. [[Image:Central Asian Buddhist Monks.jpeg|thumb|180px|Blue-eyed Central Asian Buddhist monk, with an East-Asian colleague, [[Tarim Basin]], 9th-10th century.]] * [[Kushan]] monks, such as [[Lokaksema]] (c. 178 CE), travelled to the Chinese capital of [[Loyang]], where they became the first translators of Mahayana Buddhist scriptures into Chinese.<ref>Foltz, p46</ref> Central Asian and East Asian Buddhist monks appear to have maintained strong exchanges until around the 10th century, as indicated by frescos from the Tarim Basin. * Two half-brothers from [[Gandhara]], [[Asanga]] and [[Vasubandhu]] (4th century), created the [[Yogacara]] or "Mind-only" school of Mahayana Buddhism, which through one of its major texts, the [[Lankavatara Sutra]], became a founding block of Mahayana, and particularly Zen, philosophy. * In 485 CE, according to the Chinese historic treatise [[Liang Shu]], five monks from Gandhara travelled to the country of [[Fusang]] ("The country of the extreme East" beyond the sea, probably eastern [[Japan]], although some historians suggest the American Continent), where they introduced Buddhism: :"[[Fusang]] is located to the east of China, 20,000 ''[[Li (Chinese unit)|li]]'' (1,500 kilometers) east of the state of ''Da Han'' (itself east of the state of ''Wa'' in modern [[Kyūshū]], [[Japan]]). (...) In former times, the people of Fusang knew nothing of the Buddhist religion, but in the second year of Da Ming of the [[Song dynasty]] (485 CE), five monks from Kipin ([[Kabul]] region of Gandhara) travelled by ship to Fusang. They propagated Buddhist doctrine, circulated scriptures and drawings, and advised the people to relinquish worldly attachments. As a results the customs of Fusang changed" (Ch:"扶桑在大漢國東二萬餘里,地在中國之東(...)其俗舊無佛法,宋大明二年,罽賓國嘗有比丘五人游行至其國,流通佛法,經像,教令出家,風 俗遂改.", [[Liang Shu]], 7th century CE). *[[Bodhidharma]], the founder of [[Zen]], is described as a [[Central Asia]]n Buddhist monk in the first Chinese references to him (Yan Xuan-Zhi, 547 CE), although later Chinese traditions describe him as coming from South India. == Intellectual influences in Asia== Through art and religion, the influence of Greco-Buddhism on the cultural make-up of [[East Asia]]n countries, especially [[China]], [[Korea]] and [[Japan]], may have extended further into the intellectual area. At the same time as [[Greco-Buddhist art]] and Mahayana schools of thought such as [[Dhyana]] were transmitted to East Asia, central concepts of Hellenic culture such as [[virtue]], excellence or [[quality]] may have been adopted by the cultures of Korea and Japan after a long diffusion among the Hellenized cities of [[Central Asia]], to become a key part of their warrior and work [[ethics]]. ==Greco-Buddhism and the West== In the direction of the [[Western world|West]], the Greco-Buddhist syncretism may also have had some formative influence on the religions of the [[Mediterranean Basin]]. ===Exchanges=== Intense westward physical exchange at that time along the Silk Road is confirmed by the Roman craze for [[silk]] from the 1st century BCE to the point that the [[Roman Senate|Senate]] issued, in vain, several edicts to prohibit the wearing of silk, on economic and moral grounds. This is attested by at least three significant authors: * [[Strabo]] (64/ 63 BCE&ndash;c. 24 CE). * [[Seneca the Younger]] (c. 3 BCE&ndash;65 CE). * [[Pliny the Elder]] (23&ndash;79 CE). The aforementioned Strabo and [[Plutarch]] (c. 45&ndash;125 CE) wrote about king [[Milinda|Menander]], confirming that information was circulating throughout the Hellenistic world. ==Religious influences== {{main|Buddhism and Christianity}} ===Buddhism and Christianity=== Although the philosophical systems of Buddhism and Christianity have evolved in rather different ways, the moral precepts advocated by Buddhism from the time of Ashoka through his edicts do have some similarities with the Christian moral precepts developed more than two centuries later: respect for life, respect for the weak, rejection of violence, pardon to sinners, tolerance. [[Image:MayaDream.JPG|thumb|Queen Māyā's white elephant dream, and the conception of the Buddha. [[Gandhara]], 2-3rd century CE.]] One theory is that these similarities may indicate the propagation of Buddhist ideals into the Western World, with the Greeks acting as intermediaries and religious syncretists.<ref>"Certain Indian notions may have made their way westward into the budding Christianity of the Mediterranean world through the channels of the Greek diaspora.", Foltz p44</ref> :"Scholars have often considered the possibility that Buddhism influenced the early development of Christianity. They have drawn attention to many parallels concerning the births, lives, doctrines, and deaths of the Buddha and Jesus" (Bentley, "Old World Encounters"). The story of the birth of the Buddha was well known in the West, and possibly influenced the story of the birth of Jesus: [[Jerome|Saint Jerome]] (4th century CE) mentions the birth of the Buddha, who he says "was born from the side of a virgin".<ref>McEvilley, p391</ref> Also a fragment of [[Archelaos of Carrha]] (278 CE) mentions the Buddha's virgin-birth.<ref>McEvilley, p391</ref> Early 3rd-4th century Christian writers such as [[Hippolytus of Rome|Hippolytus]] and [[Epiphanius]] write about a [[Scythianus]], who visited India around 50 AD from where he brought "the doctrine of the Two Principles". According to these writers, Scythianus' pupil Terebinthus presented himself as a "Buddha" ("he called himself Buddas" [[Cyril of Jerusalem]]<ref>"But Terebinthus, his disciple in this wicked error, inherited his money and books and heresy, and came to Palestine, and becoming known and condemned in Judaea he resolved to pass into Persia: but lest he should be recognised there also by his name he changed it and called himself Buddas." Cyril of Jerusalem, Catechetical Lecture no. 6, sections 23, available at [http://www.newadvent.org/fathers/310106.htm Catholic Encyclopedia Online]</ref>). Terebinthus went to [[Palestine]] and [[Judaea]] where he met the Apostles ("becoming known and condemned" Isaia), and ultimately settled in Babylon, where he transmitted his teachings to [[Mani (prophet)|Mani]], thereby creating the foundation of what could be called Persian syncretic Buddhism, [[Manicheism]]. One of the greatest thinkers and saints of western Christianity, [[Augustine of Hippo]] was originally a Manichean. In the 2nd century CE, the Christian dogmatist [[Clement of Alexandria]] recognized Bactrian Buddhists (Sramanas) and Indian Gymnosophists for their influence on Greek thought: :''"Thus philosophy, a thing of the highest utility, flourished in antiquity among the barbarians, shedding its light over the nations. And afterwards it came to [[Ancient Greece|Greece]]. First in its ranks were the prophets of the [[Ancient Egypt|Egyptians]]; and the [[Chaldeans]] among the [[Assyrian people|Assyrians]]; and the [[Druids]] among the [[Gauls]]; and the [[Sramana]]s among the [[Bactrians]] ("Σαρμαναίοι Βάκτρων"); and the philosophers of the [[Celts]]; and the [[Magi]] of the [[Persians]], who foretold the Saviour's birth, and came into the land of [[Judea|Judaea]] guided by a [[Star of Bethlehem|star]]. The Indian gymnosophists are also in the number, and the other barbarian philosophers. And of these there are two classes, some of them called Sramanas ("Σαρμάναι"), and others [[Brahmins]] ("Βραφμαναι")."'' (Clement of Alexandria "The Stromata, or Miscellanies"<ref>[http://www.earlychristianwritings.com/text/clement-stromata-book1.html Clement of Alexandria "The Stromata, or Miscellanies" Book I, Chapter XV]</ref>). The main Greek cities of the Middle-East happen to have played a key role in the development of Christianity, such as [[Antioch]] and especially [[Alexandria]], and "it was later in this very place that some of the most active centers of Christianity were established" ([[Robert Linssen]], "Zen living"). == See also == *[[Greco-Bactrian Kingdom]] *[[Indo-Greek Kingdom]] *[[Greco-Buddhist Art]] *[[Buddhas of Bamyan]] *[[Kushan|Kushan Empire]] *[[Mathura]] ==References== * "Religions and the Silk Road" by Richard C. Foltz (St. Martin's Press, 1999) ISBN 0-312-23338-8 * "The Diffusion of Classical Art in Antiquity" by John Boardman (Princeton University Press, 1994) ISBN 0-691-03680-2 * "The Shape of Ancient Thought. Comparative studies in Greek and Indian Philosophies" by [[Thomas McEvilley]] (Allworth Press and the School of Visual Arts, 2002) ISBN 1-58115-203-5 * "Old World Encounters. Cross-cultural contacts and exchanges in pre-modern times" by Jerry H.Bentley (Oxford University Press, 1993) ISBN 0-19-507639-7 * "Alexander the Great: East-West Cultural contacts from Greece to Japan" (NHK and Tokyo National Museum, 2003) * "Living Zen" by Robert Linssen (Grove Press New York, 1958) ISBN 0-8021-3136-0 * "Echoes of Alexander the Great: Silk route portraits from Gandhara" by Marian Wenzel, with a foreword by the Dalai Lama (Eklisa Anstalt, 2000) ISBN 1-58886-014-0 * "The Edicts of King Asoka: An English Rendering" by Ven. S. Dhammika (The Wheel Publication No. 386/387) ISBN 955-24-0104-6 * "Mahayana Buddhism, The Doctrinal Foundations", Paul Williams, Routledge, ISBN 0-415-02537-0 * "The Greeks in Bactria and India", W.W. Tarn, South Asia Books, ISBN 81-215-0220-9 *{{cite book | author=Lowenstein, Tom | title="The vision of the Buddha" | publisher=Duncan Baird Publishers | year=1996 | id=ISBN 1-903296-91-9}} ==Notes== <!--This article uses the Cite.php citation mechanism. If you would like more information on how to add references to this article, please see http://meta.wikimedia.org/wiki/Cite/Cite.php --> {{Reflist|2}} ==External links== * [http://www.unesco.org/bpi/eng/unescopress/2001/taliban-crisis.shtml UNESCO: Threatened Greco-Buddhist art] * [http://event.yomiuri.co.jp/2003/S0172/alex_works.htm Alexander the Great: East-West Cultural contacts from Greece to Japan (Japanese)] * [http://faculty.maxwell.syr.edu/gaddis/HST210/Oct21/Default.htm The Hellenistic age] * [http://www.bpmurphy.com/COTW/week2.htm The Kanishka Buddhist coins] * [http://www.vrindavan-dham.com/interim-period.php Interim period: Mathura as the Vaishnava-Buddhist seat of culture and learning] [[Category:Ancient Greeks in Asia]] [[Category:Branches of Buddhism]] [[Category:Hellenistic philosophy and religion]] [[Category:History of Pakistan]] [[Category:Ancient India]] [[Category:Buddhism in the ancient Mediterranean]] {{Buddhism topics}} {{Link FA|es}} [[bg:Гръко-будизъм]] [[de:Graeco-Buddhismus]] [[es:Grecobudismo]] [[fr:Gréco-bouddhisme]] [[gl:Greco-budismo]] [[it:Buddhismo greco]] [[ml:ഗ്രീക്കോ-ബുദ്ധിസം]] [[pt:Greco-budismo]] [[fi:Grekobuddhalaisuus]] [[sv:Graecobuddhism]]