Gunpowder 12737 226179509 2008-07-17T05:02:06Z Alpha Ralpha Boulevard 5662869 Adds requested reference (from Brown Brown Wiki article). [[image:Pyrodex powder ffg.jpg|thumb|right|A modern [[black powder substitute]] for [[muzzleloader|muzzleloading]] rifles in FFG size]] '''Gunpowder''' is a [[pyrotechnic composition]], an explosive mixture of [[sulfur]], [[charcoal]] and [[potassium nitrate]] (also known as saltpetre/saltpeter) that burns rapidly, producing volumes of hot solids and gases which can be used as a [[propellant]] in [[firearms]] and [[fireworks]]. Gunpowder is classified as a [[low explosive]] because of its slow decomposition rate and consequently low [[brisance]]. Low explosives produce a subsonic [[deflagration]] wave rather than the supersonic [[detonation]] wave produced by brisants, or [[high explosives]]. The gases produced by burning gunpowder generate enough pressure to propel a bullet, but not enough to destroy the [[gun barrel|barrel]] of a firearm. This makes gunpowder less suitable for shattering [[Rock (geology)|rock]] or fortifications, where high explosives such as [[Trinitrotoluene|TNT]] are preferred. == Gunpowder (black powder) == The term "black powder" was coined in the late 19th century to distinguish prior gunpowder formulations from the new [[smokeless powder]]s and semi-smokeless powders. (Semi-smokeless powders featured bulk volume properties that approximated black powder in terms of chamber pressure when used in firearms, but had significantly reduced amounts of smoke and combustion products; they ranged in color from brownish tan to yellow to white. Most of the bulk semi-smokeless powders ceased to be manufactured in the 1920's.)<ref>[http://www.swissrifles.com/ammo/index.html The History of the 10.4x38 Swiss Cartridge]</ref><ref>[http://www.chuckhawks.com/blackpowder_pyrodex.htm Blackpowder to Pyrodex and Beyond] by Randy Wakeman at Chuck Hawks</ref><ref>[http://www.ngpc.state.ne.us/nebland/articles/history/shotshells.asp The History and Art of Shotshells] by Jon Farrar, Nebraskaland Magazine</ref> Black powder is a granular mixture of *a [[nitrate]]—typically [[potassium nitrate]] (KNO<sub>3</sub>)—which supplies oxygen for the reaction; *[[charcoal]], which provides fuel for the reaction in the form of carbon (C); *[[sulfur]] (S), which, while also a fuel, lowers the temperature of ignition and increases the speed of combustion. Potassium nitrate is the most important ingredient in terms of both bulk and function because the combustion process releases oxygen from the potassium nitrate, promoting the rapid burning of the other ingredients.<ref name=bjb4>Buchanan. "Editor's Introduction: Setting the Context", in {{Harvnb|Buchanan|2006|p=4}}.</ref> To reduce the likelihood of accidental ignition by [[static electricity]], the granules of modern black powder are typically coated with [[graphite]], which prevents the build-up of electrostatic charge. The current standard composition for black powder manufactured by [[pyrotechnics|pyrotechnicians]] was adopted as long ago as 1780. It is 75% potassium nitrate, 15% softwood charcoal, and 10% sulfur.<ref name = earl-2>{{Harvcolnb|Earl|1978|loc=Chapter 2: The Development of Gunpowder}}</ref> These ratios have varied over the centuries, and by country, but can be altered somewhat depending on the purpose of the powder. The burn rate of black powder can be changed by corning. Corning first compresses the fine black powder meal into blocks with a fixed density (1.7&nbsp;g/cm³). The blocks are then broken up into granules. These granules are then sorted by size to give the various grades of black powder. In the [[USA]], standard grades of black powder run from the coarse Fg grade used in large bore rifles and small cannon though FFg (medium and smallbore rifles), FFFg (pistols), and FFFFg (smallbore, short pistols and priming [[flintlock]]s). In the [[United Kingdom]], the gunpowder grains are categorised by mesh size: the BSS [[Mesh (scale)|sieve mesh size]], being the smallest mesh size on which no grains were retained. Recognised grain sizes are Gunpowder 'G 7', 'G 20', 'G 40', and 'G 90'. A simple, commonly cited, [[chemical equation]] for the combustion of black powder is :2 [[potassium nitrate|KNO<sub>3</sub>]] + [[sulfur|S]] + 3 [[carbon|C]] → [[potassium sulfide|K<sub>2</sub>S]] + [[nitrogen|N<sub>2</sub>]] + 3 [[carbon dioxide|CO<sub>2</sub>]]. A more accurate, but still simplified, equation is<ref>[http://mysite.du.edu/~jcalvert/phys/bang.htm#Blac Flash! Bang! Whiz!], University of Denver</ref> :10 [[potassium nitrate|KNO<sub>3</sub>]] + 3 [[sulfur|S]] + 8 [[carbon|C]] → 2 [[potassium carbonate|K<sub>2</sub>CO<sub>3</sub>]] + 3 [[potassium sulfate|K<sub>2</sub>SO<sub>4</sub>]] + 6 [[carbon dioxide|CO<sub>2</sub>]] + 5 [[nitrogen|N<sub>2</sub>]]. The products of burning do not follow any simple equation. One study's results showed that it produced (in order of descending quantities): 55.91% solid products: potassium carbonate, potassium sulfate, potassium sulfide, sulfur, potassium nitrate, potassium thiocyanate, carbon, ammonium carbonate. 42.98% gaseous products: carbon dioxide, nitrogen, carbon monoxide, hydrogen sulfide, hydrogen, methane, 1.11% water. Black powder formulations where the nitrate used is sodium nitrate tend to be [[hygroscopic]], unlike black powders where the nitrate used is saltpetre. Because of this, black powder which uses saltpetre can be stored unsealed and remain viable for centuries provided no liquid [[water]] is ever introduced; [[muzzleloader]]s have been known to fire after hanging on a wall for decades in a loaded state, provided they remained dry. By contrast, powder that uses sodium nitrate, which is typically intended for blasting, must be sealed from moisture in the air to remain stable for long times. ====Advantages==== Smokeless powder requires precise loading of the charge to prevent damage due to overloading. With black powder, though such damage is still possible, loading can generally be carried out using volumetric measures rather than precise weight. Generally, high explosives are preferred for shattering rock; however, because of its low [[brisance]], black powder causes fewer fractures and results in more usable stone compared to other explosives, making black powder useful for blasting monumental stone such as [[granite]] and [[marble]]. Black powder is well suited for [[blank round]]s, [[signal flare]]s, [[burst charge]]s, and rescue-line launches. Gunpowder can be used to make [[firework]]s by mixing with chemical compounds that produce the desired color. ====Disadvantages==== Black powder has relatively low [[energy density]] compared to modern smokeless powders and produces a thick [[smoke]] that can impair aiming and reveal a shooter's position. Combustion converts less than half the mass of black powder to gas; the rest ends up as a thick layer of [[soot]] inside the barrel. In addition to being a nuisance, the residue from burnt black powder is [[hygroscopic]] and an anhydrous [[caustic]] substance. When moisture from the air is absorbed, the [[potassium oxide]] or [[sodium oxide]] turns into [[hydroxide]], which will corrode [[wrought iron]] or [[steel]] gun barrels. Black powder arms must be well cleaned both inside and out to remove the residue. ====Transportation==== The [[UN]] Model Regulations on the Transportation of [[Dangerous Goods]] and national transportation authorities, such as [[United States Department of Transportation]], have classified Gunpowder (black powder) as a ''Group A: Primary explosive substance'' for shipment because it ignites so easily. Complete manufactured devices containing black powder are usually classified as ''Group D: Secondary detonating substance, or black powder, or article containing secondary detonating substance'', such as "Firework", "Class D Model Rocket Engine", etc, for shipment because they are harder to ignite than loose powder. As explosives, they all fall into the category of Class 1. ==Sulfur-free gunpowder== The development of [[smokeless powder]]s, such as [[Cordite]], in the late 19th century created the need for a spark-sensitive [[blasting cap|priming charge]], such as gunpowder. However, the sulfur content of traditional gunpowders caused [[corrosion]] problems with Cordite Mk I and this led to the introduction of a range of sulfur-free gunpowders, of varying grain sizes.<ref name =cocroft-4>{{Harvcolnb|Cocroft|2000|loc="The demise of gunpowder". Chapter 4}}</ref> They typically contain 70.5 parts of saltpetre and 29.5 parts of charcoal.<ref name =cocroft-4/> Like black powder, they were produced in different grain sizes. In United Kingdom, the finest grain was known as ''sulfur-free mealed powder'' (''SMP''). Coarser grains were numbered as sulfur-free gunpowder (SFG n): 'SFG 12', 'SFG 20', 'SFG 40' and 'SFG 90', for example, where the number was a BSS [[Mesh (scale)|sieve mesh size]], being the smallest mesh size on which no grains were retained. == History == {{main|History of gunpowder}} ===China=== [[Image:Mooko-Suenaga.jpg|thumb|290px|A Mongol bomb thrown against a charging [[Japan]]ese [[samurai]] during the [[Mongol invasions of Japan]], 1281.]] Most sources credit the discovery of gunpowder to [[China|Chinese]] [[Alchemy|alchemists]] in the 9th century searching for an [[elixir of life|elixir of immortality]].<ref>Bhattacharya (2006). "Gunpowder and its Applications in Ancient India" (Chapter 2, in: {{Harvnb|Buchanan|2006|Pp=42-50}}) acknowledges that "most sources credit the Chinese with the discovery of gunpowder" though he notes that passages in [[Sanskrit]] texts and the availability of raw materials present significant circumstantial evidence that India may have discovered gunpowder independently.</ref> The discovery of gunpowder was probably the product of centuries of alchemical experimentation.<ref name=chase/> Saltpetre was known to the Chinese by the mid-1st century AD and there is strong evidence of the use of saltpetre and sulfur in various largely [[medicine|medicinal]] combinations.<ref>Buchanan. "Editor's Introduction: Setting the Context", in {{Harvnb|Buchanan|2006}}.</ref> A Chinese alchemical text from 492 noted that saltpeter gave off a purple flame when ignited, providing for the first time a practical and reliable means of distinguishing it from other inorganic salts, making it possible to evaluate and compare purification techniques.<ref name=chase>{{Harvcolnb|Chase|2003|pp=31–32}}</ref> The first reference to gunpowder is probably a passage in the ''Zhenyuan miaodao yaolüe'', a [[Taoist]] text tentatively dated to the mid-800s:<ref name=chase>{{Harvcolnb|Chase|2003|pp=31–32}}</ref> <blockquote>Some have heated together [[sulfur]], [[realgar]] and [[Potassium nitrate|saltpeter]] with [[honey]]; smoke and flames result, so that their hands and faces have been burnt, and even the whole house where they were working burned down.<ref>{{Harvcolnb|Kelly|2004|p=4}}</ref></blockquote> [[Image:Ming matchlocks.jpg|thumb|250px|left|[[Ming Dynasty]] (1368-1644 AD) [[matchlock]] firearms]] Contrary to popular belief, the Chinese did not use gunpowder only for fireworks. In fact, the earliest surviving recipes for gunpowder can be found in the Chinese [[military]] treatise ''[[Wujing Zongyao|Wujing zongyao]]''<ref name=chase/> of 1044 AD, which contains three: two for use in [[incendiary bomb]]s to be thrown by [[siege engine]]s and one intended as fuel for poison [[smoke bomb]]s.<ref>{{Harvcolnb|Kelly|2004|p=10}}</ref> The formulas in the ''Wujing zongyao'' range from 27 to 50 percent nitrate.<ref name="needham volume 5 part 7 345">{{Harvcolnb|Needham|1986|p=345–346}}</ref> Experimenting with different levels of saltpetre content eventually produced [[bomb]]s, [[grenade]]s, and [[land mine]]s, in addition to giving [[fire arrow]]s a new lease on life.<ref name=chase/> By the end of the 12th century, there were [[cast iron]] [[grenades]] filled with gunpowder formulations capable of bursting through their metal containers.<ref name="needham volume 5 part 7 347">{{Harvcolnb|Needham|1986|p=347}}</ref> The 14th century ''[[Huolongjing]]'' contains gunpowder recipes with nitrate levels ranging from 12 to 91 percent, six of which approach the theoretical composition for maximal explosive force.<ref name="needham volume 5 part 7 345"/> In China, the 13th century saw the beginnings of [[rocketry]]<ref>{{Harvcolnb|Crosby|2002|pp=100–103}}</ref><ref>{{Harvcolnb|Needham|1986|p=12}}</ref> and the manufacture of the oldest gun still in existence,<ref name=chase/><ref>{{Harvcolnb|Needham|1986|pp=293–294}}</ref> a descendant of the earlier [[fire-lance]], a gunpowder-fueled [[flamethrower]] that could shoot shrapnel along with fire. The ''Huolongjing'' text of the 14th century also describes hollow, gunpowder-packed [[round shot|exploding cannonballs]].<ref name="needham volume 5 part 7 264">Needham, Volume 5, Part 7, 264.</ref> ===Islamic world=== {{main|Inventions in the Islamic world|Alchemy and chemistry in Islam}} [[Image:Dardanelles Gun Turkish Bronze 15c.png|thumb|230px|right|The [[Great Turkish Bombard|Sultani Cannon]], a very heavy bronze [[muzzle-loading]] [[cannon]] of type used by [[Ottoman Empire]] in the [[Fall of Constantinople|siege of Constantinople]], 1453 AD.]] Gunpowder was possibly invented by Muslims<ref>"Gunpowder." Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopaedia Britannica 2008 Ultimate Reference Suite. Chicago: Encyclopædia Britannica, 2008. [http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-82363/explosive#624916.hook check]</ref><ref>[[Sigrid Hunke]], Allahs Sonne über dem Abendland 1967. Stutgart, pp. 36-37.</ref>. [[Potassium Nitrate]] was known to Arab chemists, and was described many times. The earliest description is by [[Calid|Khalid ibn Yazid]] (635-704)<ref>Renaud et Favé: “Du Feu Grégeois, des Feux de guerre et de la Poudre chez les Arabes, les Persans et les Chinois” in: “Journal Asiatique”- 1849, XIV, pp.257-327</ref>, and was later described and used many times, for example by [[Geber|Jabir ibn Hayyan]] (722-815) to make [[nitric acid]] and by [[al-Razi]] and others. Saltpeter was called "natrun" but also had other names indicating its ore origins, for example, (''Shabb Yamani'' or "Yemeni alum") and (''thalj al-Sīn'', or "Chinese snow," as Muslims got the ore from China, among other places<ref name="Needham">Joseph Needham, Science and Civilization in China, volume 5. p.432.</ref>). Muslims went beyond the use of the impractical ore material, and began purifying it. [[George Sarton]] states in that Muslims were the first to purify saltpeter and he shows that black slaves were purifying saltpeter in [[Basra]], [[Iraq]] and that those slaves [[Zanj Rebellion|rebelled]] in (869)<ref>[[George Sarton]], Introduction to the History of Science volume 2. p.569.</ref> The earliest Arabic manuscripts with gunpowder recipes are two undated manuscripts, but one of them (the al-Karshuni manuscript) was dated by Berthelot and Duval to be from the ninth to the eleventh century<ref>Berthelot, and Duval,.p XII,. The Karshuni MS was published in Syriac script, with a translation into French by Duval. The Karshuni Arabic text was converted into Arabic script in Aleppo by the Rev. Father Barsum on the request of the author of this paper. The Arabic text in Arabic script is still in MS form.</ref>, both manuscripts mention saltpeter, charcoal and sulphur as the sole ingredients of gunpowder. We can find the first book dedicated for gunpowder and its uses in the works Hasan al-Rammah's ''Al-furusiyyah wa al-manasib al-harbiyya'' (''The Book of Military Horsemanship and Ingenious War Devices''), written in the 1270s, which included the first gunpowder recipes to approach the ideal composition for [[explosive]] gunpowder used in modern times (75% saltpetre (KNO<sub>3</sub>), 10% [[sulfur]], 15% [[carbon]]), such as the ''tayyar'' "rocket" (75 parts saltpetre, 8 sulfur, and 15 carbon, by weight) and the ''tayyar buruq'' "lightning rocket" (74 parts saltpetre, 10 sulfur, 15 carbon). He states in his book that many of these recipes were known to his father and grandfather, hence dating back to at least the late 12th century.<ref name="AhmedY"/><ref>[[Ahmad Y Hassan]], [http://www.history-science-technology.com/Articles/articles%2072.htm Technology Transfer in the Chemical Industries], ''History of Science and Technology in Islam''.</ref> [[Image:Ibn Ghanims gun.jpg|thumb|left|200px|A picture of a 15th century [[al-Andalus|Andalusian]] Arab [[cannon]] from the book ''Al-izz wal rifa'a''.]] The use of saltpeter in military applications by the Arabs goes back to the 10th century. The three ingredients of gunpowder were used, often with the addition of [[naphtha]] to make "tubes of incendiaries," which were thrown by catapults<ref>[[Encyclopaedia of Islam|EI]] Persian edition vol. 11 [http://www.cgie.org.ir/shavad.asp?id=123&avaid=4335 check]</ref><ref>Military life among the Arabs 1964, ministry of information Damuscus, Syria</ref>, and some Arabic greekfire receipts contained saltpeter<ref>Al-Hiyal fi al-hurub, p. 175</ref>, [[Shawar]] vizier of the [[Fatimid]] [[Caliph]] [[Al-'Āḍid]]'s used 20,000 tubes of incendiaries and 10,000 lighting bombs in the year [[1168]], by 1916, Bahjat and Gabriel had gathered dozens of nearly intact ceramic grenades of different types, and fragments of hundreds more. and in the 1940s those ceramics caught the attention of yet another French scientist Maurice Mercier where he noticed that those that had the strongest walls and the most aerodynamic designs often had their tops broken off, while the rest of the body was intact. Only a powerful internal explosion, he reasoned, could have caused such clean, sharp fractures. He had a number of the pots carefully examined and discovered that they contained traces of nitrates and sulfur, essential ingredients of gunpowder. Many now on display in the Cairo Museum and the Louvre, the components of the grenades were volatile jelly of kerosene, potassium nitrates and sulfur.<ref>[[Saudi Aramco World]] Jan-1995 "The Oil Weapons" [http://www.saudiaramcoworld.com/issue/199501/the.oil.weapons.htm check]</ref><ref>Mercier, pp. 98-100.</ref> Another early use of gunpowder in military applications in [[al-Andalus]] (modern Spain) is as early as [[1118]]<ref>[[Al-Arabi (Magazine)|Al-Arabi Magazine]] - Sept 1986, p.116.</ref>, later in 1248 it was used in the defence of [[Seville]]<ref>Partington, p.228, footnote 6 citing C.F. Temler.</ref> and such devices were called "Thunderers", another early use was in 1250 by the [[Mamluks]] against the Franks led by Louis IX in [[Battle of Al Mansurah]]<ref>Joinville p. 216, see also Mercier, pp 77-78</ref>, and the explosive [[hand cannon]]s first used by the [[Mamluks]] to repel the [[Mongols]] at the [[Battle of Ain Jalut]] in 1260. There were four different gunpowder compositions used for the cannons at the battle, with the most explosive cannon having a gunpowder composition (74% saltpetre, 11% sulfur, 15% carbon) again almost identical to the ideal composition for explosive gunpowder.<ref name="AhmedY">{{cite web |url= http://www.history-science-technology.com/Articles/articles%203.htm |title= Gunpowder Composition for Rockets and Cannon in Arabic Military Treatises In Thirteenth and Fourteenth Centuries |accessdate=2008-03-29 |last=Hassan |first=Ahmad Y |authorlink=Ahmad Y Hassan |work=History of Science and Technology in Islam }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url= http://www.history-science-technology.com/Articles/articles%2072.htm |title=Technology Transfer in the Chemical Industries |accessdate=2008-03-29 |last=Hassan |first=Ahmad Y |authorlink=Ahmad Y Hassan |work=History of Science and Technology in Islam }}</ref> ===Europe=== The earliest extant written references to gunpowder in Europe are from the works of [[Roger Bacon]]. In Bacon's ''Epistola'', "''De Secretis Operibus Artis et Naturae et de Nullitate Magiae''," dated variously between 1248<ref name=britannica1771/> and 1257<ref>{{Harvcolnb|Partington|1960|p=70-71}}</ref>, he states:<ref name=britannica1771>{{Citation | contribution = Gunpowder | title = Encyclopedia Britannica | place = London | year = 1771}}. "frier Bacon, our countryman, mentions the compofition in exprefs terms, in his treatife De nullitate magiæ, publifhed at Oxford, in the year 1248."</ref> <blockquote>We can, with saltpeter and other substances, compose artificially a fire that can be launched over long distances... By only using a very small quantity of this material much light can be created accompanied by a horrible fracas. It is possible with it to destroy a town or an army ... In order to produce this artificial lightning and thunder it is necessary to take saltpeter, sulfur, and Luru Vopo Vir Can Utriet.</blockquote> [[Image:Fortin La Galera 01.jpg|thumb|220px|right|Cannons forged in 1667 AD at the Fortín de La Galera, [[Nueva Esparta]], Venezuela.]] The last part has been interpreted as an elaborate coded anagram for the quantities needed, but it may also be simply a garbled transcription of an illegible passage.<ref name=jrp74>{{Harvcolnb|Partington|1960|p=74}}</ref> <ref>{{Harvcolnb|Cocroft|2000|p=1}} A picture of this handwritten paragraph, taken from the Sloan MSS, held in the [[British Library]] is given on page one of Cocroft (2000)</ref> In the ''Opus Maior'' of 1267, Bacon describes [[firecracker]]s:<ref name=jrp74/> <blockquote>a child’s toy of sound and fire and explosion made in various parts of the world with powder of saltpeter, sulfur and charcoal of hazelwood.<ref>{{Harvcolnb|Kelly|2004|p=25}}</ref></blockquote>The ''Liber Ignium'', or ''Book of Fires'', attributed to Marcus Graecus, is a collection of incendiary recipes, including some gunpowder recipes. Partington dates the gunpowder recipes to approximately 1300.<ref>{{Harvcolnb|Partington|1960|p=60}}</ref> One recipe for "flying fire" (''ingis volatilis'') involves saltpeter, sulfur, and [[colophonium]], which, when inserted into a reed or hollow wood, "flies away suddenly and burns up everything." Another recipe, for artificial "thunder", specifies a mixture of one pound native sulfur, two pounds linden or willow charcoal, and six pounds of saltpeter.<ref name=graecus>{{Harvcolnb|Partington|1960|pp=48-49, 54}}</ref> Another specifies a 1:3:9 ratio.<ref name=graecus/> Some of the gunpowder recipes in the ''De Mirabilibus Mundi'' of [[Albertus Magnus]] are identical to the recipes of the ''Liber Ignium'', and according to Partington, "may have been taken from that work, rather than conversely."<ref name=albertus>{{Harvcolnb|Partington|1960|pp=82–83}}</ref> Partington suggests that some of the book may have been compiled by Albert's students, "but since it is found in thirteenth century manuscripts, it may well be by Albert."<ref name=albertus/> Albertus Magnus died in 1280 AD. Shot and gunpowder for military purposes were made by skilled military tradesmen, who later were called ''firemakers'', and who also were required to make fireworks for celebrations of victory or peace. During the [[Renaissance]], two European schools of pyrotechnic thought emerged, one in [[Italy]] and the other at [[Nürnberg]], [[Germany]]. The Italian school of pyrotechnics emphasized elaborate fireworks, and the German school stressed scientific advancement. Both schools added significantly to further development of pyrotechnics, and by the mid-17th century fireworks were used for entertainment on an unprecedented scale in Europe, being popular even at resorts and public gardens.<ref name=Encarta>"[http://encarta.msn.com/encyclopedia_761576898_2/Fireworks.html Fireworks]," Microsoft Encarta Online Encyclopedia 2007 © 1997-2007 Microsoft Corporation. All Rights Reserved.</ref> By 1788, as a result of the reforms for which [[Lavoisier]] was mainly responsible, [[France]] had become self-sufficient in saltpeter, and its gunpowder had become both the best in Europe and inexpensive.<ref>{{Citation | last =Metzner | first =Paul | year =1998 | title =Crescendo of the Virtuoso: Spectacle, Skill, and Self-Promotion in Paris during the Age of Revolution | publisher =University of California Press}}</ref> The introduction of [[smokeless powder]] in the late 19th century led to a contraction of the gunpowder industry. ===Britain=== Gunpowder production in the British Isles appears to have started in the mid 13th century with the aim of supplying [[The Crown]].<ref name =cocroft-1>{{Harvcolnb|Cocroft|2000|loc="Success to the Black Art!". Chapter 1}}</ref> Records show that gunpowder was being made, in England, in 1346, at the [[Tower of London]]; a powder house existed at the Tower in 1461; and in 1515 three King's gunpowder makers worked there.<ref name =cocroft-1/> Gunpowder was also being made or stored at other Royal castles, such as [[Portchester Castle]] and [[Edinburgh castle]]. [[Image:Irvinepowderhouse2.JPG|thumb|150px|left|<center>The old Powder or Pouther magazine dating from 1642, built by order of James VI. [[Irvine, Ayrshire|Irvine]], North Ayrshire, Scotland.<center>]] By the early fourteenth century, according to N.J.G. Pounds's study ''The Medieval Castle in England and Wales,'' many [[England|English]] castles had been deserted and others were crumbling. Their military significance faded except on the borders. Gunpowder made smaller castles useless.<ref>Ross, Charles. ''The Custom of the Castle: From Malory to Macbeth''. Berkeley: University of California Press, c1997. http://ark.cdlib.org/ark:/13030/ft3r29n8qn/ pp. 131-130.</ref> [[Henry VIII of England|Henry VIII]] was short of gunpowder when he invaded France in 1544 and England needed to import gunpowder via the port of [[Antwerp]].<ref name =cocroft-1/> The [[English Civil War]], 1642-1645, led to an expansion of the gunpowder industry, with the repeal of the Royal Patent in August 1641.<ref name =cocroft-1/> The [[Home Office]] removed gunpowder from its list of ''Permitted Explosives''; shortly afterwards, on [[31 December]] [[1931]], [[Curtis & Harvey]]'s [[Glynneath]] gunpowder factory at [[Pontneddfechan]], in [[Wales]], closed down, and it was demolished by fire in 1932.<ref name = glynneath>{{Citation | last =Pritchard | first =Tom | last2 =Evans | first2 =Jack | last3 =Johnson | first3 =Sydney | year =1985 | title =The Old Gunpowder Factory at Glynneath | place =Merthyr Tydfil | publisher =Merthyr Tydfil & District Naturalists' Society}}</ref> The last remaining gunpowder mill at the [[Waltham Abbey Royal Gunpowder Mills|Royal Gunpowder Factory, Waltham Abbey]] was damaged by a German [[Land mine|parachute mine]] in 1941 and it never reopened.<ref name =cocroft-4>{{Harvcolnb|Cocroft|2000|loc="The demise of gunpowder". Chapter 4}}</ref> This was followed by the closure of the gunpowder section at the [[Royal Ordnance Factory]], [[ROF Chorley]], the section was closed and demolished at the end of [[World War II]]; and [[Nobel Industries (Scotland)|ICI Nobel]]'s [[Roslin, Midlothian|Roslin]] gunpowder factory which closed in 1954.<ref name =cocroft-4/><ref name = macdougall>{{Citation | last =MacDougall | first =Ian | year =2000 | title ="Oh! Ye had to be Careful": Personal Recollections by Roslin Gunpowder Mill Factory Workers | place =East Linton | publisher =Tuckwell Press | isbn =1-86232-126-4}}</ref> This left the sole United Kingdom gunpowder factory at ICI Nobel's [[Ardeer, Scotland|Ardeer]] site in [[Scotland]]; it too closed in October 1976.<ref name =cocroft-4/> Since then gunpowder has been imported into the United Kingdom. In the late 1970s / early 1980s gunpowder was bought from eastern Europe; particularly from what were then, [[German Democratic Republic|East Germany]] and the former [[Yugoslavia]]. ===India=== [[Image:RajaGopalaCannon.JPG|thumb|right|250px|A 17th century forge-welded iron cannon, at [[Thanjavur]]'s eastern entrance (India).]] Gunpowder arrived in [[History of India|India]] by the mid-1300s, but could have been introduced by the [[Mongols]] perhaps as early as the mid-1200s.<ref name=chase130>{{Harvcolnb|Chase|2003|p=130}}</ref> It was written in the ''Tarikh-i Firishta'' (1606-1607) that the envoy of the Mongol ruler [[Hulegu Khan]] was presented with a dazzling [[pyrotechnics]] display upon his arrival in [[Delhi]] in 1258 AD.<ref name="khan 9 10">{{Harvcolnb|Khan|2004|pp=9-10}}</ref> Firearms known as ''top-o-tufak'' also existed in the [[Vijayanagara Empire]] of India by as early as 1366 AD.<ref name="khan 9 10"/> From then on the employment of [[gunpowder warfare]] in India was prevalent, with events such as the siege of [[Belgaum]] in 1473 AD by the [[Sultan]] Muhammad Shah Bahmani.<ref name="khan 10">{{Harvcolnb|Khan|2004|p=10}}</ref> By the 16th century, Indians were manufacturing a diverse variety of firearms; large guns in particular, became visible in [[Tanjore]], [[Dacca]], [[Bijapur]] and [[Murshidabad]].<ref name=GF3>Partington (Johns Hopkins University Press edition, 1999), 225</ref> Guns made of bronze were recovered from [[Calicut]] (1504) and [[Diu]] (1533).<ref name=GF4>Partington (Johns Hopkins University Press edition, 1999), 226</ref> [[Gujarāt]] supplied Europe saltpeter for use in gunpowder warfare during the 17th century.<ref name=IndiaBritannica>"India." Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopaedia Britannica 2008 Ultimate Reference Suite. Chicago: Encyclopædia Britannica, 2008.</ref> [[Bengal]] and [[Malwa|Mālwa]] participated in saltpeter production.<ref name=IndiaBritannica/> The Dutch, French, Portuguese, and English used [[Chapra|Chāpra]] as a center of saltpeter refining.<ref>"Chāpra." Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopaedia Britannica 2008 Ultimate Reference Suite. Chicago: Encyclopædia Britannica, 2008.</ref> War rockets, mines and counter mines using gunpowder were used in India by the time of [[Akbar]] and [[Jahangir|Jahangir]].<ref name=partingtonquote>Partington (Johns Hopkins University Press edition, 1999), 226</ref> [[Fathullah Shirazi]] (c. 1582), a [[Persian people|Persian]]-[[History of India|Indian]] [[polymath]] and mechanical engineer who worked for [[Akbar the Great]] in the [[Mughal Empire]], invented the [[autocannon]], the earliest multi-shot gun. As opposed to the [[polybolos]] and [[repeating crossbow]]s used earlier in [[ancient Greece]] and [[China]], respectively, Shirazi's rapid-firing gun had multiple [[gun barrel]]s that fired [[hand cannon]]s loaded with gunpowder.<ref>A. K. Bag (2005), "Fathullah Shirazi: Cannon, Multi-barrel Gun and Yarghu", ''Indian Journal of History of Science'' '''40''' (3), pp. 431-436.</ref> Both [[Hyder Ali]] and his son [[Tippu Sultan]] used black powder technology in iron-cased war rockets with considerable effect against the British, which inspired the development of the [[Congreve rocket]].<ref name=r&ms>"rocket and missile system." Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopaedia Britannica 2008 Ultimate Reference Suite. Chicago: Encyclopædia Britannica, 2008.</ref> ===United States=== Prior to the [[American Revolutionary War]] very little gunpowder was made in the [[United States]]; and, as a British Colony, most was imported from [[Kingdom of Great Britain|Britain]].<ref name = brown/> In October 1777 the British [[Parliament]] banned the importation of gunpowder into America.<ref name = brown/> Gunpowder, however, was secretly obtained from [[France]] and the [[Netherlands]].<ref name = brown/> The first domestic supplies of gunpowder were made by [[du Pont|E. I. du Pont de Nemours and Company]].<ref name=brown>{{Harvcolnb|Brown|1998}}</ref> The company was founded in 1802 by Eleuthère Irénée du Pont, two years after he and his family left [[France]] to escape the [[French Revolution]].<ref name = dupont>{{Citation | last =du Pont | first =B.G. | year =1920 | title =E.I. du Pont de Nemours and Company: A History 1802 to 1902 | place =Boston | publisher =Houghton Mifflin | isbn =1-4179-1685-0}}</ref> They set up a gunpowder mill, the [[Eleutherian Mills]], on the [[Brandywine Creek (Christina River)|Brandywine Creek]] at [[Wilmington, Delaware]] based on gunpowder machinery bought from France and site plans for a gunpowder mill supplied by the French Government.<ref name = dupont/> Starting, initially, by reworking damaged gunpowder and refining saltpetre for the US Government they quickly moved into gunpowder manufacture.<ref name = dupont/> In the United States, saltpetre was worked in the "nitre caves" of Kentucky at the beginning of the 19th century.<ref name=UD>{{cite web| url = http://www.du.edu/~jcalvert/tech/cannon.htm| title = Cannons and Gunpowder| last = Calvert | first = J. B.}}</ref> Tourists at [[Mammoth Cave National Park|Mammoth Cave, KY]] to this day are shown the vast deposits of bat [[guano]], as well as the historic machinery use in its extraction and conversion to usable saltpetre for gunpowder from Revolutionary times right up to World War I. ==Manufacturing technology== [[Image:Hagley Mill Equipment.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Edge-runner mill in a restored mill, at [[Eleutherian Mills]]]] For the most powerful black powder "[[meal powder|meal]]", a [[wood]] [[charcoal]] is used. The best wood for the purpose is pacific [[willow]], but others such as [[alder]] or [[buckthorn]] can be used. The ingredients are mixed as thoroughly as possible. This is achieved using a [[ball mill]] with non-sparking grinding apparatus (e.g., [[bronze]] or [[lead]]), or similar device. Historically, a [[marble]] or [[limestone]] edge runner mill, running on a limestone bed was used in Great Britain; however, by the mid 19th century this had changed to either an iron shod stone wheel or a cast iron wheel running on an iron bed.<ref name = earl-2/> The mix is sometimes dampened with [[alcohol]] or water during grinding to prevent accidental ignition. Around the late 14th century, European powdermakers began adding liquid to the constituents of gunpowder to reduce dust and with it the risk of explosion.<ref>{{Harvcolnb|Kelly|2004|pp=60–63}}</ref> The powdermakers would then shape the resulting paste of moistened gunpowder, known as mill cake, into "corns", or granules, to dry. Not only did "corned" powder keep better because of its reduced surface area, gunners also found that it was more powerful and easier to load into guns. Before long, powdermakers standardized the process by forcing mill cake through sieves instead of corning powder by hand. During the 18th century gunpowder factories became increasingly dependent on mechanical energy.<ref>Frangsmyr, Tore, J. L. Heilbron, and Robin E. Rider, editors ''The Quantifying Spirit in the Eighteenth Century''. Berkeley: University of California Press, c1990. http://ark.cdlib.org/ark:/13030/ft6d5nb455/ p. 292.</ref> ==Other uses== Besides its habitual use as an explosive, gunpowder has been occasionally employed for other purposes, After the [[battle of Aspern-Essling]] (1809), the surgeon of the Napoleonic Army [[Dominique-Jean Larrey|Larrey]] combated the lack of food for the wounded under his care by preparing a [[bouillon (broth)|bouillon]] of [[horse meat]] seasoned with gunpowder for lack of salt<ref name="Parker">[[Harold T Parker|Parker, Harold T]]. (1983 reprint) ''Three Napoleonic Battles''. (2nd Ed). [[Duke University Press]]. ISBN 0-82230547-X. [http://books.google.com/books?id=qiyp-Mft2zEC&pg=PA84&lpg=PA84&ots=W7h9mMJcvK Page 83] (in [[Google Books]]). Quoting [[Dominique-Jean Larrey]], ''[[Mémoires de chirurgie militaire et campagnes]]'', III 281, Paris, Smith.</ref><ref name="Musee">Larrey is quoted in French at Dr [[Béraud]], ''[http://leslivresoublies.free.fr/leslivresoublies/Sciences_et_techniques_muse/cheval.html Études Hygiéniques de la chair de cheval comme aliment]'', [[Musée des Familles]] (1841-42).</ref>. [[Brown brown]] is a form of powdered cocaine, cut with gunpowder. Commonly given to child soldiers in West African armed conflicts, the gunpowder causes irritation of the bowels, which increases aggression.<ref name="IHT.com February 19"> {{cite news | url=http://www.iht.com/articles/2007/01/14/america/web.0113soldier.nytMAG.php?page=3 | title=The Making, and Unmaking, of a Child Soldier | publisher=International Herald Tribune | accessdate=2007-02-19 }}</ref><!-- Do no add categories here --> == See also == *[[Ballistics]] *[[Ballincollig Royal Gunpowder Mills]] *[[Cannon]] *[[Faversham explosives industry]] *[[Gunpowder Plot]] *[[Gunpowder magazine]] *[[Gunpowder warfare]] *[[History of gunpowder]] *[[Smokeless powder]] *[[Technology of the Song Dynasty]] *[[Waltham Abbey Royal Gunpowder Mills]] == Notes == {{reflist|3}} == References == {{refbegin|2}} * {{Citation | last=Brown | first=G. I. | year=1998 | title=The Big Bang: A History of Explosives | publisher=Sutton Publishing | isbn=0-7509-1878-0}}. * {{Citation | editor-surname = Buchanan | editor-first = Brenda J. | title = Gunpowder, Explosives and the State: A Technological History | place=Aldershot | publisher =Ashgate | year =2006 | id = ISBN 0754652599}}. * {{Citation | last =Chase | first =Kenneth | year =2003 | title =Firearms: A Global History to 1700 | publisher =Cambridge University Press | isbn =0521822742}}. * {{Citation | last =Cocroft | first =Wayne | year =2000 | title =Dangerous Energy: The archaeology of gunpowder and military explosives manufacture | place =Swindon | publisher =English Heritage | isbn =1-85074-718-0}}. * {{Citation | last = Crosby | first = Alfred W. | title = Throwing Fire: Projectile Technology Through History | year = 2002 | publisher = Cambridge University Press | isbn =0521791588}}. * {{Citation | last =Earl | first =Brian | year =1978 | title =Cornish Explosives | place =Cornwall | publisher =The Trevithick Society | isbn =0-904040-13-5}}. * {{Citation | last=al-Hassan | first=Ahmad Y. | author-link=Ahmad Y Hassan | year=2001 | contribution=Potassium Nitrate in Arabic and Latin Sources | contribution-url=http://www.history-science-technology.com/Articles/articles%202.htm | title=History of Science and Technology in Islam | url=http://www.history-science-technology.com | accessdate =2007-07-23}}. * {{Citation | last = Kelly | first = Jack | title = Gunpowder: Alchemy, Bombards, & Pyrotechnics: The History of the Explosive that Changed the World | publisher = Basic Books | year = 2004 | isbn =0465037186}}. * {{Citation | last=Khan | first=Iqtidar Alam | title=Coming of Gunpowder to the Islamic World and North India: Spotlight on the Role of the Mongols | journal=Journal of Asian History | volume=30 | year=1996 | pages=41–5}}. * {{Citation | last =Khan | first =Iqtidar Alam | year =2004 | title =Gunpowder and Firearms: Warfare in Medieval India | publisher =Oxford University Press}}. * {{Citation | last = Needham | first = Joseph | authorlink = Joseph Needham | title = Science & Civilisation in China | year = 1986 | publisher = Cambridge University Press | volume =V:7: ''The Gunpowder Epic'' | isbn =0521303583}}. * {{Citation | last =Norris | first =John | year =2003 | title =Early Gunpowder Artillery: 1300-1600 | place =Marlborough | publisher =The Crowood Press}}. * {{Citation | last =Partington | first =J.R. | author-link =J. R. Partington | year =1960 | title =A History of Greek Fire and Gunpowder | place =Cambridge, UK | publisher =W. Heffer & Sons}}. * {{Citation | last =Urbanski | first =Tadeusz | year =1967 | title =Chemistry and Technology of Explosives | place =New York | publisher =Pergamon Press | volume =III}}. *{{cite book | last = Partington| first = James Riddick | authorlink = James Riddick Partington| coauthors = Hall, Bert S. | title = A History of Greek Fire and Gunpowder| publisher = Johns Hopkins University Press| date = 1999| location = Baltimore| isbn = 0-8018-5954-9}} * Johnson, Norman Gardner (2008), "History of black powder" in "explosive", Encyclopædia Britannica. {{refend}} == External links == {{Commonscat|Gunpowder}} {{wiktionarypar|gunpowder}} *[http://www.silk-road.com/artl/gun.shtml Gun and Gunpowder] *[http://www.geocities.com/Athens/2430/gporigins.html The Origins of Gunpowder] *[http://www.du.edu/~jcalvert/tech/cannon.htm Cannons and Gunpowder] <!-- *[http://www.rsc.org/chemistryworld/restricted/2006/January/letters.asp A letter on gunpowder chemistry and sodium vs. potassium nitrate] --> *[http://www.gunpowderworks.co.uk/ Oare Gunpowder Works, Kent, UK] *[http://www.royalgunpowdermills.com/ Royal Gunpowder Mills] * {{cite web |url=http://www.musketeer.ch/blackpowder/history.html |title=Ulrich Bretschler's Gunpowder Chemistry page}} [[Category:Explosives]] [[Category:Pyrotechnic compositions]] [[Category:Firearm propellants]] [[Category:Granular materials]] [[Category:Traditional Chinese objects]] [[ar:بارود]] [[az:Barıt]] [[bs:Barut]] [[bg:Барут]] [[ca:Pólvora]] [[cs:Střelný prach]] [[cy:Powdwr gwn]] [[da:Krudt]] [[de:Schwarzpulver]] [[es:Pólvora]] [[eo:Pulvo]] [[fr:Poudre à canon]] [[hi:बारूद]] [[hr:Barut]] [[id:Bubuk mesiu]] [[is:Byssupúður]] [[it:polvere nera]] [[he:אבק שריפה]] [[sw:baruti]] [[lv:Šaujampulveris]] [[hu:Lőpor]] [[mk:барут]] [[nl:buskruit]] [[ja:黒色火薬]] [[no:Krutt]] [[ug:مىلتىق دورىسى]] [[pl:Proch]] [[pt:Pólvora]] [[ru:Порох]] [[simple:Gunpowder]] [[sl:smodnik]] [[sr:Барут]] [[fi:Ruuti]] [[sv:Krut]] [[th:ดินปืน]] [[uk:Порох]] [[yi:שיספולווער]] [[zh:火药]] [[zh-yue:火藥]]