Happiness
169409
226166433
2008-07-17T03:14:54Z
Jossi
60449
Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/81.107.6.45|81.107.6.45]] ([[User talk:81.107.6.45|talk]]) to last version by AndersBot
{{otheruses}}
{{redirect2|Happy|Happily}}
'''Happiness''' is an [[emotion]] associated with feelings ranging from contentment and satisfaction to [[bliss]] and intense [[joy]].
A variety of [[Philosophy|philosophical]], [[Religion|religious]], [[Psychology|psychological]] and [[Biology|biological]] approaches have been taken to defining happiness and identifying its sources.
Philosophers and religious thinkers have often defined happiness in terms of living a [[The good life|good life]], or flourishing, rather than simply as an emotion. ''Happiness'' in this older sense was used to translate the Greek [[Eudaimonia]], and is still used in [[virtue ethics]]. In everyday speech today, however, terms such as ''well-being'' or ''[[quality of life]]'' are usually used signify the classical meaning and ''happiness'' is reserved for the felt experience or experiences that philosophers historically called ''[[pleasure]]''.
Happiness forms a central theme of [[Buddhism|Buddhist teachings]], which focuses on obtaining freedom from [[dukkha|suffering]] by following the [[Eightfold Path]]. In the Buddhist view, ultimate happiness is only achieved by overcoming [[Tanha|craving]] in all forms. [[Aristotle]] saw happiness as "the virtuous activity of the soul in accordance with reason," or the practice of [[virtue]]. In [[Catholicism]], the ultimate end of human existence consists in felicity, or "blessed happiness", described by the 13th-century philosopher-theologian [[Thomas Aquinas]] as a [[Beatific Vision]] of God's essence in the next life.<ref> See [http://www.newadvent.org/summa/200308.htm ''Summa Theologiae'']</ref> One psychological approach, [[positive psychology]], describes happiness as consisting of positive emotions and positive activities.
While direct measurement of happiness is difficult, tools such as [http://www.coachingtohappiness.com/happiness-test.html The Oxford Happiness Inventory] have been developed by researchers. Physiological correlates to happiness can be measured through a variety of techniques, and survey research can be based on self-reported happiness levels.
Research has identified a number of correlates with happiness. These include religious involvement, parenthood, marital status and income. [[Happiness economics]] suggests that measures of public happiness should be used to supplement more traditional economic measures when evaluating how successful public policy is.
==Research==
Looking for the level of happiness as reported by people and comparing it to various elements in their lives reveals the following findings: <ref>Sonja Lyubomirsky, David Schkade and Kennon M. Sheldon, [http://www.psych.umn.edu/courses/fall06/macdonalda/psy4960/Readings/LyubomirskySustain_RGP05.pdf "Pursuing Happiness: The Architecture of Sustainable Change,"] Review of General Psychology, Vol. 9, No. 2, 111–131, 2005</ref>
* About 50% of one's sadness depends on one's genes. This is shown by studying identical twins and learning that their happiness is 50% correlated even when growing up in different houses.
* Ten to fifteen percent is a result of various measurable variables, such as socioeconomic status, marital status, health, income, and others.
* According to the article, the remaining 40% results from actions that individuals deliberately engage in for the purpose of becoming happier. However, these actions may vary between persons. For example, extroverts may benefit from placing themselves in situations involving large amounts of human interaction. Also, exercise has been shown to increase one's level of well-being significantly.
=== Measurement ===
[[Michael Argyle]] developed [http://www.coachingtohappiness.com/happiness-test.html The Oxford Happiness Inventory] as a broad measure of psychological well-being. This measures happiness as an aggregate of [[self-esteem]], sense of purpose, social interest and [[kindness]], sense of [[humor]] and aesthetic appreciation. This has been criticized for lacking a theoretical model of happiness and because it is felt that certain aspects overlap.<ref>Todd B.Kashdan, [http://mason.gmu.edu/~tkashdan/publications/happy.PDF "The assessment of subjective well-being (issues raised by the Oxford Happiness Questionnaire),"] Personality and Individual Differences 36 (2004) 1225–1232</ref> Some studies suggest that happiness can be measured effectively.
Though it may be impossible to measure happiness objectively, physiological correlates to happiness can be measured through a variety of techniques. For instance, psychophysiologist R.J. Davidson has developed reliable [[fMRI]] and [[EEG]] tests that correlate to subjective levels of happiness.{{Fact|date=December 2007}} [[Stefan Klein]], in his book ''The Science of Happiness'', links the dynamics of [[Neurobiology|neurobiological]] systems (i.e., dopaminergic, opiate) to the concepts and findings of positive psychology and social psychology.<ref>[[Stefan Klein]], The Science of Happiness, Marlowe & Company, 2006, ISBN 1-56924-328-X.</ref>
===Correlation with religious involvement ===
[[Image:55-aspetti di vita quotidiana, gioia,Taccuino Sanitatis, Cas.jpg|thumb|Joy, [[tacuinum sanitatis]] casanatensis (XIV century)]]
There is now extensive research suggesting that religious people are happier and less stressed.<ref>[http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/programmes/happiness_formula/4783836.stm BBC]</ref><ref>[http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,1015870,00.html Time]</ref> Surveys by [[Gallup]], the National Opinion Research Centre and the Pew Organization conclude that spiritually committed people are twice as likely to report being "very happy" than the least religiously committed people.<ref>[[Is Religion Dangerous?]] p156, citing [[David Myers]] ''The Science of Subjective Well-Being'' Guilford Press 2007</ref> An analysis of over 200 social studies contends that "high religiousness predicts a rather lower risk of depression and drug abuse and fewer suicide attempts, and more reports of satisfaction with sex life and a sense of well-being,"<ref>Smith,Timothy, Michael McCullough, and Justin Poll. 2003: “Religiousness and Depression: Evidence for a Main Effect and Moderating Influence of Stressful Life Events.” Psychological Bulletin 129(4):614–36.</ref> and a review of 498 studies published in peer-reviewed journals concluded that a large majority of them showed a positive correlation between religious commitment and higher levels of perceived well-being and self-esteem and lower levels of hypertension, depression and clinical delinquency.<ref>Bryan Johnson & colleagues at the University of Pennsylvania (2002)</ref><ref>[[Is Religion Dangerous?]] cites similar results from the ''Handbook of Religion and Mental Health'' Harold Koenig (ed.) ISBN 978-0124176454</ref> Studies by [[Keith Ward]] show that overall religion is a positive contributor to mental health,<ref>[[Is Religion Dangerous?]] Ch 9.</ref> and a meta-analysis of 34 recent studies published between 1990 and 2001 also found that religiosity has a salutary relationship with psychological adjustment, being related to less psychological distress, more life satisfaction, and better [[self-actualization]].<ref>Hackney, Charles H. & Sanders, Glenn S. (2003) Religiosity and Mental Health: A Meta–Analysis of Recent Studies. ''Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion'' '''42''' (1), 43-55. {{doi|10.1111/1468-5906.t01-1-00160}}</ref> Finally, a recent systematic review of 850 research papers on the topic concluded that "the majority of well-conducted studies found that higher levels of religious involvement are positively associated with indicators of psychological well-being (life satisfaction, happiness, positive affect, and higher morale) and with less depression, suicidal thoughts and behavior, drug/alcohol use/abuse." <ref>Moreira-Almeida Alexander, Lotufo Neto Francisco, Koenig Harold G. [http://www.scielo.br/scielo.php?script=sci_arttext&pid=S1516-44462006000300018&lng=en&nrm=iso "Religiousness and mental health: a review"]. Rev. Bras. Psiquiatr. [serial on the Internet]. 2006 September, cited 2007 [[June 21]], [[2007]] ; 28(3): 242-250.</ref>
===Other correlates ===
Research in the US has found that citizens who identify themselves as "conservative" are more likely to report being "happy" or "very happy" than those who consider themselves to be "liberal". On both sides of the political spectrum, extremists report being happier than moderates. Parents are more likely to report being happy than non-parents, and religious belief also appears to be positively correlated with happiness.<ref>[http://www.economist.com/world/na/PrinterFriendly.cfm?story_id=10924082 "The joys of parenthood,"] [[The Economist]], March 27th, 2008 </ref><ref>Arthur C. Brooks, Gross National Happiness, Basic Books, 2007, ISBN 978-0465002788</ref><ref>Bret Schulte, [http://www.usnews.com/articles/news/politics/2008/05/05/why-conservatives-say-they-are-happier-than-liberals.html "Why Conservatives Say They Are Happier Than Liberals,"] [[U.S. News & World Report]], May 5, 2008</ref> Happiness is also correlated with the ability to rationalize or explain social and economic inequalities. <ref>{{cite web|title=Conservatives Happier Than Liberals |author=Jeanna Bryner |work=LiveScience.com |url=http://www.livescience.com/health/080507-liberal-conservative.html|accessdate=2008-06-18}}</ref>
Research in the US has found that older Americans are generally happier than younger adults. The effect does not appear to be generational, because longitudinal research found that happiness increased over time for the older people who were studied. While older individuals reported more health problems, they reported fewer problems overall. Young adults reported more anger, anxiety, depression, financial problems, troubled relationships and career stress.<ref>Shankar Vedantam, [http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2008/07/13/AR2008071301641.html?hpid=sec-health "Older Americans May Be Happier Than Younger Ones,"] [[The Washington Post]], July 14, 2008</ref>
=== Worldwide findings ===
[[Image:World happiness.png|thumb|The [[Satisfaction with Life Index]]. <font color="green">Green</font> = Happiest > <font color="blue">Blue</font> > <font color="purple">Purple</font> > <font color="orange">Orange</font> > <font color="red">Red</font> = Least Happy; <font color="gray">Grey</font> = Data not available]]
The [[Satisfaction with Life Index]] is an attempt to show the average self-reported happiness ([[subjective life satisfaction]]) in different nations. This is an example of recent trends to use direct measures of happiness, such as surveys asking people how happy they are, as an alternative to traditional measures of policy success to GDP or GNP. There are also several other examples of measures that include self-reported happiness as one variable. [[Happy Life Years]], a concept brought by [[Dutch people|Dutch]] sociologist Veenhoven, combines self-reported happiness with [[life expectancy]]. The [[Happy Planet Index]] combines it with life expectancy and [[ecological footprint]]. [[Gross national happiness]] is a concept introduced by the King of [[Bhutan]] as an alternative to [[GDP]], but there is as yet no exact definition.{{Fact|date=September 2007}}
==Philosophical views==
The Chinese Confucian thinker [[Mencius]], who 2300 years ago sought to give advice to the ruthless political leaders of the warring states period, was convinced that the mind played a mediating role between the "lesser self" (the physiological self) and the "greater self" (the moral self) and that getting the priorities right between these two would lead to sagehood. He argued that if we did not feel satisfaction or pleasure in nourishing one's "vital force" with "righteous deeds", that force would shrivel up (Mencius,6A:15 2A:2). More specifically, he mentions the experience of intoxicating joy if one celebrates the practice of the great virtues, especially through music.<ref>Chan, Wing-tsit, ''A Source Book in Chinese Philosophy''. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1963.</ref>
About one hundred years later, the Hindu thinker Patanjali, author of the Yoga Sutra, wrote quite exhaustively on the psychological and ontological roots of bliss.<ref> Levine, Marvin, ''The Positive Psychology of Buddhism and Yoga : Paths to a Mature Happiness'', Lawrence Erlbaum (2000), ISBN 0-805-83833-3</ref>
In the ''[[Nicomachean Ethics]]'', written in 350 B.C.E., Aristotle stated that happiness is the only emotion that humans desire for its own sake. He observed that men sought riches, or honor, or health, not for their own sake but in order to be happy. Note that ''[[eudaimonia]]'', the term we translate as "happiness", is for Aristotle an activity rather than an emotion or a state.<ref>Eudaimonia (Greek: εὐδαιμονία) is a classical Greek word commonly translated as 'happiness'. Etymologically, it consists of the word "eu" ("good" or "well being") and "daimōn" ("spirit" or "minor deity", used by extension to mean one's lot or fortune).</ref> Happiness is characteristic of a good life, that is, a life in which a man or woman fulfills human nature in an excellent way. People have a set of purposes which are typically human: they belong to our nature. The happy person is virtuous, meaning he or she has outstanding abilities and emotional tendencies which allow him or her to fulfill our common human ends. For Aristotle, then, happiness is "the virtuous activity of the soul in accordance with reason": happiness is the practice of virtue.
Many [[ethics|ethicists]] make arguments for how humans should behave, either individually or collectively, based on the resulting happiness of such behavior. [[Utilitarian]]s, such as [[John Stuart Mill]] and [[Jeremy Bentham]], advocated the [[greatest happiness principle]] as a guide for ethical behavior.
==Religious and spiritual views ==
Explanations of happiness in mystical traditions, especially in advanced spiritual techniques, are related to full balance (conjunction, union, "secret marriage") of so-called inner energy lines (energy channels of a soul or deepest dimension of the human): [[nadi (yoga)|nadi]] (ancient Indian), gimel kavim (Hebrew), [[Sephirot (Kabbalah)#The Pillars|pillars]], columns, [[gnostic]] [[ophites|ophis]] or [[caduceus]]. In balanced state, two main lines (left & right, [[Ida (yoga)|Ida]] & [[Pingala (yoga)|Pingala]]) form a third line, called [[Shushumna]] or lashon hakodesh (hebr.). Speaking technically, (full) activity of this third or central line is happiness. [[Left and right]] lines include all aspects of normal human life: sleep and awake, body and mind, physical and spiritual, and so on. To attain balanced state of these two lines is a main task of life—a paradoxical result of all kinds of activities and endeavours combined with full relaxation or tranquility at the same time.{{Fact|date=September 2007}}
In [[Catholicism]], the ultimate end of human existence consists in felicity (Latin equivalent to the Greek ''[[eudaimonia]]''), or "blessed happiness", described by the 13th-century philosopher-theologian [[Thomas Aquinas]] as a [[Beatific Vision]] of God's essence in the next life. [http://www.newadvent.org/summa/200308.htm See ''Summa Theologiae'']
As an example, according to [[Augustine of Hippo|Augustine]]'s [[Confessions (St. Augustine)|Confessions]], he lived much of his life without God. He sinned much and recognized his sinfulness. As a youth, he sinned for its own sake, and later, in the pursuit of a perceived good. When he lost a dear friend to death, it troubled him a lot, and he turned to God for answers. He turned to God to find true happiness and was converted to Christianity. He found that true happiness can only come from a relationship with God and appreciating God's creation for His sake, and not its own.
Happiness forms a central theme of [[Buddhism|Buddhist teachings]]. For ultimate freedom from [[dukkha|suffering]], the [[Eightfold Path]] leads its practitioner to [[Nirvana]], a state of everlasting peace. Ultimate happiness is only achieved by overcoming [[Tanha|craving]] in all forms. More mundane forms of happiness, such as acquiring wealth and maintaining good friendships, are also recognized as worthy goals for [[householder (Buddhism)|lay people]] (see ''[[sukha]]''). Buddhism also encourages the generation of [[metta|loving kindness]] and [[karuna|compassion]], the desire for the happiness and welfare of all beings.<ref>(see ''[[brahmavihara]]'')</ref><ref>[http://www.accesstoinsight.org/lib/authors/thanissaro/guided.html]</ref>
According to [[Gautama Buddha|Buddha]], "Mind is the forerunner of states of existence. Mind is chief, and (those states) are caused by the mind. If one speaks and acts with a pure mind, surely happiness will follow like one's own shadow!" In Buddhism, the third of the [[Four Noble Truths]] states "to eliminate [[Dukkha|suffering]], eliminate [[Tanha|craving]]," thus establishing happiness as beyond material and emotional possession and attainable only through an attentive practice leading to extinguishing of craving and aversion.<ref>Bhikkhu Nanamoli (1995). in Bhikkhu Bodhi: "The Middle Length Discourses of the Buddha: A New Translation of the Majjhima Nikaya"</ref>
One of the core concepts in Buddhism is that of [[Dharma]], also a central concept in [[Hinduism]]. Dharma is about expressing and acting according to one's core nature. This eliminates potential causes of disharmony in the mind and leads to happiness.
According to [[Jainism]], happiness and bliss is the natural state of the soul. A soul, when liberated from all its [[Karma in Jainism|karmas]], experiences infinite bliss, knowledge and perception.
==Scientific and psychological views==
===Positive psychology===
{{Main|Positive psychology}}
In his book ''Authentic Happiness'', [[Martin Seligman]], one of the founders of [[positive psychology]], describes happiness as consisting of "positive emotions" and "positive activities". He further categorizes emotions related to the past, present and future. Positive emotions relating to the past include satisfaction, contentment, pride and serenity. Positive emotions relating to the future include optimism, hope and trust. Positive emotions about the present are divided into two categories: pleasure and gratifications.
The bodily and higher pleasures are "pleasures of the moment" and usually involve some external stimulus.
Gratifications involve full engagement, [[Flow (psychology)|flow]], elimination of self-consciousness, and blocking of felt emotions. But when a [[gratitude|gratification]] comes to an end then positive emotions will be felt.
Gratifications can be obtained or increased by developing signature strengths and [[virtues]]. [[Authenticity (psychology)|Authenticity]] is the derivation of gratification and positive emotions from exercising signature strengths. The good life comes from using signature strengths to obtain abundant gratification in, for example, enjoying work and creative activities. The most profound sense of happiness is experienced through the meaningful life, achieved if one exercises one's unique strengths and virtues in a purpose greater than one's own immediate goals.
===Biological approach===
The evolutionary perspective offers an alternative approach to understand what happiness or quality of life is about. Briefly, the questions to be answered are: What features are included in the brain that allows humans to distinguish between positive and negative states of mind, and why did evolution add these features? Answering these questions points towards an understanding of what happiness is about and how to best exploit the capacities of the brain that humans are endowed with. The perspective is presented in detail by the evolutionary biologist [[Bjørn Grinde]] in his book ''[[Darwinian Happiness]]'', as well as in a more formal way.<ref>Grinde, Bjørn (2002)Happiness in the perspective of evolutionary psychology. ''Journal of Happiness Studies'' 3, 331-354.</ref>
=== Set point theory ===
The happiness set point is a notion proposed by Lykken and Tellegen that we all have a baseline level of happiness that we return to. Although good and bad events may shift us from this baseline temporarily, we cannot permanently increase or decrease our happiness levels in the long term. [http://spiritualinquiry.com/articles/can-our-happiness-set-point-be-raised/ Others] have since challenged this pessimistic view, some drawing on neuroplasticity as evidence that our happiness level is not set in stone.
==Happiness in economic thought==
{{Main|Happiness economics}}
Common market health measures such as GDP and GNP have been used as a measure of successful policy. However, although on average richer nations tend to be happier than poorer nations, beyond an average GDP/capita of about $15,000 a year, studies indicate the average income in a nation makes little difference to the average happiness of the people in the nation.<ref>Bruno S. Frey and Alois Stutzer Happiness and Economics, Princeton University Press, December 2001; published in the UK by John Wiley & Sons.</ref><ref>[http://www.cato.org/pub_display.php?pub_id=8179 In Pursuit of Happiness Research. Is It Reliable? What Does It Imply for Policy?] The Cato institute. April 11, 2007</ref> It has been argued that happiness measures could be used not as a replacement for more traditional measures, but as a supplement.<ref>[http://www.latimes.com/news/opinion/la-oe-weiner13nov13,0,5698259.story?coll=la-opinion-rightrail ''A bigger economy doesn't always buy happiness''] - latimes.com</ref>
== See also ==
{{Utilitarianism}}
* [[Cheer]]iness
* [[Eco-sufficiency]]
* [[Ecstasy (emotion)|Ecstasy]]
* [[Eudaimonia]]
* [[Euphoria (emotion)|Euphoria]]
* [[Gemütlichkeit]]
* [[Gezelligheid]]
* [[Hedonism]]
* [[Nirvana]]
* [[Subjective life satisfaction]]
==References & Notes==
{{Reflist}}
*[[Władysław Tatarkiewicz]], ''Analysis of Happiness'', The Hague, Martinus Nijhoff, 1976.
*[[Daniel Gilbert (psychologist)|Daniel Gilbert]], ''[[Stumbling on Happiness]]'', Knopf, 2006.
*[[Barbara Ann Kipfer]], ''14,000 Things to Be Happy About'', Workman, 1990/2007, ISBN 978-0761147213.
*[[Stefan Klein]], ''The Science of Happiness'', Marlowe, 2006, ISBN 1-56924-328-X.
*[[Richard Layard]], ''Happiness: Lessons From A New Science'', Penguin, 2005.
*David G. Myers, Ph. D., ''The Pursuit of Happiness: Who is Happy-- and Why'', William Morrow and Co., 1992, ISBN 0-688-10550-5.
*Martin E.P. Seligman, Ph. D., ''Authentic Happiness'', Free Press, 2002, ISBN 0-7432-2298-9.
*[[Saint Augustine]], ''[[Confessions]]'', Oxford World's Classics, 1998, ISBN 0-19-283372-3.
*"[[Psychological Wellbeing]]", Hills, P., & Argyle, M. (2002). ''The Oxford Happiness Questionnaire: a compact scale for the measurement of psychological well-being. Personality and Individual Differences'', 33, 1073–1082.
*Arthur C. Brooks, ''Gross National Happiness: Why Happiness Matters for America--and How We Can Get More of It'', Basic Books, 2008, ISBN 978-0-465-00278-8.
==External links==
<!--===========================({{NoMoreLinks}})===============================-->
<!--| DO NOT ADD MORE LINKS TO THIS ARTICLE. WIKIPEDIA IS NOT A COLLECTION OF |-->
<!--| LINKS. If you think that your link might be useful, do not add it here, |-->
<!--| but put it on this article's discussion page first or submit your link |-->
<!--| to the appropriate category at the Open Directory Project (www.dmoz.org)|-->
<!--| and link back to that category using the {{dmoz}} template. |-->
<!--| |-->
<!--| Links that have not been verified WILL BE DELETED. |-->
<!--| See [[Wikipedia:External links]] and [[Wikipedia:Spam]] for details |-->
<!--===========================({{NoMoreLinks}})===============================-->
{{sisterlinks|Happiness}}
* [http://www.wisdomquotes.com/cat_happiness.html Happiness quotes]
* [http://pursuit-of-happiness.org/projects.aspx History of Happiness] - concise survey of influential theories
* [http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/pleasure/ The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy entry "Pleasure"] - ancient and modern philosophers' and neuroscientists' approaches to happiness
* [http://worlddatabaseofhappiness.eur.nl/ The World Database of Happiness] - a register of scientific research on the subjective appreciation of life
{{emotion-footer}}
[[Category:Happiness| ]]
[[Category:Core issues in ethics]]
[[Category:Personal life]]
[[Category:Positive mental attitude]]
[[Category:Positive psychology]]
<!-- interwiki -->
[[ar:سعادة]]
[[bg:Щастие]]
[[ca:Felicitat]]
[[da:Lykke]]
[[de:Glück]]
[[es:Felicidad]]
[[eo:Ĝojo]]
[[fr:Bonheur]]
[[gl:Felicidade]]
[[ko:행복]]
[[hr:Sreća]]
[[is:Hamingja]]
[[it:Felicità]]
[[he:שמחה]]
[[ka:ბედნიერება]]
[[lt:Laimė]]
[[mk:Среќа]]
[[ms:Kebahagiaan]]
[[nl:Geluk (emotie)]]
[[ja:幸福]]
[[no:Lykke]]
[[nn:Lukke]]
[[pl:Szczęście]]
[[pt:Felicidade]]
[[qu:Kusikuy]]
[[ru:Счастье]]
[[simple:Happiness]]
[[sk:Šťastie (pocit)]]
[[sr:Срећа]]
[[fi:Onnellisuus]]
[[vi:Hạnh phúc]]
[[tr:Mutluluk]]
[[yi:פרייליכקייט]]
[[zh-yue:開心]]
[[zh:快樂]]