Hazards of outdoor activities 3731756 224237313 2008-07-07T22:57:15Z Valerius Tygart 2110976 link & copyedit Any [[outdoor activity]] entails many [[risk]]s, even if participants do not recklessly place themselves in harm's way. Even a simple accident may create a dangerous situation that requires [[survival skills]]. However, with the correct precautions, outdoor recreation can be enjoyable and safe. == General safety measures == Every hazard has its own safety measure, and every ailment a particular remedy. A standard precaution for all backcountry activities is carrying the "[[ten essentials]]", a collection of tools chosen for their utility in preventing or reacting to various emergencies.<ref name="m:foth">{{cite book|title=[[Mountaineering: The Freedom of the Hills]]|edition=6th edition|publisher=[[Mountaineers]]|pages=35-40|year=1997|id=ISBN 0-89886-427-5}}</ref> The common practice of traveling in a group improves safety in all regards. If one person is injured, group members can administer [[first aid]] or seek help. A group can avoid poor decisions that a lone traveler might make. If an emergency occurs, a group can pool its muscle power, brain power, and body heat. Another precaution is informing people outside of the hiking group of the itinerary and expected return time. (Expected hiking time can be estimated using [[Naismith's Rule]].) A [[communication]] device, such as a [[cell phone]] or a [[satellite phone]], may help in the case of an emergency. However cell phone coverage in wilderness areas is often quite poor. == Dangerous circumstances == Adventurers rarely get themselves hurt if they manage to avoid particularly dangerous situations. === Losing the way === [[Image:Hiking trail sign.jpg|thumb|right|150px|In some parks, hiking trails are clearly and accurately labeled.]] Travelers may become lost either if a party cannot find its way, or if a traveler becomes separated from the party and cannot find it again. Lost hikers who cannot find their way to their destination on time may run out of food and water, or experience a change in weather, exacerbating the risk of hiking hazards. It's even easier to lose the way if trails do not exist.<ref name="foth-nav">{{cite book|title=Mountaineering: The Freedom of the Hills|publisher=Mountaineers|edition=6th|year=1997|chapter=Navigation}}</ref> If a group splits up into several subgroups moving at different speeds, one of the subgroups may take a wrong turn at a trail junction. A common custom to avoid this is for the leaders to stop at junctions and wait for the others. Keeping the group together is important in the wilderness, especially when visibility is blocked due to weather, rocks, or trees.<ref name="foth-nav"/> Carrying a [[map]] and [[compass]] and knowing how to use them will decrease the risk of getting lost.<ref name="foth-nav"/> Likewise, a [[Global Positioning System]] may prove invaluable, as it can pinpoint a traveler's location, revealing his exact position on the globe and the direction to roads, services and cities.<ref name="foth-nav"/> Most GPS devices can also be designed to mark their path on a map, making it easy to backtrack. [[Family Radio Service]], [[General Mobile Radio Service]], and [[amateur radio]]s operating on the "[[2 meters]]" band may help maintain communication. Whistles, signal mirrors, and flashing lights are low-tech emergency signals. ===Inclement weather=== [[Blizzard]]s, [[flash flood]]s, [[fog]], [[sandstorm]]s, [[tornado]]s, and other meteorological events may or may not be predictable, and may require immediate response for survival. Some may restrict visibility, as does [[night]]fall, which may prevent further travel. Gusts of [[wind]] may physically knock a hiker or climber off a ledge or narrow trail. [[Lightning]] is a regular and serious threat in many regions. ===Hazardous terrain=== Backcountry [[avalanche]]s are generally triggered by the immediate action of the party. Precautions include training, monitoring weather conditions to learn the history of the [[snow pack]], digging [[hasty pit]]s, modifying the route, passing one-by-one through dangerous areas, wearing [[avalanche beacon]]s, and carrying [[avalanche probe]]s and [[snow shovel]]s. Other non-avalanche snow immersions can be similarly dangerous including [[tree well]]s and care should be taken in wooded backcountry areas following heavy snowfalls. Other mass movements include [[icefall]]s, [[landslide]]s, and [[rockfall]]. When choosing a campsite care must be taken to avoid those along with [[snag]]s, dead trees called "widowmakers". *Slips may occur on: **Wet rocks or logs. Walking in streams, rivers, lakes, and other water is dangerous due to poor visibility, uneven surfaces, smooth and [[algae]] or [[moss]]-covered rocks, and the current of the stream. Rubber soles grip poorly on slime, compared to felt soles, crampons, or hob-nailed boots. Precautions include awareness of the danger, using hiking sticks, loosening packs straps to lower gravity and in case of being submerged, and crossing with other people linked arm to arm. **Loose material. Loose gravel or scree on top of smooth rock acts like [[ball bearing]]s. Precautions include spotting the situation ahead, keeping knees bent and weight forward, using hiking sticks, and brushing aside the gravel where possible. **[[Ice]] *[[Drowning]]s are especially likely when accompanied by head injuries, in very cold water, or in [[white water]]. Head injuries may render people unconscious. Cold water can sap energy quickly. White water may be so frothy that it is impossible to float, or even swim, to the surface. ===Pre-existing medical conditions=== Some medical conditions may be triggered or worsened by outdoor activity, particularly when it is sudden or strenuous. Examples include [[heart disease]], [[asthma]], [[diabetes]], [[anemia]], and [[Allergy|allergies]]. [[Vertigo (medical)|Vertigo]] and neurological illnesses may have serious consequences on dangerous terrain. == Specific accidents and ailments == ===Metabolic imbalances=== Metabolic imbalances can affect general functioning and lead to other injuries. * ''[[Dehydration]]'' can rapidly incapacitate an adventurer, especially in warm weather. In conditions of low humidity, sweat evaporates so quickly that a person may not notice the water loss. Carrying and drinking an adequate amount of water helps avoid dehydration. Depending on conditions, two liters of water may be enough for a day hike, but under hot conditions (such as hiking the [[Grand Canyon]] in summer), one liter ''per hour'' may be required. Naturally occurring water is often unfit to drink (see [[Potability of backcountry water]]). * Sweating removes not only water, but also salt. This may result in a deficiency of [[sodium]] (''[[hyponatremia]]''). Eating salty snacks together with drinking water helps to avoid this problem. * If deprived of food for several days, travelers may become ''[[malnutrition|malnourished]]''. Malnutrition takes several weeks to kill a person, but because it impairs judgment, it can cause problems much sooner. ''Low blood sugar'' may have a similar effect, especially for those with [[diabetes]]. Carrying extra food will minimize risk to the hiker. * ''[[Hypothermia]]'' is a potentially fatal drop in core body temperature. It occurs most easily in cold weather and when wet. Wet or damp clothing (due to rain, sweat, stream crossings, etc.) can bring it on even in relatively warm air, particularly at high elevation, windy conditions, or at low humidity. Even if hypothermia does not kill the victim directly it causes confusion, irrationality and impaired judgment, increasing the risk of other injuries. Sufficient clothing helps prevent hypothermia, but some materials (especially [[cotton]]) are discouraged for their ability to absorb and hold water. * ''[[Heat exhaustion]]'', possibly developing into ''[[heatstroke]]'', can occur in hot weather, particularly if one is dehydrated or dressed too warmly. The risk of heatstroke can be minimized by avoiding direct sun if the temperature is too high, and staying wet when possible. This is a life-threatening condition: a victim must be cooled off and transported to a hospital immediately. * ''[[Altitude sickness]]'' results from climbing rapidly to elevations beyond 2,500 metres (approximately 8,000 feet). The process of acclimatization generally takes several days, but may be helped by drugs, such as [[Diamox]]. Acute mountain sickness or AMS may develop into [[Pulmonary edema|high altitude pulmonary edema]] (HAPE) or [[high altitude cerebral edema]] (HACE), both of which are life threatening and require immediate transportation to a lower altitude. * ''[[Carbon monoxide poisoning]]'' may occur in tents, igloos, cabins, or trailers due to faulty or misused equipment. It may also occur near the exhausts of motorboats, where the CO concentrations can be high enough to be quickly fatal. ===Topical injuries=== * ''[[Frostbite]]'' can occur when bare skin is exposed to very low temperatures. For very cold weather, clothing can be arranged to minimize the amount of exposed skin. Maintaining good circulation is very important. Frostbitten tissue should not be re-warmed in the field. * ''[[Sunburn]]'', which may occur in hot or cold conditions, can be debilitating. In snowy conditions special care must be taken to protect areas affected by reflected sunlight. In hot conditions, all skin should be covered from direct sunlight. Some areas, like the back of the knees, back of the neck, back of the ears, and bottom of the nose, are often neglected when sunscreen is applied. * ''[[Snow blindness]]'', a burning of the [[cornea]], is caused by the intense ultraviolet solar radiation multiplied by sunlit snow. * ''[[Burn (injury)|Burn]]s'' occur when dealing with camp stoves. Boiling pots are overturned, clogged fuel lines explode, hot metal is touched with bare skin. Burns are also caused by [[campfire]]s, cookfires and [[bonfire]]s. * ''[[Laceration]]s'' may be caused by careless use of knives, axes, or contact with sharp rocks or barbed wire. [[Tetanus]] and other infections can result. * ''Poisonous plants'', such as [[poison ivy]] or [[stinging nettle]] (see [[list of poisonous plants|list]]), cause [[rash]]es. * ''[[Spine (botany)|Plant thorn]]s'' and ''animal quills'' can cause deep puncture [[wound]]s, and can be difficult to remove, often requiring pliers. === Animals=== In many areas, adventurers may encounter large [[predator|predatory]] [[animal]]s such as [[bear]]s, or [[cougar]]s. These animals rarely seek out humans as food, but they will attack under some conditions. Some hazardous encounters occur when animals raid human property for food. Additionally, if travelers come upon an unsuspecting animal and surprise it, it may attack. Regularly making loud noise, such as by clapping or yelling, reduces the risk of surprising an animal. Some people use [[bear bell]]s as noisemakers, but these are usually too quiet to be heard from far away. Any mammal infected with [[rabies]] may inflict fatal bites. Venomous animals, including [[snake]]s, [[scorpion]]s, [[spider]]s and [[bee]]s, may cause harm either directly or through [[anaphylactic shock]]. Overall, the greatest danger is from insects, such as [[mosquito]]es, [[tick]]s and [[flea]]s, which carry communicable diseases. === Internal injuries === Cumbersome [[backpack]]s increase the risk of missteps and falls, particularly on difficult terrain. Poor judgement on steep or slippery slopes can lead to injury. Carrying a backpack may make a traveler more cumbersome. * [[Ankle]] ''[[sprain]]'' is a common and debilitating injury. Proper [[hiking boot]]s can help prevent it. * Foot ''[[blister]]s'' are caused by friction and irritation of the skin. Wet socks and poorly-fitting shoes precipitate the occurrence of blisters. Two layers of socks (using [[liner sock]]s) help prevent blisters, and [[moleskin]] can be applied to blister-prone areas as a treatment or preventive measure. * ''[[Back injury]]'' may result from packing too much or not having a proper backpack. A pack for [[backpacking (wilderness)|backpacking]] should be bought from a recreational store, and as a rule of thumb, a person should carry no more than one third of their body weight. Hiking poles may also reduce the likelihood of back injuries by spreading the load across multiple points. Care should be taken to lift and put on the pack with the least strain. ===Digestive infections=== [[Dysentery]] and [[wilderness diarrhea]] may be caused by drinking untreated surface water or by poor hygiene in camp. [[Traveler's diarrhea]] is associated with travel generally. ==References== {{reflist}} == External links == *[http://www.cdc.gov/mmwr/preview/mmwrhtml/mm5315a3.htm A report of carbon monoxide poisoning from a motorboat] (U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention) * [http://wilderdom.com/risk/RiskOutdoorRiskStatistics.html Outdoor & adventure education injury/fatality rates & comparative statistics] [[Category:Outdoor recreation]] [[Category:Hazards]]