High Commissioner 189082 225806179 2008-07-15T14:18:53Z 90.193.180.225 /* The Commonwealth */ {{Cleanup|date=September 2006}} '''High Commissioner''' is the title of various high-ranking, special executive positions held by a commission of appointment. The English term is also used to render various equivalent titles in other languages. ==The Commonwealth== [[Image:Tanzanian High Commission in London.jpg|thumb|200px|right|The [[Tanzania]]n High Commission in [[London]]. Tanzania and the [[United Kingdom]] are both members of the [[Commonwealth of Nations]].]] {{Main|High Commissioner (Commonwealth)}} In the [[Commonwealth of Nations]], a High Commissioner is the senior [[diplomat]] (ranking as an [[ambassador]]) in charge of the diplomatic mission of one Commonwealth government to another. Formerly, in the [[British Empire]], high commissioners were appointed by the [[British Government]] and to manage [[protectorate]]s or groups of territories not fully under the sovereignty of the British Crown. ==Other (mainly former, colonial) empires & protectorates== In the (post-)colonial sense, some other powers had High Commissioners, or rather the exact equivalent in their language ===French=== Originally the French word ''Haut Commissaire'', or in full ''Haut Commissaire de la république'' 'High Commissioner of the Republic', was rarely used for governatorial functions, rather ''(Lieutenant-)gouverneur(-général)'' and various lower titles. Exceptions were: *since [[22 March]] [[1907]], the colonial ''Gouverneur'' of [[New Caledonia]] was also appointed as High Commissioner in the Pacific Ocean, to coordinate with the governors of the French Settlements in Oceania and the Governors-general of [[French Indochina]]; the French [[resident commissioner]] of the Anglo-French condominium [[Nouvelles Hébrides]] and the [[Resident (title)|Resident]]s to the island protectorates of [[Wallis]] and [[Futuna Island, Wallis and Futuna|Futuna]] were subordinated to him **once Charles de Gaulle named someone else as High Commissioner for the French [[Territory of the Pacific and the Far East]], January 1941 - 1945: [[Georges Thierry d'Argenlieu]] (b. 1889 - d. 1964), while in December 1941 the Vichy (pro-German) government named Jean Decoux (b. 1884 - d. 1963) to the post (who in fact was only responsible for [[Wallis and Futuna]], which was the only Pacific territory not to have rallied to the Free French at that time). *In Atlantic waters, from [[14 September]] [[1939]] till September 1943, four French Possessions in the Americas (French Guiana, [[Guadeloupe]] and [[Martinique]], all in the Caribbean, as well as Saint-Pierre and Miquelon, off the Canadian coast) were temporarily grouped together (from June 1940 under Vichy France, so remaining on the Allied side). The two consecutive 'High Commissioners in the Antilles' (quite a misleading title: [[French Guyana]] is in continental South America, [[St-Pierre&Miquelon]] off the Canadian coast, so in North America) held both administrative authority over the local Governors and equivalent officers (rather like a ''[[gouverneur général]]'' did elsewhere on a permanent basis) and military command in the 'Theater Atlantic West': **[[14 September]] [[1939]] - [[14 July]] [[1943]] Georges Robert (b. 1875 - d. 1965) **[[14 July]] [[1943]] - September 1943 [[Henri Hoppenot]] (b. 1891 - d. 1977) In the later period of [[decolonisation]], the office of High Commissioner in a colony to become an allied nation was intended to become remarkably analogous to the Commonwealth's 'close relationship diplomats' in President General De Gaulle's project for a [[French Union]] to match the Commonwealth, but it soon started to fall apart, so they actually just presided over most of the peaceful decolonisation. *''Algérie'' ([[Algeria]]), once similar to Tunis, but transformed into a French popular colony (most of the time under its own governor-general; then a messy period as native and immigrated European interests were irreconcilable), got its only High commissioner on [[19 March]] [[1962]]: [[Christian Fouchet]] (b. 1911 - d. 1974), until its [[3 July]] [[1962]] independence from France (Algerian State; [[25 September]] [[1962]] People's Democratic Algerian Republic ruled by the FLN, the former armed revolt) *in present [[Benin]], since [[13 October]] [[1946]] [[Dahomey]] overseas territory, on [[4 December]] [[1958]] granted autonomy as Republic of Dahomey, the last (acting) governor, René Tirant (b. 1907), stayed on as only High commissioner till the [[1 August]] [[1960]] independence *[[Chad]], since [[27 October]] [[1946]] an overseas territory of France (part of [[French Equatorial Africa|AEF]] colony) under its own Governor, shortly after it was on [[28 November]] [[1958]] granted autonomy as Republic of Chad, had a single High Commissioner from [[22 January]] [[1959]]: [[Daniel Marius Doustin]] (b. 1920) until its [[11 August]] [[1960]] independence from France. *[[Congo-Brazzaville]] (variously named, often [[Middle Congo]]) had a single High commissioner, a bit after it was granted on [[28 November]] [[1958]] autonomy (as Republic of Congo), [[7 January]] [[1959]] - [[15 August]] [[1960]]: [[Guy Noël Georgy]] (b. 1918 - d. 2003) after many [[Lieutenant governor]]s since [[11 December]] [[1888]] (under the governor-general of AEF, except the several cases when he governed the French Congo personally); afterwards it was an independent republic *''Côte d'Ivoire'' ([[Ivory Coast]]) had two High Commissioners since it was granted autonomy as republic of Ivory Coast: **[[4 December]] [[1958]] - [[15 July]] [[1960]] [[Ernest de Nattes]] (b. 1908), the last of the long list of governors since [[10 March]] [[1893]] (colony till [[27 October]] [[1946]], then overseas territory) **[[15 July]] [[1960]] - [[7 August]] [[1960]] [[Yves René Henri Guéna]] (b. 1922); thereafter it was an independent republic *[[Gabon]] had two High Commissioners since on [[28 November]] [[1958]] autonomy was granted (as Gabonese Republic) to the former overseas territory (since 1946) **November 1958 - July 1959 [[Louis Marius Pascal Sanmarco]] (b. 1912), also the last of the Governors since 1941 (after various otherwise styled chief executives before; it had since [[15 January]] [[1910]] been part of French Equatorial Africa, AEF) **July 1959 - [[17 August]] [[1960]] [[Jean Risterucci]] (b. 1911 - d. 1982); thereafter it was an independent republic *[[Mauritania]] had two High commissioners, after having been a protectorate since [[12 May]] [[1903]] (under a single military Commandant), from [[18 October]] [[1904]] the French civil territory of Mauritania under a Commissioner (part of [[French West Africa]] (AOF); under its Governor-general in [[Dakar, Senegal]]), and since [[12 January]] [[1920]] a French colony under a Lieutenant governor (many incumbents, again under Dakar), on [[28 November]] [[1958]] obtaining autonomy (as Islamic Republic of Mauritania): **[[5 October]] [[1958]] - February 1959 Henri Joseph Marie Bernard (b. 1920) **February 1959 - [[28 November]] [[1960]] Amédée Joseph Émile Jean Pierre Anthonioz (b. 1913 - d. 1996); since independence from France it had its own President (or a [[Military junta|junta]] chief); *In [[Niger]], since [[13 October]] [[1946]] an overseas territory of France (part of French West Africa, see Senegal) under a lieutenant-governor, on [[19 December]] [[1958]] granted autonomy as Republic of Niger, there was a single High commissioner [[25 August]] [[1958]] - [[10 November]] [[1960]]: Jean Colombani (b. 1903), i.e. still several months after the formal [[3 August]] [[1960]] independence whilst there was no President *In [[Senegal]], since [[27 October]] [[1946]] an overseas territory of France, which on [[25 November]] [[1958]] had obtained autonomy (as Republic of Senegal), the last Governor stayed on as first (and only?) ''Haut commissaire'' [[25 November]] [[1958]] - [[20 June]] [[1960]]: Pierre Auguste Michel Marie Lami (b. 1909); meanwhile on [[4 April]] [[1959]] the Sudanese Republic (now [[Mali]]) and Senegal formed the [[Mali Federation]] and his term ended at the [[20 June]] [[1960]] independence of that Mali Federation from France (on [[20 August]] [[1960]] the Republic of Senegal withdrew from the thus dissolved Mali Federation). *in [[French Sudan]], an overseas territory of France since [[27 October]] [[1946]] (earlier a colony; stayed within French West Africa), which on [[24 November]] [[1958]] obtained autonomy (as Sudanese Republic), there were two High commissioners: **[[3 November]] [[1956]] - [[24 November]] [[1958]] Henri Victor Gipoulon **[[24 November]] [[1958]] - [[20 June]] [[1960]] Jean Charles Sicurani (b. 1915 - d. 1977); during his term on [[4 April]] [[1959]] this Sudanese Republic and Senegal (cfr. above) united to form the Mali Federation; his office ceased at the [[20 June]] [[1960]] independence of the Mali Federation from France *In the [[Republic of Upper Volta]] (since [[4 January]] [[1947]] a French territory; present Burkina Faso, renamed [[4 August]] [[1984]]), since the [[11 December]] [[1958]] grant of Autonomy as a 'republic', ''République de Haute-Volta'', there were two [[List of governors of Upper Volta|High commissioners]]: **[[11 December]] [[1958]] - February 1959 Max Berthet, who stayed on, having been the last (acting) Governor **February 1959 - [[5 August]] [[1960]] Paul Jean Marie Masson (b. 1920), till the Independence from France as the Republic of Upper Volta. While the colonies above were generally artificially carved creations, ''Haut commissaires'' also were appointed by Paris to prepare the (de facto) independence of pre-existing monarchies that had formally been French protectorates, such as: *[[Tunisia]], known as the [[Régence]] (since [[3 June]] [[1955]] autonomous), where France had a [[Resident-general]] (posted with the [[Basha bey]] of Tunis, who once the French protectorate was terminated on [[20 March]] [[1956]] restyled his realm ''al-Mamlaka at-Tunisiyya'' 'Tunisian Kingdom'), in stead got a High commissioner from [[13 September]] [[1955]] to [[20 March]] [[1956]]: Roger Seydoux Fornier de Clausonne (b. 1908 - d. 1985); in continued shortly as independent monarchy, but on [[25 July]] [[1957]] became the Tunisian Republic. Yet a colony could achieve independence without a High Commissioner, e.g. [[Guinée]] ([[French Guinea]]). In one case a French ''Haut Commissaire'' was the exact match and colleague of a British High Commissioner: they represented both powers in the south sea '''condominium''' (i.e. territory under joint sovereignty) of the [[New Hebrides]], which became the present republic of [[Vanuatu]]. A very special category was the Haut Commissaire as 'liquidator' of a ''gouvernement-général'' (the colonial echelon grouping several neighbouring colonies under a Governor-general), notably: *in ''Afrique Equatoriale Française'' ([[French Equatorial Africa]], AEF), three High commissioners: **[[4 April]] [[1957]] - [[29 January]] [[1958]] Paul Louis Gabriel Chauvet (b. 1904), also the last of the long list of Governors-general since [[28 June]] [[1908]] (before it had five Commissioners-general since [[27 April]] [[1886]]) **[[29 January]] [[1958]] - [[15 July]] [[1958]] Pierre Messmer (b. 1916) **[[15 July]] [[1958]] - [[15 August]] [[1960]] Yvon Bourges (b. 1921) *in ''[[Afrique Occidentale Française]] (AOF)'', i.e. French West Africa, the last of a long list of Governors-general since 1895 stayed on as first of only two High Commissioners: **[[4 April]] [[1957]] - July 1958 Gaston Custin (b. 1903 - d. 1993) **July 1958 - [[22 December]] [[1958]] Pierre Messmer (b. 1916) Another use for the title was found in the rare remaining insulara (formerly no longer colonial) overseas possessions, in these cases still functioning: *In [[French Polynesia]] it is the title of the representative of the French republic in the overseas territory (restyled 'overseas collectivity' in 2003, 'overseas country' on [[27 February]] [[2004]]) since [[13 July]] [[1977]] (until [[14 September]] [[1984]] he also presided the local council of ministers, the that got its own president, as the legislature already had) *In [[New Caledonia]] (''Nouvelle Calédonie'' in French, colonised in 1853; its Governors had been High Commissioners in the Pacific Ocean from [[22 March]] [[1907]], see above) the title (commonly corrupted to '''Haussaire''') was chosen for the chief executive on [[19 December]] [[1981]], when it was an overseas territory (since 1946), even before autonomy was granted on [[18 November]] [[1984]], and maintained after its status was changed on [[20 July]] [[1998]] to the unique French ''collectivité sui generis''; he represents the Paris government, while there are a native legislature and government. ===Greek=== On [[30 July]] [[1922]], the Hellenic kingdom (Greece) declared [[Smyrna]] (the Anatolian Izmir district, occupied by Greece since [[12 May]] [[1919]]) a protectorate. Until on [[9 September]] [[1922]] Greece restores Smyrna to Turkey after defeat of Greek forces, it had a Greek High Commissioner ([[21 May]] [[1919]] - [[8 September]] [[1922]]): Aristeidis Stergiadis (b. 1861 - d. 1950) ===Italian=== *while only various military commanders and since 1916 a Secretary for Civil Affairs in [[Albania]] (Ugo Capialbi) had acted for Rome since Italy invaded on [[27 December]] [[1914]] (occupying [[Valorë]] and parts of Southern Albania; on [[3 June]] [[1917]] Albanian independence under an Italian protectorate was declared by Italy, opposed by most Albanians; adding in November 1918 the former Austro-Hungarian occupied areas to the Italian zone) only since in 1919 an Albanian provisional government recognized by Italy as the legal government of the protected zone, consecutive High Commissioners for the Crown were appointed until Italy effectively withdraw its troops on [[3 September]] [[1920]] (as agreed on [[22 August]] [[1920]] when formally recognizing the total independence of [[Albania]]): **1919 - 1920 .... **1920 Fortunato Castoldi **1920 - [[3 September]] [[1920]] Gaetano Conti Manzoni *two incumbents appointed by the kingdom in [[Fiume]] (a former Austrian province; now Rijeka, in [[Croatia]]), after an extraordinary commissionary, in the [[31 December]] [[1920]] declared, short-lived "Independent State of Fiume", until the accession of its first President **[[13 June]] [[1921]] - 1921 Antonio Foschini (b. 1872 - d. 19..) **1921 - [[5 October]] [[1921]] Luigi Amantea (b. 1869 - d. 19..) *in [[Slovenia]], which after 6 - [[17 April]] [[1941]] Italian-German occupation, was on [[17 April]] [[1941]] partitioned between Italy, Hungary and Germany, the Italian portion was named province of [[Lubiana]], from [[3 May]] [[1941]] under a Civil Commissioner, from [[3 May]] [[1941]] restyled the first of two High Commissioners: **[[18 April]] [[1941]] - 1942 Francesco Saverio Grazioli (b. 1869 - d. 1951) **1942 - 1943 Giuseppe Lombrassa (b. 1906 - d. 1966) ===Portuguese=== The title '''''Alto Comissário da República''''' (High Commissioner of the Republic) or, simply '''''Alto Comissário''''', was given to some portuguese colonial governors to who were given, excepcional, enlarged executive and legislative powers, superiors to those of common Governors. In the Monarchy, before 1910, they were known as '''''Comissários Régios''''' (Royal Commissioners). Had been nominated ''Altos Comissários'' or ''Comissários Régios'' for: *[[Angola]]: **Guilherme Augusto de Brito Capelo (''Comissário Régio'') - 1896–1897 **[[Norton de Matos|José Mendes Ribeiro de Norton de Matos]] - 1921–1923 **Francisco da Cunha Rego Chaves - 1925–1926 **António Vicente Ferreira - 1926–1928 **Filomeno da Câmara Melo Cabral - 1929–1930 *[[Cabo Verde]] (Cape Verde): **Vicente Almeida d'Eça - [[30 December]] [[1974]]-[[5 July]] [[1975]] *[[Portuguese India]]: **João António de Brissac das Neves Ferreira (''Comissário Régio'') - 1896–1897 *[[Mozambique]]: **António Enes (''Comissário Régio'') - [[1895]] **José Francisco de Azevedo e Silva - 1911–1912 **Manuel de Brito Camacho - 1921–1923 **Vitor Hugo de Azevedo Coutinho - 1924–1926 *[[São Tomé and Príncipe]]: **António Elísio Capelo Pires Veloso - [[18 December]] [[1974]] (three days before the formal granting of autonomy), actually the last of many governors (since 1753, before both islands were separate), staying on until it became an independent republic on [[12 July]] [[1975]] *[[Portuguese Timor]]: **José Joaquim Lopes de Lima (''Comissário Régio'') - 1851–1852 ===Spanish=== '''''Alto comisario''''' was the Spanish title of the official exercing the functions of a governor in the following colonial possessions: *[[Equatorial Guinea]] had three consecutive High Commissioners: **[[15 December]] [[1963]] - 1964 Francisco Núñez Rodríguez (b. 1902 - d. 1972), also the last of many Governors since [[7 June]] [[1494]] **1964 - 1966 Pedro Latorre Alcubierre **1966 - [[12 October]] [[1968]] Víctor Suances Díaz del Río; his term ended when it became an independent republic The title ''Alto Comisario'' was also used for the representative of Spain in its ''protectorate zone'' within the Sherifan sultanate of [[Morocco]] (most of the country was under French protectorate), known as ''el Jalifato'' after the ''[[khalifa]] (Jalifa'' in Spanish), the Sultan's fully mandated, princely Viceroy in this protectorate, to which the High Commissioner was formally accredited, but whose senior he was in reality. In 1934 - 1956 the Governors of the [[Western Sahara]] (which from [[27 November]] [[1912]] were also Governors-general of [[Spanish West Africa]]) were subordinated to him. The office itself was however filled by the governors of Spanish West Africa from 1939 to 1956. ===United States=== *Despite being a U.S. [[protectorate]] from 1905 to 1941, the [[Dominican Republic]] had a single U.S. High Commissioner, [[Sumner Welles]], who served from 1922 - 1924. *[[Haiti]], the other (western) half of the island of [[Hispaniola]], had a similar experience. It was a U.S. protectorate from 1915 to 1936, but also had only one High Commissioner, [[John H. Russell, Jr.]], who served from [[11 February]] [[1922]] to [[16 November]] [[1930]]. *Following [[World War I]], [[Rear Admiral]] [[Mark Lambert Bristol]] served as United States High Commissioner for [[Turkey]] from 1919 to 1927. *the [[Philippines]] became a U.S. territory on [[13 August]] [[1898]]. After gaining autonomy on [[15 November]] [[1935]], it had the following U.S. High Commissioners: **1935 - 1937 Frank William Murphy. Murphy was also the last of the Governors-general. **1937 - 1939 [[Paul V. McNutt]] (1st commission). **1939 - [[7 September]] [[1942]] Francis Bowes Sayers (from [[24 December]] [[1941]] in U.S. exile during Japanese military occupation). **[[7 September]] [[1942]] - [[4 July]] [[1946]] Paul V. McNutt (2nd commission) (to August 1945 in U.S. exile during Japanese military occupation). McNutt's termed ended with the official independence of the new republic. *[[Okinawa]] and [[Ryukyu Islands]] (Japanese archipelago), and later just Okinawa had six U.S. High Commissioners: **[[4 July]] [[1957]] - [[1 May]] [[1958]] [[James Edward Moore]]. Moore was also the last Deputy governor and Commanding General, Ryukyu Islands Command. **[[1 May]] [[1958]] - [[12 February]] [[1961]] Donald Prentice Booth. **[[16 February]] [[1961]] - [[31 July]] [[1964]] Paul Wyatt Caraway. **[[1 August]] [[1964]] - [[31 October]] [[1966]] Albert Watson II. **[[2 November]] [[1966]] - [[28 January]] [[1968]] Ferdinand Thomas Unger. On [[21 November]] [[1967]] most Ryukyu Islands (except Okinawa) were restored to Japan. **[[28 January]] [[1968]] - [[15 May]] [[1972]] James Benjamin Lampert. On [[15 May]] [[1972]] Okinawa reverted to Japanese sovereignty as a prefecture; therefore, the office of U.S. High Commissioner on Okinawa ceased to exist. ==High Commissioners as Extraordinary Government Agents== In many cases, a political vacuum created by war, occupation or other events discontinuing a country's constitutional government has been filled by those able to do so, one nation or often an alliance, installing a transitional (often minimal) governance administered by, or under supervision of, one or more High Commissioners representing it/them. For example: *[[22 November]] [[1918]] - 1919 [[Alsace-Lorraine]], till then part of the defeated German Empire as [[Elsaß-Lothringen]] but just occupied by and restored to France, was under ''haut commissaire'' Maringer (it would be only fully reintegrated in 1925, after three Commissioners General) *When Mussolini's Italy occupied [[Montenegro]] [[17 April]] [[1941]] - [[10 September]] [[1943]], it first appointed a (Nominal) Governor ([[17 May]] [[1941]] - [[23 July]] [[1941]]? Mihajlo Ivanovic), then a [[Civil Commissioner]] [[29 April]] [[1941]] - [[22 May]] [[1941]] ''Conte'' Serafino Mazzolini (b. 1890 - d. 1945), who next stayed on as High Commissioner (from [[12 July]] [[1941]], also styled [[Regent]] at the proclamation of Nominal independence under Italian control, but exiled King [[Prince Michael of Montenegro|Mihajlo I]] refuses the throne, when offered the Montenegrin crown; [[Prince Roman Petrovich of Russia]] (b. 1896 - d. 1978) also refuses to be enthroned) till [[23 July]] [[1941]] followed by two Governors before the German occupation ==Domestic High Commissioners== In [[France]], a '''high commissioner''', in French ''haut-commissaire'', is a civil servant appointed by the [[President of France]] to some high level position within France: * The High commissioner for [[atomic energy]] is the head of the [[Commissariat à l'Énergie Atomique|CEA]] * cfr. ''[[:fr:Haute Autorité|Haute Autorité]]''. ==Multilaterally mandated== ===Representing an international alliance=== *After the naval blockade of [[Crete]] in 1898 by France, Italy, Russia and the United Kingdom, Crete became autonomous within the Ottoman Empire. These protecting powers appointed the following as High Commissioner (or "Armostis") until 1908 when the Cretan Assembly unilaterally declared union with Greece (with Crete subsequently formally becoming part of Greece in 1913): ** 1898 - 1906 [[Prince George of Greece and Denmark|Prince George of Greece]] ** [[September 18]], [[1906]] - [[September 24]], [[1908]] [[Alexandros Zaimis]] *Even shortly before on [[8 December]] [[1918]] the Allied occupation of the [[Bosporus]], the [[Dardanelles]], the eastern coast of the [[Sea of Marmara]], the islands of [[Imros]], [[Lemnos]], [[Samothrace]] and [[Tenedos]] and 15 km deep into eastern and the eastern shores; entire area demilitarized ([[Zone of the Straits]]; complemented [[16 March]] - [[10 August]] [[1920]] as the allies occupy the Ottoman capital Istanbul) was a military fact, in November 1918 a double post was created: until the termination of allied occupation on [[22 October]] [[1923]], there were at all times one British Senior Allied High Commissioner and one (junior) Allied High Commissioner (incumbents from France, thrice, Italy and the US, each twice). Often the main/locally concerned members of an alliance would not set up a joint occupation authority (as in Italy after the Nazi defeat) but simply each appoint one for each of the zones into which they physically divided amongst themselves an occupied state or territory, e.g. after World War II: *in [[Austria]], until [[27 July]] [[1955]] when Allied occupation ends, restoring Austrian sovereignty, it was administered as a British Zone (6 consecutive High Commissioners, July 1945), a US Zone (4 incumbents from [[5 July]] [[1945]]), a Soviet Zone (4 from July 1945; only this had first been under a Military Governor from [[8 April]] [[1945]]) and a French Zone (2, from [[8 July]] [[1945]]); *in [[Germany]] there were also four major occupation zones: the British Zone (after three consecutive Military governors from [[22 May]] [[1945]], the last stayed on as first of three consecutive High Commissioners [[21 September]] [[1949]] - [[5 May]] [[1955]]), the US Zone (after five Military governors from [[8 May]] [[1945]], four High Commissioners [[2 September]] [[1949]] - [[5 May]] [[1955]]), the Soviet Zone (after a military commander April 1945 - [[9 June]] [[1945]] who stayed as first of three Military governors [[9 June]] [[1945]] - [[10 October]] [[1949]], the last of whom stayed on as only Chairman of the Soviet Control Commission [[10 October]] [[1949]] - [[28 May]] [[1953]], two High commissioners [[28 May]] [[1953]] - [[20 September]] [[1955]]) and the French Zone (after a Military commander from May 1945 and a Military governor from July 1945, a single High commissioner [[21 September]] [[1949]] - [[5 May]] [[1955]]); the Nazi capital, [[Berlin]], enclaved in the Soviet zone, is separately quartered under four military City Commanders; only the small Dutch zone by the border is destined for annexation in 1949, so it is divided up in two districts, each under a [[landdrost]] ([[Tudderenen]], attached to the province of (Dutch) Limburg and [[Elten]], attached to Gelderland province), but returned to Germany after compensation payments and minor border corrections on [[11 August]] [[1963]] ===Emancipatory administrators under International law=== *As the 'world community' became a widely accepted ideal in diplomacy and was embodied first in the [[League of Nations]] and later the [[United Nations|UNO]], these often came to play a key role in extraordinary situations that would earlier probably have been dealt with by states as above, sometimes reflected in the appointment of High Commissioners under their auspices, sometimes just from the same leading powers, sometimes rather from 'neutral' member states. *The title of High Commissioner was specifically used for the administrators during the 'emancipation from colonial rule' of [[League of Nations mandate]]s and [[United Nations Trust Territories]], i.e. non-sovereign states under a 'transitional' regime established under the authority of the League of Nations or the UN, respectively, to prepare them for full independence. These 'guardianships' most often were simply awarded to the former colonial power or if that was a loser in the preceding World War, to the 'liberating' Allied victor(s). ====League of Nations - Mandate territories==== * [[Iraq]], conquered on the Ottoman [[Wali]]s by British forces, had four incumbents, after a single civilian Administrator ([[10 January]] [[1919]] - [[1 October]] [[1920]] Sir Arnold Talbot Wilson), continuing ten years after the accession to the throne and most of the rule of the country's first [[Malik]] (King, reigned [[23 August]] [[1921]] - [[8 September]] [[1933]]) [[Faisal I of Iraq|Faysal I]] (b. 1885 - d. 1933) : **[[1 October]] [[1920]] - [[4 May]] [[1923]] Sir Percy Zachariah Cox (b. 1864 - d. 1937) **[[4 May]] [[1923]] - October 1928 Sir Henry Robert Conway Dobbs (acting to [[15 September]] [[1923]]) (b. 1871 - d. 1934) **October 1928 - [[11 September]] [[1929]] Sir Gilbert Falkingham Clayton (b. 1875 - d. 1929) **[[3 October]] [[1929]] - [[3 October]] [[1932]] Sir Francis Henry Humphrys (b. 1879 - d. 1971) *The [[British Mandate of Palestine]] High Commissioners **[[1 July]] [[1920]] – 1925 Sir [[Herbert Louis Samuel]] (1879–1963), until the 1922 establishment of the mandate actually the first civilian who took over, already as High Commissioner, from the three consecutive [[British_Mandate_of_Palestine#British_Chief_Administrators_of_Palestine|military administrators]] since the 1917 conquest by British forces **1925 Sir [[Gilbert Falkingham Clayton]] (acting) (1875–1929) **[[25 August]] [[1925]] – August 1928 [[Herbert Plumer, 1st Viscount Plumer|Herbert Charles Onslow Plumer, Baron Plumer]] (1857–1932) **August 1928 – [[6 December]] [[1928]] Sir [[Harry Charles Luke]] (acting) (1884–1969) **[[6 December]] [[1928]] – 1931 Sir [[John Robert Chancellor]] (1870–1952) **1931 – 1932 [[Mark Aitchison Young]] (acting) (1886–1974) **1932 – September 1937 Sir [[Arthur Grenfell Wauchope]] (1874–1947) **September 1937 – March 1938 William Denis Battershill (acting) (1896–1959) **[[3 March]] [[1938]] – [[3 September]] [[1944]] Sir [[Harold MacMichael|Harold Alfred MacMichael]] (1882–1969) **[[3 September]] [[1944]] – [[21 November]] [[1945]] [[John Vereker, 6th Viscount Gort|John Standish Surtees Prendergast Vereker, Viscount Gort]] (1886–1946) **[[21 November]] [[1945]] – [[14 May]] [[1948]] Sir [[Alan Gordon Cunningham]] (1887–1983) ====United Nations==== =====UN Trust Territories===== *In [[Togo]], once a German colony, then a League of Nations mandate, * three High commissioners **[[21 September]] [[1956]] - [[23 March]] [[1957]] Jean Louis Philippe Bérard (b. 1910), in fact the last of many [[Commissioner]]s since [[4 September]] [[1916]] **[[23 March]] [[1957]] - June 1957 Joseph Édouard Georges Rigal (acting) **June 1957 - [[27 April]] [[1960]] Georges Léon Spénale (b. 1913 - d. 1983); next it was an independent republic. *The UN [[Trust Territory of the Pacific Islands]] (originally comprising [[Marshall Islands]], [[Micronesia]], [[Northern Mariana Islands]] and [[Palau]]), after Allied military occupations, since [[18 July]] [[1947]], had a dozen [[High Commissioner of the Trust Territory of the Pacific Islands|high commissioners]], also presiding over the splitting off of [[Palau]] and [[Marshall Islands]] in 1980 and the [[10 May]] [[1979]] granting of autonomy to the [[Federated States of Micronesia]] (former [[Pohnpei|Ponape]], [[Truk]] and [[Yap]] districts of the Trust Territory) until on [[3 November]] [[1986]] the Trust Territory was dissolved by the U.S. (a single Director of the Office of Transition, Charles Jordan, stepped in from [[3 November]] [[1986]] - [[30 September]] [[1991]], a while after the [[22 December]] [[1990]] proclamation of final independence as the UN Security Council ratified the termination of US trusteeship). =====Other UN administration===== *After the former Italian colony of [[Eritrea]] had been under victor Britain's administration since [[5 May]] [[1941]], a specific United Nations administration, under Britain, was installed on [[19 February]] [[1951]], under a UN High Commissioner, [[Edoardo Anze Matienzo]] (Bolivian, b. 1902), whose office ceased on [[15 September]] [[1952]] when it was Federated with Ethiopia under the sovereignty of the Ethiopian emperor. =====Representing the world universally===== At the [[United Nations]] and affiliated global organisations, a High Commissioner serves as the permanent chief executive of a [[committee|commission]] composed of representatives of various member [[nation]]s. * the [[United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights|UN High Commissioner for Human Rights]], who has the rank of Under-secretary-general, serves the United Nations Human Rights Commission. In fact in 2005, the US Ambassador at the UN complained that the incumbent, as a 'civil servant', was not authorized to act upon information (in this case world wide press reports on abnormal detention forms in the 'war against terrorism' suspected to breech the rights of the suspects) not obtained by the organisation's official channels. * the [[UN High Commissioner for Refugees]] heads the [[Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees]] (UNHCR) ==See also== *[[Lord High Commissioner]] *[[High Representative]] ==References== * [http://www.psa.ac.uk/publications/psd/1998/lloyd1.htm History of the title High Commissioner] * [http://www.worldstatesmen.org/ WorldStatesmen] click on the present countries mentioned *[http://www.direct.gov.uk/Gtgl1/GuideToGovernment/InternationalBodies/InternationalBodiesArticles/fs/en?CONTENT_ID=4003092&chk=JXlogH The Commonwealth] - UK government site [[Category:British Empire]] [[Category:Diplomats by role]] [[Category:Gubernatorial titles]] [[Category:Titles]] [[ca:Alta Comissió]] [[de:Hochkommissar (Commonwealth)]] [[fr:Haut-commissariat]] [[it:Alto Commissario]] [[he:הנציב העליון]] [[ja:高等弁務官]] [[pl:Wysoki komisarz]] [[sv:High Commissioner]] [[zh:高級專員]]