History of Antarctica
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[[Image:Pole-observation.jpg|thumb|250px|right|December 1911: [[Roald Amundsen]]'s [[Norway|Norwegian]] expedition becomes the first to reach the [[South Pole]].]]
The '''history of [[Antarctica]]''' emerges from early Western theories of a vast continent, known as [[Terra Australis]], believed to exist in the far south of the globe. The rounding of the [[Cape of Good Hope]] and [[Cape Horn]] in the 15th and 16th centuries proved that ''Terra Australis Incognita'' ("Unknown Southern Land"), if it existed, was a continent in its own right. In 1773 [[James Cook]] crossed the [[Antarctic Circle]] for the first time but although he discovered nearby islands, he did not catch sight of Antarctica itself.
In 1820, several expeditions claimed to have been the first to have sighted Antarctica. The first landing was probably just over a year later when [[United States|American]] [[Captain John Davis (sealer)|Captain John Davis]], a [[Seal hunter|sealer]], set foot on the ice. Once the [[North Pole]] had been reached in 1909, several expeditions attempted to reach the [[South Pole]]. Many resulted in injury and death. The [[Norway|Norwegian]] [[Roald Amundsen]] finally claimed the prize following a dramatic race with the [[British people|Briton]] [[Robert Falcon Scott]] in December 1911.
==The search for ''Terra Australis Incognita''==
{{main|Terra Australis}}
In the [[Western world]], belief in a [[Terra Australis]]—a vast continent located in the far south of the globe to "balance" out the northern lands of [[Europe]], [[Asia]] and [[North Africa]]—had existed for centuries. [[Aristotle]] had postulated a symmetry of the earth, which meant that there would be equally habitable lands south of the known world. The Greeks suggested that these two hemispheres, north and south, were divided by a 'belt of fire'{{Fact|date=February 2007}}.
It was not until [[Prince Henry the Navigator]] began in 1418 to encourage the penetration of the [[tropics|torrid zone]] in the effort to reach [[India]] by circumnavigating [[Africa]] that the exploration of the southern hemisphere began. In 1473 [[Portugal|Portuguese]] navigator [[Lopes Gonçalves]] proved that the [[equator]] could be crossed, and cartographers and sailors began to assume the existence of another, temperate continent to the south of the known world.
[[Image:OrteliusWorldMap.jpeg|thumb|right|250px|In 1570 a map by [[Ortelius]] showed the imagined link between the proposed continent of Antarctica and [[South America]]. Note also the proposed landmasses surrounding the [[North Pole]].]]
The doubling of the [[Cape of Good Hope]] in 1487 by [[Bartolomeu Dias|Bartholomew Diaz]] first brought explorers within touch of the Antarctic cold, and proved that there was an ocean separating [[Africa]] from any Antarctic land that might exist. [[Ferdinand Magellan]], who passed through the [[Straits of Magellan]] in 1520, assumed that the islands of [[Tierra del Fuego]] to the south were an extension of this unknown southern land, and it appeared as such on a map by [[Ortelius]]: ''Terra australis recenter inventa sed nondum plene cognita'' ("Southern land recently discovered but not yet known").{{Fact|date=February 2007}} In 1513, the Ottoman Turkish admiral [[Piri Reis]] also drew [[Piri Reis map|a map]] that has been said to show part of the Antarctic continent.
The doubling of [[Cape Horn]] by [[Drake]] in 1578 proved that the Tierra del Fuego archipelago was of small extent and that any continent which lay to the south must be within the region of perpetual winter. European geographers connected the coast of Tierra del Fuego with the coast of New Guinea on their globes and allowing their imaginations to run riot in the vast unknown spaces of the south Atlantic, south [[Indian Ocean|Indian]] and [[Pacific Ocean|Pacific]] oceans. They sketched the outlines of the ''Terra Australis Incognita'' ("Unknown Southern Land"), a vast continent stretching in parts into the tropics. The search for this great south land or Third World was a leading motive of explorers in the 16th and the early part of the 17th centuries.
[[Willem Schouten|Schouten]] and [[Jacob Le Maire|Le Maire]] rediscovered the southern extremity of Tierra del Fuego and named it Cape Horn in 1615. [[Quirós]] in 1606 took possession for the king of Spain all of the lands he had discovered in Australia del Espiritu Santo (the [[New Hebrides]]) and those he would discover "even to the Pole". [[Tasman]] in 1642 showed that [[New Holland (Australia)]] was separated by sea from any continuous southern continent.
[[Image:Geography world map.jpeg|thumb|left|250px|Map from 1771, showing "Terres Australes" ([[sic]]) label without any charted landmass.]]
Voyagers round the Horn frequently met with contrary winds and were driven southward into snowy skies and ice-encumbered seas; but so far as can be ascertained none of them before 1770 reached the Antarctic Circle, or knew it, if they did. The story of the discovery of land in 64° S. by [[Dirck Gerritz Pomp|Dirk Gerritz]] on board the ''Blijde Boodschap'' in 1599 was shown to be the result of a mistake{{Fact|date=February 2007}} of a commentator, [[Kasper Barlaeus]], in 1622. A similar story of sighting "snow-covered mountains" beyond the 64° S in 1603 is told of the [[Spanish people|Spanish]] [[Gabriel de Castilla]]<ref name="Acuña">[http://www.ejercito.mde.es/mexterior/webantartida/docs/extras/GABRIEL%20DE%20CASTILLA.pdf Don Gabriel de Castilla, primer avistador de la Antártica], by [[Chile]]an historian Isidoro Vázquez de Acuña (Spanish language)</ref>.
Better documented is the visit to [[South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands|South Georgia]] by [[Anthony de la Roché]] in 1675, the first ever discovery of land south of the [[Antarctic Convergence]].<ref>Dalrymple, Alexander. (1771). ''A Collection of Voyages Made to the Ocean Between Cape Horn and Cape of Good Hope''. Two volumes. London.</ref><ref>Headland, Robert K. (1984). ''The Island of South Georgia'', Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0 521 25274 1</ref> Soon after the voyage cartographers started to depict on their maps ‘Roché Island’, honouring the discoverer. [[James Cook]] was aware of la Roché's discovery when surveying and mapping the island in 1775. <ref>Cook, James. (1777). [http://www.gutenberg.org/files/15869/15869-8.txt ''A Voyage Towards the South Pole, and Round the World. Performed in His Majesty's Ships the Resolution and Adventure, In the Years 1772, 1773, 1774, and 1775. In which is included, Captain Furneaux's Narrative of his Proceedings in the Adventure during the Separation of the Ships'']. Volume II. London: Printed for W. Strahan and T. Cadell. ([[User:Apcbg/Cook-1775|Relevant fragment]])</ref>
It may safely be said that all the navigators who fell in with the southern ice up to 1750 did so by being driven off their course and not of set purpose. An exception may perhaps be made in favor of [[Halley]]'s voyage in [[HMS Paramour|HMS ''Paramour'']] for magnetic investigations in the South Atlantic when he met the ice in 52° S. in January 1700; but that latitude was his farthest south. A determined effort on the part of the French naval officer [[Pierre Bouvet]] to discover the South Land described by a half legendary [[sieur de Gonneyville]] resulted only in the discovery of [[Bouvet Island]] in 54°10′ S., and in the navigation of 48° of longitude of ice-cumbered sea nearly in 55° S. in 1730.
In 1771, [[Yves-Joseph de Kerguelen-Trémarec|Yves Joseph Kerguelen]] sailed from [[France]] with instructions to proceed south from [[Mauritius]] in search of "a very large continent." He lighted upon a land in 50° S. which he called South France, and believed to be the central mass of the southern continent. He was sent out again to complete the exploration of the new land, and found it to be only an inhospitable island which he renamed in disgust the Isle of Desolation, but in which posterity has recognized his courageous efforts by naming it [[Kerguelen Islands|Kerguelen Land]].<ref name=EB1911>{{1911|article=Polar Regions}}</ref>
==South of the Antarctic Circle==
{{main|James Cook}}
The obsession of the undiscovered continent culminated in the brain of [[Alexander Dalrymple]], the brilliant and erratic [[hydrographer]] who was nominated by the [[Royal Society]] to command the [[Transit of Venus]] expedition to [[Tahiti]] in 1769. The command of the expedition was given by the admiralty to Captain [[James Cook]]. Sailing in 1772 with the ''Resolution'', a vessel of 462 tons under his own command and the ''Adventure'' of 336 tons under Captain [[Tobias Furneaux]], Cook first searched in vain for [[Bouvet Island]], then sailed for 20 degrees of longitude to the westward in latitude 58° S, and then 30° eastward for the most part south of 60° S, a higher southern latitude than had ever been voluntarily entered before by any vessel. On [[January 17]], [[1773]] the [[Antarctic Circle]] was crossed for the first time in history and the two ships reached {{nowrap|67° 15' S}} by {{nowrap|39° 35' E}}, where their course was stopped by ice.
Cook then turned northward to look for [[South France|French Southern and Antarctic Lands]], of the discovery of which he had received news at [[Cape Town]], but from the rough determination of his longitude by Kerguelen, Cook reached the assigned latitude 10° too far east and did not see it. He turned south again and was stopped by ice in {{nowrap|61° 52′ S}} by 95° E and continued eastward nearly on the parallel of 60° S to 147° E. On [[March 16]], the approaching winter drove him northward for rest to [[New Zealand]] and the tropical islands of the Pacific. In November 1773, Cook left New Zealand, having parted company with the ''Adventure'', and reached 60° S by 177° W, whence he sailed eastward keeping as far south as the floating ice allowed. The Antarctic Circle was crossed on [[December 20]] and Cook remained south of it for three days, being compelled after reaching {{nowrap|67° 31′ S}} to stand north again in 135° W.
A long detour to {{nowrap|47° 50′ S}} served to show that there was no land connection between New Zealand and [[Tierra del Fuego]]. Turning south again, Cook crossed the Antarctic Circle for the third time at {{nowrap|109° 30′ W}} before his progress was once again blocked by ice four days later at {{nowrap|71° 10′ S}} by {{nowrap|106° 54′ W}}. This point, reached on [[January 30]], [[1774]], was the farthest south attained in the 18th century. With a great detour to the east, almost to the coast of South America, the expedition regained Tahiti for refreshment. In November 1774, Cook started from New Zealand and crossed the South Pacific without sighting land between 53° and 57° S to Tierra del Fuego; then, passing Cape Horn on [[December 29]], he discovered the [[South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands|Isle of Georgia and Sandwich Land]], the only ice-clad land he had seen, before crossing the South Atlantic to the Cape of Good Hope between 55° and 60°. He thereby laid open the way for future Antarctic exploration by exploding the myth of a habitable southern continent. Cook's most southerly discovery of land lay on the temperate side of the 60th parallel, and he convinced himself that if land lay farther south it was practically inaccessible and of no economic value.<ref name="EB1911"/>
== First sighting of land ==
[[Image:Polar Regions exploration 1911.png|thumb|Some of the early exploration routes.]]
The first land south of the parallel 60° south latitude was discovered by the Englishman [[William Smith (mariner)|William Smith]], who sighted [[Livingston Island]] on [[February 19]], [[1819]]. Few months later Smith returned to explore the other islands of the [[South Shetland Islands|South Shetlands]] archipelago, landed on [[King George Island]], and claimed the new territories for [[United Kingdom|Britain]].
In the meantime, the Spanish Navy ship [[San Telmo (ship)|San Telmo]] sank in September 1819 when trying to cross Cape Horn. Parts of her wreckage were found months later by sealers on the north coast of [[Livingston Island]] ([[South Shetlands]]). It is unknown if some survivor managed to be the first setting foot on these Antarctic islands.
The first confirmed sighting of Antarctica cannot be accurately attributed to one single person. It can, however, be narrowed down to three individuals. According to various sources,<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.nsf.gov/pubs/1997/antpanel/antpan05.pdf |title=Antarctica —past and present |author=U.S. Antarctic Program External Panel |publisher=[[NSF]] |accessdate=2007-11-14}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://quest.arc.nasa.gov/antarctica/background/NSF/palmer.html |title=Nathaniel Brown Palmer |author=Guy G. Guthridge |publisher=[[NASA]] |accessdate=2007-11-14}}</ref><ref>http://arcane.ucsd.edu/pstat.html</ref> three men all sighted Antarctica within days or months of each other: [[Fabian von Bellingshausen]], a captain in the Russian Imperial Navy; [[Edward Bransfield]], a captain in the British navy; and [[Nathaniel Palmer]], an American sealer out of Stonington, Connecticut. It is certain that on [[January 28]], [[1820]] (New Style), the expedition led by [[Fabian von Bellingshausen]] and [[Mikhail Petrovich Lazarev]] on two ships reached a point within 20 miles (40 km) of the Antarctic mainland and saw ice-fields there. On [[January 30]], [[1820]], Bransfield sighted [[Trinity Peninsula]], the northernmost point of the Antarctic mainland, while Palmer sighted the mainland in the area south of Trinity Peninsula in November 1820. Bellingshausen's expedition also discovered [[Peter I Island]] and [[Alexander I Island]], the first islands to be discovered south of the circle.
== Exploration ==
{{seealso|List of Antarctic expeditions}}
Only slightly more than a year later, the first landing on the Antarctic mainland was arguably by the American Captain [[John Davis (sealer)|John Davis]], a sealer, who claimed to have set foot there on [[February 7]], [[1821]], though this is not accepted by all historians.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.spri.cam.ac.uk/resources/infosheets/19.html |title=Summary of the Peri-Antarctic Islands |author=R.K. Headland |publisher=Scott Polar Research Institute |accessdate=2007-11-14}}</ref>
[[Image:James Weddell Expedition.jpg|thumb|Painting of [[James Weddell]]'s second expedition, depicting the brig ''Jane'' and the cutter ''Beaufroy''.]]
In December 1821, Nathaniel Palmer, an American sealer looking for seal breeding grounds, sighted what is now known as the [[Antarctic Peninsula]], located in the continent's northwestern quadrant. In 1823, [[James Weddell]], a British sealer, sailed into what is now known as the [[Weddell Sea]].
The first person to realize that he had actually discovered a whole continent was [[Charles Wilkes]], the commander of a [[United States Navy]] expedition.<ref name="antarcticchronology">{{cite web |url=http://www.quarkexpeditions.com/antarctica/exploration.shtml |title=ANTARCTIC EXPLORATION—CHRONOLOGY |accessdate=2006-10-20 |publisher=Quark Expeditions |year=2004}}</ref> His 1840 voyage discovered what is now known as [[Wilkes Land]], on the southeast quadrant of the continent.
After the [[North Magnetic Pole]] was located in 1831, explorers and scientists began looking for the [[South Magnetic Pole]]. One of the explorers, [[James Clark Ross]], a British naval officer, identified its approximate location, but was unable to reach it on his trip in 1841. Commanding the British ships ''Erebus'' and ''Terror'', he braved the pack ice and approached what is now known as the [[Ross Ice Shelf]], a massive floating [[ice shelf]] over {{convert|100|ft|m}} high. His expedition sailed eastward along the southern Antarctic coast discovering mountains which were since named after his ships: [[Mount Erebus]], the most active volcano on Antarctica, and [[Mount Terror (Antarctica)|Mount Terror]].<ref name="antarcticchronology" />
The first documented landing on the mainland of [[East Antarctica]] was at [[Victoria Land]] by the American sealer [[Mercator Cooper]] on [[January 26]], [[1853]].<ref>[http://www.antarctic-circle.org/firsts.htm Antarctic Circle—Antarctic First]</ref>
In 1897, an expedition led by [[Belgium|Belgian]] [[Adrian de Gerlache]] left [[Antwerp]], [[Belgium]] for Antarctica. The multi-national crew included a [[Romania]]n zoologist ([[Emil Racoviţă]]), a [[Poland|Polish]] geologist ([[Henryk Arctowski]]), a Belgian navigator/astronomer ([[George Lecointe]]), several Norwegians, including [[Roald Amundsen]], and an American surgeon, Dr. [[Frederick Cook]]. In 1898, they became the first men to spend winter on Antarctica, when their ship [[RV Belgica|Belgica]] became trapped in the ice. They became stuck on [[February 28]], [[1898]], and only managed to get out of the ice on [[March 14]], [[1899]]. During their forced stay, several men lost their sanity, not only because of the Antarctic winter night and the endured hardship, but also because of the language problems between the different nationalities. A year later a British expedition commanded by Norwegian [[Carstens Borchgrevink]] became the first to intentionally spend winter on the continent itself.<ref name="antarcticchronology" /><ref name="borchbiography">{{cite web |url=http://www.south-pole.com/p0000087.htm |title=Carsten Borchgrevink:1864-1934 |accessdate=2006-10-20}}</ref>
===British National Antarctic Expedition (''Discovery'')===
{{main|Discovery Expedition}}
[[Image:Discoveryboat.jpg|right|thumb|200px|''RRS Discovery'']]
The [[Great Britain|British]] ''[[Discovery Expedition|National Antarctic Expedition]]'' (1901–1904), led by [[Robert Falcon Scott]], came to within 857 km (463 nautical miles) of the South Pole from its base at [[McMurdo Sound]].
===Scottish National Antarctic Expedition===
{{main|Scottish National Antarctic Expedition}}
In 1903, the [[Scottish National Antarctic Expedition]] established ''Osmond House'', a [[Meteorology|meteorological]] observatory on [[Laurie Island]] in the [[South Orkney Islands|South Orkneys]]. A year later, ownership of the base was passed to [[Argentina]] and it was renamed to [[Orcadas Base]]. It is the continent's oldest permanent base,<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.south-pole.com/p0000093.htm |title=William S. Bruce |publisher=South-Pole.com |accessdate=2007-11-14}}</ref> and, until World War II, the only one present.
===British Imperial Antarctic Expedition (''Nimrod'')===
{{main|Nimrod Expedition}}
[[Image:Nimrodheldupinice.jpg|left|thumb|200px|''Nimrod'' trapped in ice.]]
[[Ernest Shackleton]], who had been a member of Scott's expedition, organized and led the [[Nimrod Expedition|British Imperial Antarctic Expedition]] (1907-09), again with the primary objective of reaching the South Pole. It came within 180 km (97 nautical miles) before having to turn back. during the expedition, Shackleton discovered the [[Beardmore Glacier]] and was the first to reach the polar plateau. Parties led by [[T. W. Edgeworth David]] also became the first to climb [[Mount Erebus]] and to reach the [[South Magnetic Pole]].
===Race to the Pole (''Fram'' and ''Terra Nova'')===
<!---Image deleted: [[Image:Terra nova ship.jpg|left|thumb|200px|''Terra Nova'']]--->
{{main|Terra Nova expedition|Amundsen's South Pole expedition}}
On [[December 14]], [[1911]], a party led by Norwegian polar explorer [[Roald Amundsen]] from the ship [[Fram|''Fram'']] became the first to reach the [[South Pole]], using a route from the [[Bay of Whales]] (his camp [[Polheim]] and up the [[Axel Heiberg Glacier]]. Amundsen was followed by [[Robert Falcon Scott]] from the [[Terra Nova (ship)|''Terra Nova'']] over a month later, using the route pioneered by Shackleton. Scott's party later died on the return journey after being delayed by a series of accidents, bad weather, and the declining physical condition of the men. The [[Amundsen-Scott South Pole Station]] was later named after these two men.
===Imperial Trans-Antarctic Expedition (''Endurance'')===
{{main|Imperial Trans-Antarctic Expedition}}
[[Image:Endurance trapped in pack ice.jpg|thumb|200px|Frank Hurley, ''As time wore on it became more and more evident that the ship was doomed'' (The Endurance trapped in pack ice), [[National Library of Australia]].]]
The [[Imperial Trans-Antarctic Expedition]] of 1914, led by Ernest Shackleton, set out to cross the continent via the pole, but their ship, the [[Endurance (1912 ship)|''Endurance'']], was trapped and crushed by pack ice before they even landed. The expedition members survived after an epic journey on sledges over pack ice to [[Elephant Island]]. Then Shackleton and five others crossed the Southern Ocean, in an [[open boat]] called [[James Caird (boat)|''James Caird'']], and then trekked over [[South Georgia]] to raise the alarm at the whaling station [[Grytviken]].
===Exploration by air: 1930s to 1950s===
US Navy Rear Admiral [[Richard Evelyn Byrd]] led five expeditions to Antarctica during the 1930s, 1940s, and 1950s. He overflew the South Pole with pilot [[Bernt Balchen]] on November 28 and 29, 1929, to match his overflight of the North Pole in 1926. Byrd's explorations had science as a major objective and pioneered the use of aircraft on the continent. Byrd is credited with doing more for Antarctic exploration than any other explorer. His expeditions set the scene for modern Antarctic exploration and research.
In 1946, Admiral Byrd and more than 4,700 military personnel returned to Antarctica in an expedition called Operation ''High Jump''. Reported to the public as a scientific mission, the details were kept secret and it may have actually been a training or testing mission for the military. The expedition was, in both military or scientific planning terms, put together very quickly. The group contained an unusually high amount of military equipment, including an aircraft carrier, submarines, military support ships, assault troops and military vehicles. The expedition was planned to last for eight months but was unexpectedly terminated after only two months. With the exception of some eccentric entries in Admiral Byrd's diaries, no real explanation for the early termination has ever been officially given.
It was not until [[October 31]], [[1956]] that anyone reached the South Pole again; on that day US Navy Rear Admiral [[George J. Dufek]] [http://www.history.navy.mil/wars/datesoct.htm] and others successfully landed a R4D Skytrain ([[Douglas DC-3]]) aircraft.
During the [[International Geophysical Year]] of 1957, a large number of expeditions to the Antarctic were mounted.
===Commonwealth Trans-Antarctic Expedition===
{{main|Commonwealth Trans-Antarctic Expedition}}
[[Image:Edmund-Hillary.web.jpg|thumb|left|150px|Sir Edmund Hillary in 1958 after accompanying the first plane to land at the Marble Point ground air-strip.]]
In 1956, a [[United States Navy]] expedition set up the first permanent based at the South Pole, [[Amundsen-Scott South Pole Station]], by airlift, to support the [[International Geophysical Year]]. In 1958, [[Edmund Hillary]]'s party in the New Zealand party of the [[Commonwealth Trans-Antarctic Expedition]] became the third group in history to reach the South Pole by land, and the first group of motor vehicles to reach the pole. The British team led by [[Vivian Fuchs]], met them at the pole shortly afterwards. The expedition completed the first overland crossing of the continent by land via the South Pole.<ref name="antarcticchronology" /> New Zealand mountaineer Sir [[Edmund Hillary]] reached the Pole in early January 1958 using farm tractors equipped for polar travel, the first party since Scott's to reach the South Pole overland. Hillary was laying supply depots as part of the [[Commonwealth Trans-Antarctic Expedition]] and in typical Hillary style "detoured" to the pole because the trip had gone well. British explorer Sir [[Vivian Fuchs]] then arrived at the Pole from the opposite direction later in January, meeting Hillary. Fuchs continued on, making use of the provisions that Hillary had stored, and on [[March 2]] succeeded in reaching [[Scott Base]], completing the overland transpolar crossing that Shackleton had envisaged.
== Recent history ==
[[Image:Port-Lockroy.jpg|250px|thumb|left|[[Port Lockroy]] Museum.]]
The [[Antarctic Treaty]] was signed on [[December 1]], [[1959]] and came into force on [[June 23]], [[1961]]. Among other provisions, this treaty limits [[military activity in the Antarctic]] to the support of scientific research.
A baby, named [[Emilio Palma|Emilio Marcos de Palma]], was born near [[Hope Bay]] on [[January 7]], [[1978]], becoming the first baby born on the continent. He also was born farther south than anyone in history. <ref>[http://www.antarctica.org/old/UK/Envirn/pag/antar_history/pag/science1.htm#science antarctica.org]—Science: in force... </ref>
[[Image:Glacier and Explorer.jpg||200px|thumb|MS ''Explorer'' in Antarctica in January, 1999. She sunk on [[November 23]], [[2007]] after hitting an [[iceberg]].]]
On [[November 28]], [[1979]], an [[Air New Zealand]] [[DC-10]] on a sightseeing trip [[Air New Zealand Flight 901|crashed]] into [[Mount Erebus]] on [[Ross Island]], killing all 257 people on board.
In March 2002, the 5,500 km² (2,120 square statute mile) [[Iceberg B-22]] broke off from the [[Thwaites Ice Tongue]] and the [[Larsen Ice Shelf|Larsen B ice shelf]] on the [[Antarctic Peninsula]], shattering into small fragments. The ice shelf was 200 metres thick and had a surface area of 3,250 square kilometres.
On [[November 23]] [[2007]], the [[MS Explorer|MS ''Explorer'']] struck an iceberg and sunk, but all on board were rescued by nearby ships (including a passing [[Norway|Norwegian]] [[cruise ship]], the [[MS Nordnorge|MS ''Nordnorge'']].
== See also ==
* [[Livingston Island#History|History of Livingston Island]]
* [[List of Antarctic expeditions]]
* [[List of research stations in Antarctica]]
* [[History of South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands]]
== External links ==
* [http://www.70south.com/ 70South: Antarctic History]
* [http://www.heritage-antarctica.org/ Antarctic Heritage Trust]
* [http://flickr.com/photos/terrymct/sets/72057594098237101/ Surveying Antarctica, 1957]
* [http://www.bigdeadplace.com/ Big Dead Place]
===eBooks on Project Gutenberg===
* {{gutenberg |no=4229 |name=The South Pole; an account of the Norwegian Antarctic expedition in the "Fram," 1910-12 — Volume 1 and Volume 2}}
* {{gutenberg |no=14363 |name=The Worst Journey in the World, Volumes 1 and 2 Antarctic 1910-1913}}
* {{gutenberg |no=5199 |name=South: the story of Shackleton's 1914-1917 expedition}}
==References==
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[[Category:History of Antarctica| ]]
[[cs:Historie Antarktidy]]
[[de:Antarktis#Geschichte]]
[[es:Historia de la Antártida]]
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[[it:Storia dell'Antartide]]
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