History of Austria
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{{History of Austria}}
This is the '''history of [[Austria]]'''. See also the
[[history of Europe]] and [[history of present-day nations and states]].
==Early Middle Ages==
During the [[Migration Period]], the [[Slavic]] tribe of the Carantanians [[Slavic settlement of the Eastern Alps|migrated into the Alps]] in the wake of the expansion of their [[Eurasian Avars|Avar]] overlords during the [[7th century]], mixed with the [[Celto-Romanic]] population, and established the realm of [[Carantania]], which covered much of eastern and central Austrian territory. In the meantime, the [[Germanic tribe]] of the [[baiuvarii|Bavarians]] had developed in the 5th and 6th century in the west of the country and in [[Bavaria]], while what is today [[Vorarlberg]] had been settled by the [[Alemans]]. Those groups mixed with the [[Rhaeto-Romanic]] population and pushed it up into the mountains.
Carantania, under pressure of the Avars, lost its independence to [[Bavaria]] in [[745]] and became a [[margraviate]]. During the following centuries, Bavarian settlers went down the Danube and up the Alps, a process through which Austria was to become the mostly German-speaking country it is today.
The Bavarians themselves came under the overlordship of the [[Carolingian]] [[Franks]] and subsequently a [[Duchy]] of the [[Holy Roman Empire]]. Duke [[Tassilo III of Bavaria|Tassilo III]], who wanted to maintain Bavarian independence, was defeated and displaced by [[Charlemagne]] in [[788]].
An Eastern March (''marchia orientalis'') was established in Charlemagne's time, but it was overrun by the [[Magyars]] in [[909]].
==Babenberg Austria==
[[Image:1ostarichi.jpg|thumb|right|330px|]]
{{main|March of Austria}}
{{details|Babenbergs}}
After the defeat of the Magyars by Emperor [[Otto the Great]] in the [[Battle of Lechfeld]] ([[955]]), new Marches were established in what is today Austria. The one known as the ''marchia orientalis'' was to become the core territory of Austria and was given to [[Leopold I of Austria (Babenberg)|Leopold of Babenberg]] in [[976]] after the revolt of [[Henry II, Duke of Bavaria]].
The [[Marches]] were overseen by a ''comes'' or ''dux'' as appointed by the Warlord. The most normal translation of these offices is count or duke, but these titles conveyed very different meanings in the [[Early Middle Ages]], and the [[Latin]] terminology is preferable to any modern translation. In lumbardi-speaking countries, the title was eventually regularized to ''[[Margravei]]'' (German: ''Markgraf''). (i.e. "Count of the Mark").
The first record showing the name Austria is [[996]] were it is written as ''[[Ostarrîchi]]'', referring to the territory of the Babenberg March. The term [[Ostmark]] is not historically ascertained and appears to be a translation of ''marchia orientalis'' that came up only much later.
The following centuries were characterized first by the settlement of the country, when forests were cleared and towns and monasteries were founded. In [[1156]] the [[Privilegium Minus]] elevated Austria to the status of a duchy. In [[1192]], the Babenbergs also acquired the Duchy of [[Styria (duchy)|Styria]] through the [[Georgenberg Pact]]. At that time, the Babenberg Dukes came to be one of the most influential ruling families in the region, peaking in the reign of [[Leopold VI of Austria|Leopold VI]] ([[1198]]-[[1230]]).
However, with the slaughter of his son [[Frederick II of Austria|Frederick II]] in [[1246]], the line went extinct, which resulted in the ''[[interregnum]]'', a period of several decades during which the status of the country was disputed. [[Ottokar II of Bohemia|Otakar II Přemysl of Bohemia]] effectively controlled the duchies of Austria, Styria and [[Carinthia (duchy)|Carinthia]]. His reign came to an end with his defeat in the [[battle of Dürnkrut and Jedenspeigen]] at the hand of [[Rudolf I of Germany|Rudolf of Habsburg]] in [[1278]].
==The Habsburg Monarchy (13th century-1918)==
''Also see: [[Habsburg Monarchy]]''
===Beginnings (1278-1526)===
[[Image:Kaiser Maximilian 1.jpg|thumb|left|230px|[[Maximilian I, Holy Roman Emperor]] portrayed by [[Albrecht Dürer]] 1519]]
Following the extinction of the Babenbergs in the 13th century, Austria came briefly under the rule of the [[Czech Republic|Czech]] King [[Otakar II of Bohemia|Otakar II]]. Contesting the election of [[Rudolf I of Habsburg]] as Emperor, Otakar was defeated and killed by the German King, who took Austria and gave it to his sons in [[1278]]. Austria was ruled by the [[Habsburgs]] for the next 640 years. In the 14th and 15th centuries, the Habsburgs began to accumulate other provinces in the vicinity of the Duchy of Austria, which remained a small Duchy along the Danube, and Styria, which they had acquired from Ottokar alongside with Austria. [[Carinthia (duchy)|Carinthia]] and [[Carniola]] came under Habsburg rule in [[1335]], [[Tyrol]] in [[1363]]. These provinces, together, became known as the Habsburg Hereditary Lands, although they were sometimes all lumped together simply as Austria.
The history of the following two centuries had many ups and downs. Following the notable, but short rule of [[Rudolf IV of Austria|Rudolf IV]], his brothers [[Albert III of Austria|Albert III]] and [[Leopold III of Austria (Habsburg)|Leopold III]] split the realms in the [[Treaty of Neuberg]] in [[1379]]. Albert retained Austria proper, while Leopold took the remaining territories. In [[1402]], there was another split in the ''[[Leopoldinian line]]'', when [[Ernest of Austria (Habsburg)|Ernest the Iron]] took [[Inner Austria]] (Styria, Carinthia and Carniola) and [[Frederick IV of Austria|Frederick IV]] became ruler of Tyrol and [[Further Austria]]. The territories were only reunified by Ernest's son [[Frederick III, Holy Roman Emperor|Frederick V]] (Frederick III as Holy Roman Emperor), when the ''[[Albertinian line]]'' ([[1457]]) and the ''[[Elder Tyrolean line]]'' ([[1490]]) had become extinct.
In [[1438]], Duke Albert V of Austria was chosen as the successor to his father-in-law, [[Emperor Sigismund]]. Although Albert himself only reigned for a year, from then on, every emperor was a Habsburg, with only one exception. The Habsburgs began also to accumulate lands far from the Hereditary Lands. In [[1477]], the [[Maximilian I, Holy Roman Emperor|Archduke Maximilian]], only son of [[Frederick III, Holy Roman Emperor|Emperor Frederick III]], married the heiress of [[Burgundy]], thus acquiring most of the [[Low Countries]] for the family. His son [[Philip I of Castile|Philip the Fair]] married the heiress of Castile and Aragon, and thus acquired Spain and its Italian, African, and New World appendages for the Habsburgs. The Habsburgs' hereditary territories, however, were soon separated from this enormous empire when, in [[1520]], [[Emperor Charles V]] left them to the rule of his brother, [[Ferdinand I, Holy Roman Emperor|Ferdinand]].
===Austria and The Reformation (1526-1618)===
[[Image:Juliusz Kossak Sobieski pod Wiedniem.jpeg|thumb|right|400px|Battle of Vienna 1683]]
In [[1526]], following the [[Battle of Mohács]], in which Ferdinand's brother-in-law [[Louis II of Hungary|Louis II, King of Hungary and Bohemia]], was killed, Ferdinand expanded his territories, bringing Bohemia and that part of Hungary not occupied by the Ottomans under his rule. Habsburg expansion into Hungary, however, led to frequent conflicts with the Turks, particularly the so-called [[Long War (Ottoman wars)|Long War]] of 1593 to 1606.
Austria and the other Habsburg hereditary provinces (and Hungary and Bohemia, as well) were much affected by the Reformation. Although the Habsburg rulers themselves remained Catholic, the provinces themselves largely converted to Lutheranism, which Ferdinand I and his successors, [[Maximilian II, Holy Roman Emperor|Maximilian II]], [[Rudolf II, Holy Roman Emperor|Rudolf II]], and [[Mathias, Holy Roman Emperor|Mathias]] largely tolerated.
In the late 16th century, however, the Counter-Reformation and the [[Society of Jesus]] began to make its influence felt, and the [[Society of Jesus|Jesuit-educated]] [[Ferdinand II, Holy Roman Emperor|Archduke Ferdinand of Austria]], who ruled over [[Styria]], [[Carinthia]], and [[Carniola]] before becoming Holy Roman Emperor, was energetic in suppressing heresy in the provinces which he ruled.
===Austria and The Thirty Years' War (1618-1648)===
When, in [[1619]], he was elected Emperor to succeed his cousin Mathias, the ultra-pious and intransigent [[Ferdinand II, Holy Roman Emperor|Ferdinand II]], as he became known, embarked on an energetic attempt to re-Catholicize not only the Hereditary Provinces, but Bohemia and Habsburg Hungary as well as most of Protestant Europe within the Holy Roman Empire. Outside his lands, his reputation for strong headed uncompromising intolerance had triggered the [[Thirty Years' War]] in May of 1618 in the polarizing first phase, known as the Revolt in Bohemia. After several initial reverses, he became accommodating but as the Catholic's turned things around and began to enjoy a long string of successes at arms he set forth the [[Edict of Restitution]] in 1629 vastly complicating the politics of settlement negotiations and prolonging the rest of the war; encouraged by the mid-war successes, he became even more forceful leading to [[Wiktionary:massacre|infamies]] by his armies such as the [[Sack of Magdeburg]].
His forced conversions or evictions carried out in the midst of the [[Thirty Years' War]], which with the later general success of the Protestants therefore had greatly negative consequences for Habsburg control of the Holy Roman Empire itself, while these campaigns within the Habsburg hereditary lands were largely successful in religiously purifying his demesnes, leaving the Austrian Emperors thereafter with much greater control within their hereditary power base— although Hungary was never successfully re-Catholicized—but one much reduced in population and economic might while less vigorous and weakened as a [[nation-state]].
In terms of human costs, the [[Thirty Years' war]]s many economic, social, and population dislocations caused by the hardline methods adopted by Ferdinand's strict counter-reformation measures and almost continual employment of mercenary field armies contributed significantly to the loss of life and tragic depopulation of all [[list of the states of the Holy Roman Empire|the Germanies]], during a war which some estimates put the civilian loss of life as high as fifty-percent overall. Studies mostly cite the causes of death due to starvation or as caused (ultimately by the lack-of-food induced) weakening of resistance to endemic diseases which repeatedly reached [[epidemic]] proportions amongst the general Central European population—the Germanies were the battle ground and staging areas for the largest [[mercenary]] armies theretofore, and the armies "{{wdy|forage}}d" amongst the many provinces stealing the food of those people forced onto the roads as refugees, or still on the lands, regardless of their faith and allegiances. Both townsmen and farmers were repeatedly ravaged and victimized by the armies on both sides leaving little for the populations already stressed by the refugees from the war or fleeing the Catholic counter-reformation repressions under Ferdinand's governance.
===Austria's Rise to Power (1657-1714)===
The long reign of [[Emperor Leopold I|Leopold I]] (1657-1705) saw the culmination of the Austrian conflict with the Turks. Following the successful defense of [[Battle of Vienna|Vienna]] in [[1683]] led by King of Poland [[John III Sobieski]], a series of campaigns resulted in the return of all of Hungary to Austrian control by the [[Treaty of Carlowitz]] in [[1699]]. At the same time, Austria was becoming more involved in competition with [[France]] in Western Europe, with Austria fighting the French in the [[Third Dutch War]] (1672-1679), the [[War of the League of Augsburg]] (1688-1697) and finally the [[War of the Spanish Succession]] (1701-1714), in which the French and Austrians (along with their British and Dutch allies) fought over the inheritance of the vast territories of the Spanish Habsburgs. Although the French secured control of Spain and its colonies for a grandson of [[Louis XIV of France|Louis XIV]], the Austrians also ended up making significant gains in Western Europe, including the former [[Spanish Netherlands]] (now called the Austrian Netherlands, including most of modern [[Belgium]]), the Duchy of [[Milan]] in Northern Italy, and [[Naples]] and [[Sardinia]] in Southern Italy. (The latter was traded for [[Sicily]] in [[1720]]).
===Charles VI and Maria Theresa (1711-1780)===<!-- This section is linked from [[April 10]] -->
[[Image:Maria Theresia as child.jpg|right|thumb|220px|[[Maria Theresia]] as a young woman 1727]]
The latter part of the reign of [[Emperor Charles VI]] (1711-1740) saw Austria relinquish many of these fairly impressive gains, largely due to Charles's apprehensions at the imminent extinction of the House of Habsburg. Charles was willing to offer concrete advantages in territory and authority in exchange for other powers' worthless recognitions of the [[Pragmatic Sanction]] that made his daughter [[Maria Theresa of Austria|Maria Theresa]] his heir. The most notable instance of this was in the [[War of the Polish Succession]] whose settlement saw Austria cede Naples and Sicily to the Spanish Infant [[Charles III of Spain|Don Carlos]] in exchange for the tiny Duchy of [[Parma]] and Spain and France's adherence to the Pragmatic Sanction. The latter years of Charles's reign (1736-1739) also saw an unsuccessful war against the Turks, which resulted in the Austrian loss of [[Belgrade]] and other border territories.
And, as many had anticipated, when Charles died in [[1740]], all those assurances from the other powers proved of little worth to Maria Theresa. The peace was initially broken by King [[Frederick II of Prussia]], who invaded [[Silesia]]. Soon other powers began to exploit Austria's weakness. The [[Emperor Charles VII|Elector of Bavaria]] claimed the inheritance to the hereditary lands and Bohemia, and was supported by the King of France, who desired the Austrian Netherlands. The Spanish and Sardinians hoped to gain territory in Italy, and the Saxons hoped to gain territory to connect Saxony with the Elector's Polish Kingdom. Austria's allies -- Britain, Holland, and Russia, were all wary of getting involved in the conflict. Thus began the [[War of the Austrian Succession]] (1740-1748), one of the more confusing and less eventful wars of European history, which ultimately saw Austria holding its own, despite the permanent loss of most of Silesia to the Prussians. In [[1745]], following the reign of the [[Bavaria]]n [[prince-elector|Elector]] as [[Charles VII, Holy Roman Emperor|Emperor Charles VII]], Maria Theresa's husband [[Francis I, Holy Roman Emperor|Francis of Lorraine]], [[Grand Duke of Tuscany]], was elected Emperor, restoring control of that position to the Habsburgs (or, rather, to the new composite house of [[Habsburg-Lorraine]]).
For the eight years following the [[Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle]] that ended the War of the Austrian Succession, Maria Theresa plotted revenge on the Prussians. The British and Dutch allies who had proved so reluctant to help her in her time of need were dropped in favour of the French in the so-called [[Diplomatic Revolution|Reversal of Alliances]] of [[1756]]. That same year, war once again erupted on the continent as Frederick, fearing encirclement, launched a pre-emptive invasion of Saxony. The [[Seven Years' War]], too, was indecisive, and saw Prussia holding onto Silesia, despite Russia, France, and Austria all combining against him, and with only Hanover as a significant ally on land.
The end of the war saw Austria, exhausted, continuing the alliance with France (cemented in [[1770]] with the marriage of Maria Theresa's daughter [[Marie Antoinette of Austria|Archduchess Maria Antonietta]] to the [[Louis XVI of France|Dauphin]]), but also facing a dangerous situation in Central Europe, faced with the alliance of [[Friedrich II of Prussia|Frederick the Great]] of [[Prussia]] and [[Catherine II of Russia|Catherine the Great]] of [[Russia]]. The [[Russo-Turkish War]] of [[1768]]-[[1774]] caused a serious crisis in east-central Europe, with Prussia and Austria demanding compensation for Russia's gains in the Balkans, ultimately leading to the [[First Partition of Poland]] in [[1772]], in which Maria Theresa took [[Kingdom of Galicia and Lodomeria|Galicia]] from Austria's traditional ally.
Over the next several years, Austro-Russian relations began to improve. When the [[War of Bavarian Succession]] erupted between Austria and Prussia in [[1777]] following the extinction of the Bavarian line of the [[Wittelsbach]] dynasty, Russia refused to support its ally, and the war was ended, after almost no bloodshed, on [[May 13]], [[1779]] when [[Russia]]n and [[France|French]] mediators at the [[Congress of Teschen]] negotiated an end to the war. In the agreement Austria receive the [[Innviertel]] from Bavaria.
===The Reigns of Joseph II and Leopold II (1780-1792)===
[[Image:Pompeo Batoni 002.jpg|thumb|left|300px|Joseph II (right) with his brother and successor Leopold II (left)]]
On Maria Theresa's death in [[1780]], she was succeeded by her son [[Joseph II, Holy Roman Emperor|Joseph II]], already [[Holy Roman Emperor]] since Francis I's death in [[1765]]. Joseph was a reformer, and is often considered the foremost example of an eighteenth century [[enlightened despotism|enlightened despot]]. Joseph attempted to bring under control the [[Roman Catholic Church]] and the various provincial nobilities of his lands, which led to widespread resistance, especially in [[Hungary]] and the [[Austrian Netherlands]], which were used to their traditional liberties.
Joseph's foreign policy was equally ambitious, and equally unsuccessful. He pursued a policy of alliance with Catherine the Great's Russia, which led to a war with the [[Ottoman Empire]] in [[1787]]. Austria's performance in the war was distinctly unimpressive, and the expense involved led to further resistance. By the time of Joseph's death in [[1790]], all his plans seemed ruined, with both Hungary and the Netherlands in open revolt and the war in the Balkans dragging on and seeming impossible to finish, given Russia's commitment to continuing the war.
Joseph's death proved a boon, as he was succeeded by his more sensible brother, [[Leopold II, Holy Roman Emperor|Leopold II]], previously the reforming [[Grand Duke of Tuscany]]. Leopold knew when to cut his losses, and soon cut deals with the revolting Netherlanders and Hungarians. He also managed to secure a peace with Turkey in [[1791]], and negotiated an alliance with Prussia, which had been allying with Poland to press for war on behalf of the Ottomans against Austria and Russia.
Unfortunately, Leopold's reign also saw the acceleration of the [[French Revolution]]. Although Leopold was sympathetic to the revolutionaries, he was also the brother of the French queen. Furthermore, disputes involving the status of the rights of various imperial princes in [[Alsace]], where the revolutionary French government was attempting to remove rights guaranteed by various peace treaties, involved Leopold as Emperor in conflicts with the French. The [[Declaration of Pillnitz]], made in late 1791 jointly with the Prussian King [[Friedrich Wilhelm II of Prussia|Frederick William II]] and the [[Frederick Augustus I of Saxony|Elector of Saxony]], in which it was declared that the other princes of Europe took an interest in what was going on in France, was intended to be a statement in support of Louis XVI that would prevent the need from taking any kind of action. However, it instead inflamed the sentiments of the revolutionaries against the Emperor. Although Leopold did his best to avoid war with the French, he died in March of [[1792]]. The French declared war on his inexperienced son [[Francis II, Holy Roman Emperor|Francis II]] a month later.
===The Era of the French Revolution and Napoleon (1792-1814)===
[[Image:Johann Peter Krafft 003.jpg|thumb|300px|Victorious Archduke Charles of Austria during the [[Battle of Aspern-Essling]] (May 21-22, [[1809]])]]
The war with France, which lasted until [[1797]], proved unsuccessful for Austria. After some brief successes against the utterly disorganized French armies in early [[1792]], the tide turned, and the French overran the [[Austrian Netherlands]] in the last months of 1792. While the Austrians were so occupied, their erstwhile Prussian allies stabbed them in the back with the [[Partitions of Poland|Second Partition of Poland]], from which Austria was entirely excluded. This led to the dismissal of Francis's chief minister, [[Philipp von Cobenzl]], and his replacement with [[Franz Maria Thugut]].
At around the same time, the increasing radicalization of the French Revolution, as well as the French occupation of the Low Countries, brought Britain, the Dutch Republic, and Spain into the war, which became known as the [[War of the First Coalition]]. Once again, there were initial successes against the disorganized armies of the French Republic, and the Netherlands were recovered. But in [[1794]] the tide turned once more, and Austrian forces were driven out of the Netherlands again - this time for good. Meanwhile, the Polish Crisis again became critical, resulting in a Third Partition (1795), in which Austria managed to secure important gains. The war in the west continued to go badly, as most of the coalition made peace, leaving Austria with only Britain and [[Kingdom of Sardinia|Piedmont-Sardinia]] as allies. In [[1796]], the [[French Directory]] planned a two-pronged campaign in Germany to force the Austrians to make peace, with a secondary thrust planned into Italy. Although Austrian forces under [[Archduke Charles of Austria|Archduke Charles]], the Emperor's brother, were successful in driving the French back in Germany, the [[French Army of Italy]], under the command of the young Corsican General [[Napoleon I of France|Napoleon Bonaparte]], was brilliantly successful, forcing Piedmont out of the war, driving the Austrians out of [[Lombardy]] and besieging [[Mantua]]. Following the capture of Mantua in early [[1797]], Bonaparte advanced north through the Alps against Vienna, while new French armies moved again into Germany. Austria sued for peace. By the terms of the [[Treaty of Campo Formio]] of [[1797]], Austria renounced its claims to the Netherlands and Lombardy, in exchange for which it partitioned the territories of the [[Republic of Venice]] with the French. The Austrians also provisionally recognized the French annexation of the Left Bank of the Rhine, and agreed in principle that the German princes of the region should be compensated with ecclesiastical lands on the other side of the Rhine.
The peace did not last for long. Soon, differences emerged between the Austrians and French over the reorganization of Germany, and Austria joined Russia, Britain, and Naples in the [[War of the Second Coalition]] in [[1799]]. Although Austro-Russian forces were initially successful in driving the French from Italy, the tide soon turned - the Russians withdrew from the war after a defeat at [[Battle of Zurich|Zürich]] (1799) which they blamed on Austrian fecklessness, and the Austrians were defeated by Bonaparte, now [[French Consulate|First Consul]] at [[Battle of Marengo|Marengo]], which forced them to withdraw from Italy, and then in Germany at [[Battle of Hohenlinden|Hohenlinden]]. These defeats forced Thugut's resignation, and Austria, now led by [[Ludwig Cobenzl]], to make peace at [[Treaty of Lunéville|Lunéville]] in early [[1801]]. The terms were surprisingly mild - the terms of Campo Formio were largely reinstated, but now the way was clear for a reorganization of the Empire on French lines. By the Imperial Deputation Report of [[1803]], the Holy Roman Empire was entirely reorganized, with nearly all of the ecclesiastical territories and free cities, traditionally the parts of the Empire most friendly to the House of Austria, eliminated.
[[Image:1french-empire1811.jpg|thumb|left|430px|Map of Europe in 1811 after several French victories]]
With Bonaparte's assumption of the title of Emperor of the French in [[1804]], Francis, seeing the writing on the wall for the old Empire, took the new title of '''[[Austrian Empire|Emperor of Austria]]''' as Francis I, in addition to his title of Holy Roman Emperor. Soon, Napoleon's continuing machinations in Italy, including the annexation of [[Genoa]] and [[Parma]], led once again to war in [[1805]] - the [[War of the Third Coalition]], in which Austria, Britain, Russia, and Sweden took on Napoleon. The Austrian forces began the war by invading [[Bavaria]], a key French ally in Germany, but were soon outmaneuvered and forced to surrender by Napoleon at [[Battle of Ulm|Ulm]], before the main Austro-Russian force was defeated at [[Battle of Austerlitz|Austerlitz]] on [[December 2]]. By the [[Treaty of Pressburg]], Austria was forced to give up large amounts of territory - [[Dalmatia]] to France, Venetia to Napoleon's Kingdom of Italy, the [[Tyrol]] to Bavaria, and Austria's various Swabian territories to [[Baden Germany|Baden]] and [[Württemberg]], although [[Salzburg (state)|Salzburg]], formerly held by Francis's younger brother, the previous Grand Duke of Tuscany, was annexed by Austria as compensation.
The defeat meant the end of the old Holy Roman Empire. Napoleon's satellite states in southern and Western Germany seceded from the Empire in the summer of [[1806]], forming the [[Confederation of the Rhine]], and a few days later Francis proclaimed the Empire dissolved, and renounced the old imperial crown.
Over the next three years Austria, now led by [[Philipp Stadion]], attempted to maintain peace with France, but the overthrow of the Spanish Bourbons in [[1808]] was deeply disturbing to the Habsburgs, who rather desperately went to war once again in [[1809]], this time with no continental allies. Stadion's attempts to generate popular uprisings in Germany were unsuccessful, and the Russians honored their alliance with France, so Austria was once again defeated, although at greater cost than Napoleon, who suffered his first battlefield defeat in this war, at [[Battle of Aspern-Essling|Aspern-Essling]], had expected. The terms of the [[Treaty of Schönbrunn]] were quite harsh. Austria lost Salzburg to Bavaria, some of its Polish lands to Russia, and its remaining territory on the Adriatic (including much of Carinthia and Styria) to Napoleon's [[Illyrian Provinces]].
[[Klemens von Metternich]], the new Austrian foreign minister, aimed to pursue a pro-French policy. The Emperor's daughter, [[Marie Louise of Austria|Marie Louise]], was married to Napoleon, and Austria contributed an army to Napoleon's invasion of Russia in [[1812]]. With Napoleon's disastrous defeat in Russia at the end of the year, and Prussia's defection to the Russian side at the beginning of [[1813]], Metternich began slowly to shift his policy. Initially he aimed to mediate a peace between France and its continental enemies, but when it became apparent that Napoleon was not interested in compromise, Austria joined the allies and declared war on France in August [[1813]]. The Austrian intervention was decisive. Napoleon was defeated at [[Battle of Leipzig|Leipzig]] in October, and forced to withdraw into France itself. As [[1814]] began, the Allied forces invaded France. Initially, Metternich remained unsure as to whether he wanted Napoleon to remain on the throne, a Marie Louise regency for Napoleon's young son, or a Bourbon restoration, but he was eventually brought around by British Foreign Secretary [[Robert Stewart, Viscount Castlereagh|Lord Castlereagh]] to the last position. Napoleon abdicated on [[April 3]], [[1814]], and Louis XVIII was restored, soon negotiating a peace treaty with the victorious allies at [[Treaty of Paris (1814)|Paris]] in June.
===The Nineteenth Century (1815-1918)===
[[Image:Prokudin-Gorskii-22.jpg|thumb|right|400px|Austro-Hungarian prisoners of war in Russia, [[1915]]]]
''For more details, see [[Austrian Empire]], [[Austria-Hungary]] and [[Congress of Vienna]].''
Under the control of Metternich, the Austrian Empire entered a period of [[censorship]] and a [[police state]] in the period between [[1815]] and [[1848]] (''Biedermaier'' or ''Vormärz'' period). However, both [[liberalism]] and [[nationalism]] were on the rise, which resulted in the [[The Revolutions of 1848 in the Habsburg areas|Revolutions of 1848]]. Metternich and the mentally handicapped Emperor [[Ferdinand I of Austria|Ferdinand I]] were forced to resign to be replaced by the emperor's young nephew [[Franz Joseph I of Austria|Franz Joseph]]. Separatist tendencies (especially in [[Lombardy]] and [[Hungary]]) were suppressed by military force. A constitution was enacted in March 1848, but it had little practical impact. However, one of the concessions to revolutionaries with a lasting impact was the freeing of [[peasant]]s in Austria. This facilitated [[industrialization]], as many flocked to the newly industrializing cities of the Austrian domain (in the industrial centers of [[Bohemia]], [[Lower Austria]], [[Vienna]], and [[Upper Styria]]). Social upheaval led to increased strife in ethnically mixed cities, leading to mass nationalist movements.
In [[1859]], the defeats at [[Battle of Solférino|Solférino]] and [[Battle of Magenta|Magenta]] against the combined forces of [[France]] and [[Sardinia]] led to the loss of Lombardy and [[Tuscany]] to the Kingdom of Sardinia, which was striving to create a unified national [[Italy|Italian]] state.
The defeat at [[Battle of Königgrätz|Königgrätz]] in the [[Austro-Prussian War]] of [[1866]] resulted in Austria's exclusion from [[Germany]]; the [[German Confederation]] was dissolved. The monarchy's weak external position forced Franz Joseph to concede internal reforms. To appease Hungarian nationalism, Franz Joseph made a deal with Hungarian nobles, which led to the creation of [[Austria-Hungary]] through the ''[[Austro-Hungarian Compromise of 1867]].'' The western half of the realm ([[Cisleithania]]) and Hungary ([[Transleithania]]) now became two realms with different interior policy, but with a common ruler and a common foreign and military policy.
[[Image:2007 Austria 5 Euro 100 Years Universal Male Suffrage back.jpg|160px|left|thumb|[[Euro gold and silver commemorative coins (Austria)#2007 coinage|Austrian 100 Years of Universal Male Suffrage coin]], depicting a historic photo of the Parliament in 1907, right after the elections.]]
The Austrian half of the dual monarchy began to move towards [[constitutionalism]]. A constitutional system with a parliament, the [[Reichsrat (Austria)|Reichsrat]], was created, and a bill of rights was enacted in 1867. [[Suffrage]] to the Reichstag's lower house was gradually expanded until [[1907]], when equal suffrage for all male citizens was introduced. However, the effectiveness of parliamentarism was hampered by conflicts between parties representing different ethnic groups, and meetings of the parliament ceased altogether during [[World War I]].
The decades until [[1914]] generally saw a lot of construction, expansion of cities and railway lines, and development of industry. During this period, now known as ''[[Gründerzeit]]'', Austria became an industrialized country, even though the Alpine regions remained characterized by agriculture.
In [[1878]], Austria-Hungary occupied [[Bosnia and Herzegovina]], which had been cut off from the rest of the [[Ottoman Empire]] by the creation of new states in the [[Balkan]]s. The territory was annexed in [[1908]] and put under joint rule by the governments of both Austria and Hungary.
Nationalist strife increased during the decades until [[1914]]. The assassination of Archduke [[Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria|Franz Ferdinand]], who was the presumed heir of Franz Joseph as Emperor, in [[Sarajevo]] by a [[Serb]] nationalist group triggered [[World War I]]. The defeat of the [[Central Powers]] in [[1918]] resulted in the disintegration of Austria-Hungary. Emperor [[Karl of Austria]], who had ruled since [[1916]], went into exile.
==German Austria and the First Republic (1918–1934)==
''See also: [[First Austrian Republic]], [[German Austria]]''
Following the defeat of Austria-Hungary in [[World War I]], in the [[Aftermath of World War I]] the Empire was broken up based loosely on national grounds. Austria, with its modern borders, was created out of the main German speaking areas. On [[November 12]], [[1918]], Austria became a [[republic]] called [[German Austria]]. The newly formed Austrian parliament asked for union with Germany. Article 2 of its provisional constitution stated: ''Deutschösterreich ist ein Bestandteil der Deutschen Republik'' (German Austria is part of the [[German Republic]]). Plebiscites in the countries of [[Tyrol]] and [[Salzburg]] 1919-21 yielded majorities of 98 and 99% in favour of a unification with Germany. It was feared that small Austria was not economically viable. In the end France and Italy prevented the merger, and demanded the construction of an independent Austria that had to remain autonomous for at least 20 years. The [[Treaty of Saint Germain]] included a provision that prohibited political or economic union with Germany and forced the country to change its name from the "Republic of German Austria" to the "Republic of Austria," i.e. the [[First Austrian Republic|First Republic]]. The German-speaking bordering areas of [[Bohemia]] and [[Moravia]] (later called the "[[Sudetenland]]") were allocated to the newly founded [[Czechoslovakia]]. Many Austrians and Germans regarded this as hypocrisy since U.S. president [[Woodrow Wilson]] had proclaimed in his famous "[[Fourteen Points]]" the "right of self-determination" for all nations. In the democratic German [[Weimar constitution]] the aim of unification was codified in article 61: „''Deutschösterreich erhält nach seinem Anschluß an das Deutsche Reich das Recht der Teilnahme am Reichsrat mit der seiner Bevölkerung entsprechenden Stimmenzahl. Bis dahin haben die Vertreter Deutschösterreichs beratende Stimme.''“ (German Austria has the right to participate in the [[Reichsrat (Germany)]] (the constitutional representation of the federal German states) with a consulting role according to its number of inhabitants until the unification with Germany.").
Although Austria-Hungary had been one of the Central Powers, the allied victors were much more lenient with a defeated Austria than either Germany or Hungary. Representatives of the new Republic of Austria convinced them that it was unfair to penalize Austria for the actions of a now dissolved Empire, especially as other areas of the Empire were now perceived to be on the "victorious" side, simply because they had renounced the Empire at the end of the war. Austria never did have to pay reparations because allied commissions determined that the country could not afford to pay. It was also the only defeated country to acquire new territory as part of border adjustments -- a small land tract to the east that belonged to Hungary.
[[Image:1P049-1919-1 Krone.jpg|thumb|left|430px|High inflation led to a change of currency from the old ''[[Austro-Hungarian krone|Krone]]'' to the new ''[[Austrian Schilling|Schilling]]'' in [[1925]]]]
On [[October 20]], [[1920]], a plebiscite in the Austrian state of [[Carinthia (state)|Carinthia]] was held in which the population chose to remain a part of Austria, rejecting the territorial claims of the [[Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes]] to the state. The German-speaking parts of western Hungary, now christened [[Burgenland]], joined Austria as a new [[States of Austria|state]] in [[1921]], with the exception of the city of [[Sopron]], whose population decided in a referendum (which is sometimes considered by Austrians to have been rigged) to remain with Hungary. However, the Treaty of Saint Germain also meant that Austria lost significant German-speaking territories, in particular the southern part of Tyrol (now the [[province of Bolzano-Bozen]]), to [[Italy]] and the German-speaking areas within [[Bohemia]] and [[Moravia]] to [[Czechoslovakia]].
Between 1918 and 1920, there was a coalition government including both left and right-wing parties, which enacted progressive socioeconomic and labour legislation. In [[1920]], the modern [[Constitution of Austria]] was enacted. The interwar years were socio-economically difficult for Austria, partly because the newly created borders tore apart what had been a common economic area.
Austrian politics were characterized by intense and sometimes violent conflict between left and right from 1920 onwards. The [[Social Democratic Party of Austria]], which pursued a fairly left-wing course known as [[Austromarxism]] at that time, could count on a secure majority in "[[Red Vienna]]", while right-wing parties controlled all other states. Since 1920, Austria was ruled by the [[Christian Socialist Party]], which had close ties to the [[Roman Catholic Church]]. It was headed by a Catholic priest named [[Ignaz Seipel]] ([[1876]]-[[1932]]), who served twice as [[Chancellor of Austria|Chancellor]] ([[1922]]-[[1924]] and [[1926]]-[[1929]]). While in power, Seipel was working for an alliance between wealthy industrialists and the [[Roman Catholic Church]].
Both left-wing and right-wing [[paramilitary]] forces were created during the 20s, namely the [[Heimwehr]] in [[1921]]-[[1923]] and the Republican [[Schutzbund]] in [[1923]]. A clash between those groups in [[Schattendorf]], [[Burgenland]], on [[January 30]], [[1927]] led to the death of a man and a child. Right-wing [[veteran]]s were indicted at a court in Vienna, but acquitted in a [[jury trial]]. This led to massive protests and fire at the ''[[Justizpalast]]'' in Vienna. In the [[July Revolt of 1927]], 89 protesters were killed by the Austrian police forces.
Political conflict escalated until the early [[1930s]]. [[Engelbert Dollfuß]] of the [[Christian Social Party (Austria)|Christian Social Party]] became Chancellor in [[1932]].
==Austrofascism (1934–1938)==
''Main articles: [[Austrian Civil War]], [[Austrofascism]]''
Under the [[Christian Social Party]], the Austrian government was moving towards centralization of power in the [[Fascist]] model.
In March 1933 the [[Dollfuss]] cabinet took advantage of a formal error during a vote on a bill in parliament. As the vote was very narrow, all of the three presidents of the [[National Council of Austria|National Council]] stepped down because they were not allowed to vote themselves while in office. This was an unforeseen event but it could have been resolved according to the rules of procedure. However, the cabinet declared that the parliament had ceased to function and forcibly prevented the National Council from reassembling. The executive then took over legislative power by using an emergency provision which had been enacted during [[World War I]]. Even after this [[putsch]], the [[Social Democratic Party of Austria|socialist party]] hesitated and tried to resolve the crisis in a peaceful way.
On [[February 12]], [[1934]] the new Austrofascist regime provoked the [[Austrian Civil War]] by ordering search warrants for the headquarters of the socialist party. At that time the socialist party structures were already weakened and the uprising of its supporters was quickly defeated. Subsequently the socialist party and all its ancillary organisations were banned.
On [[May 1]], [[1934]], the [[Dollfuss]] cabinet approved a new [[constitution]] that abolished freedom of the press, established one party system (known as "The [[Patriotic Front (Austria)|Patriotic Front]]") and created a total state monopoly on employer-employee relations. This system remained in force until Austria became part of the [[Third Reich]] in [[1938]]. The Patriotic Front government frustrated the ambitions of pro-Hitlerite sympathizers in Austria who wished both political influence and unification with [[Germany]], leading to the assassination of Dollfuss on [[July 25]], [[1934]]. His successor [[Kurt Schuschnigg|Schuschnigg]] maintained the ban on pro-Hitlerite activities in Austria, but was forced to resign on [[March 11]], [[1938]] following a demand by [[Hitler]] for power-sharing with pro-German circles. Following Schuschnigg's resignation, German troops occupied Austria with no resistance.
==Part of Nazi Germany (1938–1945)==
{{Main|Anschluss|Nazi Germany}}
Although the [[Treaty of Versailles]] and the [[Treaty of Saint-Germain-en-Laye (1919)|Treaty of St. Germain]] had explicitly forbidden the unification of Austria and Germany, Nazi Germany was striving to annex Austria during the late 1930s, which was fiercely resisted by the Austrian [[Kurt Schuschnigg|Schuschnigg]] dictatorship. When the conflict was escalating in early 1938, Chancellor Schuschnigg announced a plebiscite on the issue on March 9, which was to take place on March 13. On March 12, German troops entered Austria, who met celebrating crowds, in order to install Nazi puppet Arthur Seyss-Inquart as Chancellor. With a Nazi administration already in place and the country integrated into the Third Reich, a referendum on April 10 approved of the annexation with a majority of 99.73%. This referendum is, however, believed by many observers and historians to have been rigged.
As a result, Austria ceased to exist as an independent country. This annexation was enforced by military invasion but large parts of the Austrian population were in favour of the Nazi regime, many Austrians would participate in its crimes. There was a [[Jew|Jewish population]] of about 200,000 then living in Vienna, which had contributed considerably to science and culture and very many of these people, with socialist and [[Roman Catholicism in Austria|Catholic Austrian]] politicians were deported to concentration camps, murdered or forced into exile.
Just before the end of the war, on March 28, 1945, American troops set foot on Austrian soil and the Soviet Union's Red Army crossed the eastern border two days later, taking Vienna on April 13. American and British forces occupied the western and southern regions, preventing Soviet forces from completely overrunning and controlling the country.
==The Second Republic (since 1945)==
===Allied occupation===
[[Image:Austria 1945-55.png|thumb|right|300px|Occupation zones in Austria]]
{{main|Allied-administered Austria}}
In April [[1945]] [[Karl Renner]], an Austrian [[elder statesman]], declared Austria separate from Germany and set up a government which included [[SPÖ|socialists]], conservatives and communists. This exceptionally wise action by Renner affected the view of the Allies who were to treat Austria more as a liberated, rather than a defeated country - this government being recognized by the Allies later that year. The country was occupied by the Allies from [[May 9]], [[1945]]] and under the [[Allied Commission for Austria]] established by an agreement on [[July 4]], [[1945]], it was divided into Zones occupied respectively by American, British, French and Soviet Army personnel, with [[Vienna]] being also divided similarly into four sectors - with an International Zone at its heart.
Though under occupation, this Austrian government was officially permitted to conduct foreign relations with the approval of the Four Occupying Powers under the agreement of [[June 28]], [[1946]]. As part of this trend, Austria was one of the founding members of the Danube Commission formed on [[August 18]], [[1948]]. Austria would benefit from the [[Marshall Plan]] but economic recovery was very slow - as a result of the State's 10 year political overseeing by the Allied Powers.
Contrary to the First Republic, which had been characterized by sometimes violent conflict between the different political groups, the [[Austrian Second Republic|Second Republic]] became a stable democracy. The two largest leading parties, the Christian-conservative [[Austrian People's Party]] (ÖVP) and the [[SPÖ|Social Democratic Party]] (SPÖ) remained in a coalition led by the ÖVP until [[1966]]. The communists (KPÖ), who had hardly any support in the Austrian electorate, remained in the coalition until [[1950]] and in parliament until [[Austria legislative election, 1959|1959]]. For much of the Second Republic, the only opposition party was the [[Freedom Party of Austria]] (FPÖ), which included [[pan-German]] and [[Liberalism|liberal]] political currents. It was founded in [[1955]] as a successor organisation to the short-lived [[Federation of Independents]] (VdU).
===Independence and political development during the Second Republic===
<!-- Deleted image removed: [[Image:1statetreaty.jpg|left|thumb|300px|Austrian State Treaty is shown to the public in 1955]] -->
The two major parties strove towards ending allied occupation and restoring a fully independent Austria. The [[Austrian State Treaty]] was signed on [[May 15]], [[1955]]. Upon the termination of allied occupation, Austria was [[Declaration of Neutrality|proclaimed]] a [[neutral country]], and "everlasting" neutrality was incorporated into the [[Constitution of Austria|Constitution]] on [[October 26]], [[1955]].
The political system of the Second Republic came to be characterized by the system of ''[[Proporz]]'', meaning that posts of some political importance were split evenly between members of the SPÖ and ÖVP. Interest group representations with mandatory membership (e.g. for workers, businesspeople, farmers etc.) grew to considerable importance and were usually consulted in the legislative process, so that hardly any legislation was passed that did not reflect widespread consensus. The Proporz and consensus systems largely held even during the years between 1966 and 1983, when there were non-coalition governments.
The ÖVP-SPÖ coalition ended in [[Austria legislative election, 1966|1966]], when the ÖVP gained a majority in parliament. However, it lost it in [[Austria legislative election, 1970|1970]], when SPÖ leader [[Bruno Kreisky]] formed a [[minority government]] tolerated by the FPÖ. In the [[Austria legislative election, 1971|elections of 1971]], [[Austria legislative election, 1975|1975]] and [[Austria legislative election, 1979|1979]] he obtained an absolute majority. The 70s were then seen as a time of liberal reforms in [[social policy]]. Today, the economic policies of the Kreisky era are often criticized, as the accumulation of a large [[national debt]] began, and non-profitable [[nationalized industries]] were strongly subsidized.
Following severe losses in the [[Austria legislative election, 1983|1983 elections]], the SPÖ entered into a coalition with the FPÖ under the leadership of [[Fred Sinowatz]]. In Spring [[1986]], [[Kurt Waldheim]] was [[Austrian presidential elections, 1986|elected]] [[President of Austria|president]] amid considerable national and international protest because of his possible involvement with the [[Nazism|Nazis]] and [[war crimes]] during [[World War II]]. [[Fred Sinowatz]] resigned, and [[Franz Vranitzky]] became chancellor.
In September 1986, in a confrontation between the German-national and liberal wings, [[Jörg Haider]] became leader of the [[FPÖ]]. Chancellor Vranitzky rescinded the coalition pact between FPÖ and SPÖ, and after [[Austria legislative election, 1986|new elections]], entered into a coalition with the ÖVP, which was then lead by [[Alois Mock]]. Jörg Haider's populism and criticism of the [[Proporz]] system allowed him to gradually expand his party's support in elections, rising from 4% in 1983 to 27% in [[Austria legislative election, 1999|1999]]. The [[Austrian Green Party|Green Party]] managed to establish itself in parliament from 1986 onwards.
===Recent years===
The SPÖ-ÖVP coalition persisted until [[1999]]. Austria joined the [[European Union]] in [[1995]] ([http://www.aeiou.at/aeiou.film.data.film/o254a.mpg Video of the signing in 1994]), and Austria was set on the track towards joining the [[Euro]]zone, when it was established in [[1999]].
In [[1993]], the [[Liberal Forum]] was founded by dissidents from the [[FPÖ]]. It managed to remain in parliament until [[1999]].
[[Viktor Klima]] succeeded Vranitzky as chancellor in [[1997]].
In 1999, the ÖVP fell back to third place behind the FPÖ in the [[Austria legislative election, 1999|elections]]. Even though [[ÖVP]] chairman and [[Vice Chancellor of Austria|Vice Chancellor]] [[Wolfgang Schüssel]] had announced that his party would go into opposition in that case, he entered into a coalition with the FPÖ – with himself as chancellor – in early [[2000]] under considerable national and international protest. [[Jörg Haider]] resigned as FPÖ chairman, but retained his post as [[Landeshauptmann|governor]] of [[Carinthia (state)|Carinthia]] but kept substantial influence within the FPÖ.
In [[2002]], disputes within the [[FPÖ]] resulting from losses in state elections caused the [[Knittelfeld Putsch|resignation of several FPÖ government members]] and a collapse of the government. Wolfgang Schüssel's ÖVP emerged as the winner of the [[Austria legislative election, 2002|subsequent election]], ending up in first place for the first time since 1966. The FPÖ lost more than half of its voters, but reentered the coalition with the ÖVP. Despite the new coalition, the voter support for the FPÖ continued to dwindle in all most all local and state elections. Disputes between "nationalist" and "liberals" wings of the party resulted in a split, with the founding of a new liberal party called the [[Alliance for the Future of Austria]] (BZÖ) and led by Jörg Haider. Since all FPÖ government members and most FPÖ members of parliament decided to join the new party, the Schüssel coalition remained in office (now in the constellation ÖVP/BZÖ, with the remaining FPÖ in opposition) until the next elections. On 1st October 2006 the SPÖ won a head on head elections and negotiated a grand coalition with the ÖVP. This coalition start its term on January 11, 2007 with [[Alfred Gusenbauer]] as Chancellor of Austria. Notable in this election, for the first time Green Party of Austria became the 3rd largest party in a nation wide election, overtaking the FPÖ by a thin margin of only a few hundred votes.
Austria was left reeling in 2006 by the [[kidnapping]] of [[Natascha Kampusch]], who had been held captive for more than eight years, until [[23 August]] [[2006]], by [[Wolfgang Priklopil]], who later killed himself when Natascha escaped. On [[April 28]] [[2008]] it was revealed that the 73-year-old [[Josef Fritzl]] had imprisoned his daughter between [[1984]] and [[2008]], as well as fathering seven of her children.[http://edition.cnn.com/2008/WORLD/europe/04/28/austria.cellar.reax/index.html]
==See also==
* [[List of rulers of Austria]]
* [[List of Austrians|List of famous Austrians]]
* [[Austria-Hungary]]
* [[Austrian Empire]]
* [[Habsburg Monarchy]]
* [[History of Croatia]]
* [[History of the Czech Republic]]
* [[History of Germany]]
* [[History of Hungary]]
* [[History of Italy]]
* [[History of Slovenia]]
* [[History of Slovakia]]
* [[History of Switzerland]]
* [[History of Vienna]]
* [[Austria at the Time of National Socialism]]
==References==
{{reflist}}
*''Some of the material in this article comes from the [[CIA World Factbook]] 2000 and the 2003 U.S. Department of State website.''
* [http://www.rulers.org/rula2.html#austria Rulers.org — Austria] list of rulers for Austria
==External links==
*[http://eudocs.lib.byu.edu/index.php/History_of_Austria:_Primary_Documents History of Austria: Primary Documents]
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