History of Belgium
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The '''history of [[Belgium]]''', from pre-history to the present day, is intertwined with the histories of its [[Europe]]an neighbours, in particular those of [[History of the Netherlands|the Netherlands]] and [[History of Luxembourg|Luxembourg]].
{{TOCnestright|maxwidth=200px}}
==Before independence==
{{Main | History of Belgium before 1830}}
===Prehistory===
The oldest primitive stone instruments found on the area of today's Belgium date 800,000 BC. Circa 400,000 BC, [[Neanderthal]]s are claimed to be living on the edge of the [[Meuse]] river, near the village of [[Spy (Belgium)|Spy]]. From 30,000 BC onwards the inhabitants were ''[[Homo sapiens]]''. [[Neolithic]] remains can be found today at [[Spiennes]] where there was a [[flint]] [[Mining|mine]]. The first signs of [[Bronze age]] activity in [[Belgium]] date from around 1750 BC. From 500 BC [[Celt]]ic tribes settled in the region and traded with the [[Mediterranean]] world. From c. 150 BC, the first coins came into use.
The earliest named inhabitants of Belgium were the [[Belgae]] (after whom modern [[Belgium]] is named). The population covered a significant area of [[Gauls|Gaulish]] or [[Celt]]ic Europe, living in northern [[Gaul]] at the time of the Roman occupation. The distinction between the Belgae to the North and the Gauls to the south of them is disputed, but it seems clear that the Gauls were the dominant group in the area until the Roman and Germanic influence came to dominate. The arrival of [[List of Germanic peoples|Germanic]] tribes from the north and east, is cited by [[Julius Caesar]] in his [[De Bello Gallico]]. Linguists have proposed that there is evidence that the Belgae had previously spoken an [[Indo-European languages|Indo European]] language intermediate between [[Celtic language|Celtic]] and [[Germanic language|Germanic]]. This language or group of languages is sometimes referred to as the [[Nordwestblock]].
===Antiquity===
{{main|Gallia Belgica}}
By 51BC, the Belgae were overrun by the armies of [[Julius Caesar]], as described in his chronicle ''[[De Bello Gallico]]''.
[[Image:Belgica.png|left|thumb|200px|The [[Roman province]] [[Gallia Belgica]] in around [[120]] CE. (For a map in 58 BCE, see [[Gallic Wars]])]]
In this same work Julius Caesar referred to the [[Belgae]] as "the bravest of all the Gauls" (''"horum omnium fortissimi sunt belgae"'').
What is now Belgium flourished as a province of [[Rome]]. This province was much larger than the modern Belgium and included five cities: Nemetacum ([[Arras]]), Divodurum ([[Metz]]), Bagacum ([[Bavay]]), Aduatuca ([[Tongeren]]), Durocorturum ([[Reims]]).
At the northeast was the neighbouring province of [[Germania Inferior]]. Its cities were Traiectum ad Mosam ([[Maastricht]]), Ulpia Noviomagus ([[Nijmegen]]), Colonia Ulpia Trajana ([[Xanten]]) and Colonia Agrippina ([[Cologne]]). Both provinces include what are now known as the [[Low Countries]].<ref>{{cite web | url = http://www.antikefan.de/kulturen/rom/provinzen.html | title = Povinzen | publisher = Antikefan}}</ref>
===Early Middle Ages===
After the [[Roman Empire]] collapsed ([[9th century]]), [[Germanic tribe]]s invaded the Roman province of "Gallia". One of these peoples, the [[Franks]], eventually managed to install a new kingdom under the rule of the [[Merovingian Dynasty]]. [[Clovis I]] was the best-known king of this dynasty. He ruled from his base in northern France, but his empire included today's Belgium. He converted to [[Christianity]]. Christian scholars, mostly [[Ireland|Irish]] [[monk]]s, preached Christianity to the populace and started a wave of [[Religious conversion|conversion]] ([[Saint Servatius]], [[Saint Remacle]], [[Saint Hadelin]]).
The Merovingians were short-lived and were succeeded by the [[Carolingian Dynasty]]. After [[Charles Martel]] countered the [[Moors|Moorish]] invasion from Spain ([[732]] — Poitiers), the King [[Charlemagne]] (born close to [[Liège (city)|Liège]] in [[Herstal]] or [[Jupille]]) brought a huge part of Europe under his rule and was [[Crown (headgear)|crowned]] the "[[Emperor]] of the [[Holy Roman Empire]]" by the [[Pope Leo III]] ([[800]] in [[Aachen]]).
The [[Vikings]] were defeated in [[981]] by [[Arnulf of Carinthia]] near [[Leuven]].
The Frankish lands were divided and reunified several times under the [[Merovingian]] and [[Carolingian]] dynasties, but eventually were firmly divided into [[France]] and the [[Holy Roman Empire]]. The parts of the [[County of Flanders]] stretching out west of the river [[Scheldt]] (Schelde in Dutch, Escaut in French) became part of France during the Middle Ages, but the remainders of the County of Flanders and the [[Low Countries]] were part of the Holy Roman Empire.
As the Holy Roman Emperors lost effective control of their domains in the 11th and 12th centuries, the territory more or less corresponding to the present Belgium was divided into mostly independent feudal states:
*[[County of Flanders]]
*[[Marquis of Namur|Marquisate of Namur]]
*[[Duchy of Brabant]] (see also [[Duke of Brabant]])
*[[County of Hainaut]]
*[[Duchy of Limburg]]
*[[Luxemburg]]
*[[Bishopric of Liège]]
During the [[11th century|11th]] and [[12th century|12th centuries]], the [[Rheno-Mosan art|Rheno-Mosan]] or [[Mosan art]] movement flourished in the region moving its centre from [[Cologne]] and [[Trier]] to [[Liège (city)|Liège]], [[Maastricht]] and [[Aachen]]. Some masterpieces of this [[Romanesque art]] are the [[shrine of the Three Kings at Cologne Cathedral]], the [[baptistry]] of [[Renier de Huy]] in [[Liège (city)|Liège]], the shrine of [[Saint Remacle]] in [[Stavelot]], the shrine of [[Saint Servatius]] in Maastricht or, [[Notger]]'s gospel in Liège.
[[13th century|13th]] and [[14th century|14th centuries]]
*Many cities gained their independence from their heirs.
*Huge trade within the Hanseatic League.
*Building of huge [[Gothic architecture|gothic]] cathedrals and city halls.
*[[Battle of the Golden Spurs]]
*[[Bruges]]
*[[Antwerp]]
*[[Hanseatic League]]
*[[Ypres]]
{{history Benelux states}}
===Burgundian and Habsbourgian Netherlands===
{{main|Burgundian Netherlands}}
[[Image:Philip the good.jpg|thumb|left|150px|Philip the Good, painted c. 1450 by Rogier van der Weyden]]
By [[1433]] most of the Belgian and [[Luxembourg]]ian territory along with much of the rest of the [[Low Countries]] became part of [[Burgundy]] under [[Philip the Good]]. When [[Mary of Burgundy]], granddaughter of Philip the Good married [[Maximilian I, Holy Roman Emperor|Maximilian I]], the Low Countries became [[Habsburg]] territory. Their son, [[Philip I of Castile]] (Philip the Handsome) was the father of the later [[Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor|Charles V]]. The Holy Roman Empire was unified with [[Spain]] under the [[Habsburg]] Dynasty after Charles V inherited several domains.
Especially during the Burgundy period (the [[15th century|15th]] and [[16th century|16th centuries]]), [[Ypres]], [[Ghent]], [[Bruges]], [[Brussels]], and [[Antwerp]] took turns at being major [[Europe]]an centers for commerce, industry (especially textiles) and art. The [[Flemish Primitives]] were a group of [[painting|painters]] active primarily in the Southern Netherlands in the [[15th century|15th]] and early [[16th century|16th]] centuries (for example, [[Jan van Eyck|Van Eyck]] and [[Roger van der Weyden|van der Weyden]]). Flemish [[Tapestry|tapestries]] hung on the walls of castles throughout Europe.
*[[Early Renaissance painting]]
*[[Charles the Good]]
*[[Charles the Bold]]
[[Image:Map-1477 Low Countries.png|300px|left|thumb|The [[Seventeen Provinces]] and the [[Bishopric of Liège]] ]]
The [[Pragmatic Sanction of 1549]], issued by Charles V, established the [[Seventeen Provinces]] (or Spanish Netherlands in its broad sense) as an entity separate from the Empire and from France. This comprised all of the [[Netherlands]], [[Belgium]], and [[Luxembourg]] except for the lands of the [[Bishopric of Liège]].
However, the northern region now known as the Netherlands became increasingly [[Protestant]] (''i.e.'' [[Calvinistic]]), while the south remained primarily [[Roman Catholic Church|Catholic]]. The schism resulted in the [[Union of Atrecht]] and the [[Union of Utrecht]]. When [[Philip II of Spain|Philip II]], son of Charles ascended the Spanish throne, he tried to abolish all Protestantism. Portions of the Netherlands revolted, beginning the [[Eighty Years' War]] between the Netherlands and Spain. For the conquered [[Southern Netherlands]] the war ended in [[1585]] with the Fall of [[Antwerp]]. This can be seen as the start of Belgium as one region. That same year, the northern Low Countries (i.e. the Netherlands proper) seized [[independence]] in the [[Act of Abjuration]] (''Plakkaat van Verlatinghe'') and started the [[Dutch Republic|United Provinces]] and the [[Dutch Golden Age]]. For them, the war lasted until [[1648]] (the [[Peace of Westphalia]]), when Spain recognized the independence of the Netherlands, but held onto the loyal and Catholic region of modern-day Belgium which was all that remained of the Spanish Netherlands.
* [[Battle of Turnhout (1597)]]
* [[Battle of Nieuwpoort]]
* [[Battle of Gibraltar]]
* [[Battle of the Downs]]
* [[Infanta Isabella Clara Eugenia of Spain]]
[[Image:Rubens Adoration.jpg|150px|thumb|Rubens' Adoration of the Magii]]
While the [[Dutch Republic|United Provinces]] gained independence, the [[Southern Netherlands]] remained under the rule of the Spanish Hapsburgs (1519–1713).
Until 1581 the [[history]] of Belgium (except the [[Bishopric of Liège]]), the grand duchy of [[Luxembourg]] and the country the Netherlands is the same: they formed the country/region of the Netherlands or the [[Low Countries]]. In [[Dutch language|Dutch]], a distinction still exists between on the one hand 'de Nederlanden' (plural, the Low Countries) and 'Nederland' (singular, the present-day state of the Netherlands) that is a consequence of this separation in the 17th century. Before 1581, the Netherlands refers to the Lowlands (De Nederlanden).
During the [[17th century]], Antwerp was still a major [[Europe]]an center for commerce, industry and art. The [[Brueghel]]s, [[Peter Paul Rubens]] and [[Van Dyck]]'s [[baroque]] paintings were created during this period.
* [[Gerardus Mercator]]
* [[Jodocus Hondius]]
* [[War of Devolution]], [[Franco-Dutch War]], [[War of the Reunions]], [[Nine Years War]], [[War of the Spanish Succession]]
The Belgian and Luxemburgian territories except the [[Bishopric of Liège]] were transferred to the [[Austria]]n Hapsburgs (1713–1794) after the [[War of the Spanish Succession]] when the French [[Bourbon Dynasty]] inherited Spain at the price of abandoning many Spanish possessions.
* [[War of the Austrian Succession]]
* [[Barrier Treaty]] which excluded the Flemings to use the Scheldt
* [[Ostend Company]]
* [[Battle of Turnhout (1789)]]
* [[United States of Belgium]] of [[1790]]
===French period===
Following the [[French Revolutionary Wars: Campaigns of 1794|Campaigns of 1794 of the French Revolutionary Wars]], the [[Southern Netherlands]] were invaded and annexed by the [[First French Republic]] in [[1795]], they were divided into nine ''united [[département]]s'' and became an integral part of [[France]]. The [[Bishopric of Liège]] was dissolved. Its territory was divided over the [[département]]s [[Meuse-Inférieure]] and [[Ourte]]. [[Austria]] confirmed the loss of the Austrian Netherlands by the [[Treaty of Campo Formio]], in [[1797]].
In [[1814]], [[Napoleon I of France|Napoleon Bonaparte]] was forced to abdicate by the Allies and was exiled to [[Elba]], ending the French period. However, Napoleon managed to escape from Elba and quickly returned to power during the [[Hundred Days]]. Napoleon knew that his only chance of remaining in power was to attack the existing Allied forces in Belgium before they were reinforced. He crossed the Belgian frontier with two armies and attacked the [[Prussia]]ns under the command of General [[Gebhard Leberecht von Blücher]] at the [[Battle of Ligny]] on [[June 16]], [[1815]]. Meanwhile, [[Michel Ney|Ney]] engaged the forces of the [[Arthur Wellesley, 1st Duke of Wellington|Duke of Wellington]] and the [[William II of the Netherlands|Prince of Orange]] in the [[Battle of Quatre Bras]] on the same day.
[[Image:Waterloo Lion.jpg|thumb|200px|The Butte du Lion]]
Napoleon was finally defeated by the [[Arthur Wellesley, 1st Duke of Wellington|Duke of Wellington]] and [[Gebhard Leberecht von Blücher]] at [[Battle of Waterloo|Waterloo]] in present-day [[Belgium]] on [[18 June]] [[1815]]. Napoleon's strategy failed and his army was driven from the field in confusion, by a combined Allied general advance. The next morning the [[Battle of Wavre]] ended in a hollow French victory. Napoleon was forced to surrender and was exiled to [[Saint Helena]].
King [[William I of the Netherlands]] had the [[Butte du Lion]] erected on the battlefield of Waterloo to commemorate the location where his son, [[William II of the Netherlands]] (the [[Prince of Orange]]), was knocked from his horse by a musket ball to the shoulder and as a tribute to his courage. It was completed in [[1826]]. The younger William had fought as commander of combined Dutch and Belgian forces at the [[Battle of Quatre Bras]] and the [[Battle of Waterloo]].
===United Kingdom of the Netherlands===
{{main|United Kingdom of the Netherlands}}
After [[Napoleon]]'s defeat at Waterloo in [[1815]], the major victorious powers ([[United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland|Britain]], [[Austria]], [[Prussia]], [[Russia]]) agreed at [[Congress of Vienna]] on reuniting the former [[Austrian Netherlands]] and the former [[Dutch Republic]], creating the [[United Kingdom of the Netherlands]], which was to serve as a buffer state against any future French invasions. This was under the rule of a Protestant king, namely [[William I of the Netherlands|William I of Orange]]. Most of the small and [[ecclesiastical]] states in the [[Holy Roman Empire]] were given to larger states at this time, and this included the [[Prince-Bishopric of Liège]] which became now formally part of the United Kingdom of the Netherlands.
[[Image:Wappers belgian revolution.jpg|right|thumb|250px|''Episode of the Belgian Revolution of [[1830]]'', [[Egide Charles Gustave Wappers]] ([[1834]]), in the Musée d'Art Ancien, [[Brussels]]]]
==Independence==
{{main|Belgian revolution}}
In August 1830, stirred by a performance of [[Daniel Auber|Auber's]] ''[[La Muette de Portici]]'' at the Brussels opera house ''[[La Monnaie]]'' (Dutch: ''De Munt''), the [[Belgian Revolution]] broke out, and the country wrested its independence from the Dutch, aided by French intellectuals and French armed forces. The real political forces behind this were the Catholic clergy, which was against the Protestant Dutch king, William I, and the equally strong [[Liberalism|liberals]], who opposed the royal authoritarianism, and the fact that the Belgians were not represented proportionally in the national assemblies at all. At first, the Revolution was merely a call for greater autonomy, but due to the clumsy responses of the Dutch king to the problem, and his unwillingness to meet the demands of the revolutionaries, the Revolution quickly escalated into a fight for full independence.
Among the revolutionaries, there was an idea to rejoin France, but after international pressure{{Fact|date=March 2008}}, Belgium became an independent state. A [[constitutional monarchy]] was established in [[1831]], with a monarch invited in from the House of [[Saxe-Coburg and Gotha]] in [[Germany]] by the British. The major powers in Europe agreed, and on [[July 21]] 1831, the first king of Belgium, [[Leopold of Saxe-Coburg]] was inaugurated. This day is still the Belgian national holiday. Even though the Belgian Revolution violated the accords made in 1815, the Belgians received the sympathy of the liberal governments of both [[Great Britain]] and France. France itself had undergone a liberal revolution that year. The other major powers of Europe - [[Austria]] and Prussia, took a much dimmer view of Belgian independence but they were disinclined to take any action, being preoccupied with the [[November Uprising]] in Poland. Aside from political sympathy, a key objective for both the British and the French governments was to keep the harbours of [[Antwerp]] and [[Rotterdam]] in two separate, hostile countries.
The Netherlands still fought on for 8 years, but in [[1839]] a [[Treaty of London, 1839|treaty]] was signed between the two countries. Belgium thus became a sovereign, independent state, equipped with a very liberal [[constitution]] ([[constitutional monarchy]]), but with [[suffrage]] restricted to the haute-[[bourgeoisie]] and the [[clergy]], all together less than 1% of the adult population, and fully French speaking in a country where French was not the majority language.
By the treaty of 1839, Luxembourg did not fully join Belgium, and remained a possession of the Netherlands until different inheritance laws caused it to separate as an independent [[Grand Duchy]]. Belgium also lost Eastern [[Limburg (United Kingdom of the Netherlands)|Limburg]], [[Zeeuws Vlaanderen]] and [[French Flanders]] (Dutch: ''Frans Vlaanderen'') and [[Eupen]], four territories which it had all claimed on historical grounds. The Netherlands retained the former two while French Flanders, which had been annexed at the time of [[Louis XIV of France|Louis XIV]] remained in French possession, and Eupen remained within the [[German Confederation]], although it would pass to Belgium after [[World War I]] as compensation for the war.
The Belgian Revolution had many causes:
* At the political level:
** The Belgians felt significantly under-represented in the Netherlands' elected Lower Assembly.
** The low popularity of Prince William, later King [[William II of the Netherlands|William II]] was representative of the King [[William I of the Netherlands|William I]] in Brussels.
** The treatment of the French-speaking Catholic [[Walloons]] in the Dutch dominated United Kingdom of the Netherlands.
* At the religious level:
** The difference of religion between the Catholics Belgians and their Protestant Dutch king.
* At the economic level:
** The Belgians had little influence over the traditional economy of trade centered in Amsterdam.
** The Dutch were for [[free trade]], while industries in Belgium called for the protection of [[tariff]]s.
** Low-taxed imports from the Baltic depressed agriculture in Belgian grain-growing regions.
* At the international level:
** French [[July Monarchy]]'s support.
** The passive agreement of the British.
==From the independence to WWI==
==== See also ====
*[[List of Prime Ministers of Belgium]]
*[[List of Belgian monarchs]]
===Laicity and Catholicism===
{{Expand-section|date=June 2008}}
In the 19th century, the Belgian politics is a bipartisan system very deeply influenced by the conflict between the Catholics and the laics.
====See also====
*[[Liberalism in Belgium]]
*[[Universite Libre de Bruxelles]]
*[[Catholic University of Leuven]]
===Industrial revolution===
{{Expand-section|date=June 2008}}
Léopold I went on to build the first [[Rail transport in Belgium|railway]] in continental Europe in [[1835]], between [[Brussels]] and [[Mechelen]]. The first trains were drawn by [[George Stephenson|Stephenson]] engines imported from Great Britain.
====See also====
*[[John Cockerill]]
*[[Cockerill-Sambre]]
*[[Val Saint Lambert]]
*[[Ernest Solvay]]
*[[Fabrique Nationale de Herstal]]
*[[Rail transport in Belgium]]
*[[Industrial revolution]]
===The rise of the socialist party and of the trade unions===
{{Expand-section|date=June 2008}}
====See also====
*[[Emile Vandervelde]]
*[[Henri de Man]]
*[[Adolf Daens]]
[[Image:Statue LeopoldII Ostende.jpg|200px|thumb|Statue of [[Leopold II of Belgium]] in [[Ostend]] ]]
<!-- Image with unknown copyright status removed: [[Image:Statue_LeopoldII_Ostende_detail.jpg|200px|thumb|left|A detail from the plinth of the statue of [[Léopold II of Belgium]] in [[Ostende]]. Observe the mutilated hand. Mutilating hands was one of the most common punishments in the [[Congo Free State]]. Mutilated hands even were used as some kind of money or trophy.]] -->
===The Congolese colony===
:''Main articles: [[Congo Free State]] and [[Belgian Congo]]''
At the [[Berlin conference]] of 1884–1885 the [[Democratic Republic of the Congo|Congo]] was attributed solely to [[Leopold II of Belgium]], who named the territory the [[Congo Free State]]. Power was finally transferred to [[Belgium]] in [[1908]] under considerable international pressure following numerous reports of gross misconduct and abuse to native labourers.
The integration of traditional economies in the Congo within the framework of the modern, capitalist economy was brilliantly executed; for example, several railroads were built through dense regions of jungle. Leopold's fortune was greatly increased through the proceeds of Congolese [[rubber]], which had never been mass-produced in such surplus quantities.
Many atrocities were committed in the colony, especially when it still was Leopold II's personal possession. The behaviour of the Belgian colonists in Congo is still a conflict-laden topic in present-day Belgium.
European exploration and administration of the Congo took place from the 1870s until the 1920s. First by Stanley who undertook his explorations mainly under the sponsorship of [[Leopold II of Belgium|Leopold II]], who desired what was to become the Congo as a colony. In a succession of negotiations Leopold, professing humanitarian objectives in his capacity as chairperson of the Association International Africaine, played one European rival against the other. The Congo territory was acquired formally by Leopold at the [[Conference of Berlin]] in 1885. He made the land his private, personal property and named it the Congo Free State. Congolese territory was more than 80 times as large as Belgium's.
Leopold's regime began undertaking various development projects, such as a railway that ran from the coast to Leopoldville (now Kinshasa) which took years to complete. Nearly all of these projects were aimed at increasing the capital Leopold and his cohorts could extract from the colony, leading to atrocious exploitation of Africans. In the Free State, the local population was brutalized in exchange for rubber, a growing market with the development of rubber tires. The selling of the rubber made a fortune for Leopold, who built several buildings in Brussels and Ostend to honour himself and his country.
During the period between 1885 and 1908, between five and fifteen (the commonly accepted figure is about ten) million Congolese died because of exploitation and diseases. To enforce the rubber quotas, the Force Publique (FP) was called in. The FP was an army, but its aim was not to defend the country, but to terrorize the local population The Force Publique made the practice of cutting off the limbs of the natives as a means of enforcing rubber quotas a matter of policy; this practice was disturbingly widespread. However, there were international protests spearheaded mainly by [[Edmund Dene Morel]] and British diplomat/Irish patriot [[Roger Casement]], whose 1904 report on the Congo condemned the practice, as well as famous writers such as [[Mark Twain]] (who wrote [[King Leopold's Soliloquy]]) and Sir [[Arthur Conan Doyle]]. [[Joseph Conrad]]'s novella [[Heart of Darkness]] also takes place in Congo Free State. In 1908, the Belgian parliament bowed to international pressure in order to save their last bit of prestige in Europe, forcibly adopting the Free State as a Belgian colony from the king. From then on, it became the [[Belgian Congo]].
====See also====
*[[Lado Enclave]]
[[Image:CinquantenaireArchInSnow.jpg|thumb|right|The Cinquantenaire Arch in winter]]
===Historicism and Art Nouveau===
{{Expand-section|date=June 2008}}
At the end of the [[19th century]] and at the beginning of the [[20th century]], the [[Historicism (architecture)|historicism]] style dominates the urban Belgian landscape (e.g. Justice Palace of [[Brussels]], [[cinquantenaire|50th-Anniversary Park]] in [[Brussels]]). Nevertheless, Brussels became one of the major European cities for the development of the [[Art Nouveau]] ([[Victor Horta]], [[Henry van de Velde]]).
==From WWI to WWII==
=== World War I ===
[[Image:Belgian machinegunner in 1918 guarding trench.jpg|thumb|300px|A Belgian machinegunner on the front lines in 1918.]]
The neutrality of Belgium was violated in [[1914]] when [[Germany]] invaded Belgium as part of the [[Schlieffen Plan]].
The Germans were stopped by the Allies at the front-line along the [[Yser]], the [[battle of the Yser]]. King [[Albert I of Belgium|Albert I]] stayed in Belgium with his troops to lead the army while the government withdrew to [[Le Havre]], [[France]].
Flanders saw some of the greatest losses of life of the [[World War I|First World War]] including the [[first Battle of Ypres|first]] and [[second Battle of Ypres|second battles of Ypres]]. Due to the hundreds of thousands of casualties, the [[poppy|poppies]] that sprang up from the [[battle]]field and that were immortalized in the [[poem]] [[In Flanders Fields]], have become an emblem of human life lost in war. It is perfectly normal for poppies to invade disturbed arable ground.
Flemish feeling of identity and consciousness grew through the events and experiences of war. The German occupying authorities had taken several Flemish-friendly measures. More importantly, the experiences of the Dutch-speaking soldiers on the front led by French speaking officers catalyzed Flemish emancipation. Their suffering is still remembered by Flemish organizations during the yearly [[Ijzerbedevaart|Yser pilgrimage]] and [[Ijzerwake|Wake of the Yser]] (the latter associated with Right wing extremists) in [[Diksmuide]] at the monument of [[Ijzertoren|The Yser tower]].
===Between the wars===
====War Reparations====
Belgium did not receive the war reparations that she was to receive from Germany. This had a significant effect on the Belgium economy, which, like the economies of many countries involved in World War One, had been bankrupted by the war.
====Politics====
{{Expand-section|date=June 2008}}
After the defeat of Germany, the two former German colonies, [[Rwanda]] and [[Burundi]], were mandated to Belgium by the [[League of Nations]].
After a period of alliance with France, Belgium tried to return to neutrality in the 1930s.
[[Image:James Ensor kopie.jpg|thumb|left|150px|[[James Ensor]], Self-portrait on a Belgian poststamp]]
====Development of fine arts====
;Flemish expressionism: The [[expressionism]] painting movement found a distinctive form in Flanders ([[James Ensor]],[[Constant Permeke]], [[Léon Spilliaert]]).
;Belgian surrealism: The [[surrealism]] movement has major representatives in Belgium: [[Paul Delvaux]], [[René Magritte]].
;The [[Franco-Belgian comics]]: The Comic strip ''[[The Adventures of Tintin]]'', one of the most popular 20th century [[European comics]], was created in [[1929]] by [[Hergé]]. Major Belgian representatives of this popular art movement are [[Edgar P. Jacobs]], [[Jijé]], [[Willy Vandersteen]] and [[André Franquin]]. '''See also:''' [[Franco-Belgian comics magazines]], [[Franco-Belgian publishing houses]].
====See also====
*[[Sabena]]
===World War II===
{{main|Military history of Belgium during World War II}}
{{Expand-section|date=June 2008}}
[[Nazi Germany]] invaded Belgium [[10 May]] [[1940]] (Belgium surrendered on [[May 28]]). The King remained in Belgium.
Belgium was liberated beginning in [[1944]] by Allied forces, including [[United Kingdom|British]], [[Canada|Canadian]], and [[United States|American]] armies, including a small Belgian national contingent. The British second Army seized [[Antwerp]] in September 1944, and the [[First Canadian Army]] began conducting combat operations around the port that same month. Antwerp became a highly prized and heavily fought-over objective due to its deep-water port facilities and the fact that French ports remained in German hands until the end of the war. The [[Battle of the Scheldt]] in October 1944 was fought primarily on Dutch soil, but with the intent of opening the waterway to Antwerp. The port city was also the main objective of German armies in December; the inability of the Allies to end the war in 1944 meant that Allied troops had to winter in Belgium, during which time the [[Battle of the Bulge|Ardennes Offensive]] was launched by the Germans, resulting in heavy fighting on Belgian soil lasting into 1945.
During the war, the largest known reserves of [[uranium]] were in the [[Katanga Province|Katanga]] (a province of the [[Belgian Congo]]). The Belgian company [[Union Minière du Haut Katanga]] provided the [[United States]] the uranium required by the [[Manhattan Project]] and the early [[cold war]] (see: [[history of nuclear weapons]]).
{{Nazi Germany occupations}}
====See also====
*[[Rexism]]
*[[Lions of Flanders]]
*[[Fort Eben-Emael]]
*[[Battle of the Scheldt]]
*[[Battle of the Bulge]]
*[[Malmedy massacre]]
*[[Belgian armoured fighting vehicles of World War II]]
==After WWII==
===The royal question===
{{main|Léopold III of Belgium}}
A dispute over King Léopold III's conduct during World War II caused civil uprisings, and eventually led to his abdication in [[1951]] following a statewide [[referendum]]. In [[Flanders]] they voted in favor of his return, in [[Wallonia]] against (especially the provinces of [[Liège (province)|Liège]] and [[Hainaut (province)|Hainaut]]; [[Namur (province)|Namur]] and [[Luxembourg (province of Belgium)|Luxembourg]] being split 50/50). Although he narrowly won the referendum, the militant socialist movement in Liège, Hainaut and other urban centres incited major protests and strikes. Because of the probability of the escalation of the conflict, Léopold III abdicated on July 16, 1951 in favour of his 20-year-old son [[Baudouin I of Belgium|Baudouin]].
During Leopold's exile in Switzerland (1945–1950), [[Prince Charles of Belgium]] acted as the regent.
====See also====
* [[Prince Charles of Belgium]]
* [[Baudouin I of Belgium]]
<!-- Image with inadequate rationale removed: [[Image:Atomium-sm.jpg|150px|thumb|The [[Atomium]] monument]] -->
==Post-war economic growth==
During the period 1945–1975, [[Keynesian]] economic theory guided politicians throughout Western Europe and this was particularly influential in Belgium. After the war, the government cancelled Belgium's debts. It was during this period that the well-known Belgian highways were built. At night, their streetlights make them easily seen from space.{{Fact|date=October 2007}}
In this sphere of economics, World War II marks a turning point. Because Flanders had been widely devastated during the war and had been largely agricultural since the Belgian uprising, it benefited most from the [[Marshall Plan]]. Its standing as an economically backward agricultural region meant that it obtained support from Belgium's membership of the [[History of the European Union#The three communities|European Union]] and its predecessors. At the same time, Wallonia experienced a slow relative decline as the products of its mines came to be less in demand. The economic balance between the two parts of the country has remained less in favour of Wallonia than it was before [[1939]].
===European and international integration===
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*Belgium has been one of the foremost advocates of collective security within the framework the Atlantic partnership ([[NATO]]). Belgium has been member of the NATO since April 4, 1949
*Belgium is part of the [[Benelux]] since [[1944]].
*Belgium is one of the founding members of the [[European Coal and Steel Community]] in July, [[1952]] and of the [[European Economic Community]] founded on March 25, 1957 by the signing of the [[Treaty of Rome]].
====See also====
*[[Paul-Henri Spaak]]
===The second school war (1950–1959)===
The second school war started around 1950, when the Catholic minister [[Pierre Harmel]] decides to increase the subsidies for the free secondary education, and culminated in 1955 when the socialist minister Leo Collard tried to curb the 'freedom' of the Catholic schools by decreasing the subsidies for Catholic schools and firing 110 Catholic teachers from public schools. On 6 November 1958, a School Pact between the three major parties ended the school war.
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===The Congo crisis (1960–1965)===
{{main|Congo Crisis}}
The Congo became independent in [[1960]]. Belgium played in this crisis an ambiguous role which led to the murder of [[Patrice Lumumba]] and to the establishment of [[Zaire]].
===The tragedy of Zwartberg===
On Monday [[January 31]], [[1966]] a group of about 500 angry [[coal miners]] from the mine of Zwartberg headed towards the mine of Waterschei to convince their colleagues to join the strike in protest of the announced closure of Zwartberg. At the entrance of the Waterschei mine, a small group of [[Belgian Gendarmerie|gendarmes]] awaited them, who were cornered by the protesters. When a lorry carrying a load of mining wood passed by, the miners forced the driver to drop his load. When the miners threw wood and other objects at the gendarmes, the officer in charge ordered his men to fire into the air during a first charge. When the miners threatened the gendarmes again, the gendarmes fired at the protesters, mortally wounding Jan Latos and injuring his colleague Theo Van Hecke. Later that day, Valère Sclep died after being hit on the head by a [[tear gas]] grenade.
The news of the tragedy travelled around the world and the government decided to withdraw the gendarmes and leave the maintenance of public order to [[Belgian Parachute/Commando Battalions|Para-Commandos]]. The riots continued until the [[trade unions|unions]] and the management reached an agreement on [[February 3]] of the same year.
<!-- Deleted image removed: [[Image:Taal Aktie Komitee.jpg|thumb|150px|Logo of the [[Taal Aktie Komitee]]]] -->
===The linguistic "wars"===
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This Flemish resurgence has been accompanied by a corresponding shift of political power to the Flemish, who always constituted the majority of the population (around 60%). Only in 1967 was an official Dutch version of the [[Belgian Constitution|Constitution]] accepted.<ref>[http://216.239.59.104/search?q=cache:B_qKhqKrm-gJ:www.unrisd.org/UNRISD/website/document.nsf/ab82a6805797760f80256b4f005da1ab/ec506a59176be044c1256e9e003077c3/%24FILE/Deschou.pdf+when+was+the+belgian+constitution+translated+into+dutch%3F+1967&hl=nl&ct=clnk&cd=2&client=safari#23] Ethnic structure, inequality and governance of the public sector in Belgium, Kris Deschouwer, Vrije Universiteit Brussel, January 2004</ref>
The linguistic wars attained their climax around [[1968]] with the splitting of the [[Catholic University of Leuven]] into the [[Katholieke Universiteit Leuven]] and the [[Université Catholique de Louvain]]. The government of [[Prime Minister of Belgium|Prime Minister]] [[Paul Vanden Boeynants]] falls over the issue in [[1968]].
Well-known "battles" (physically harmless ones) found place in [[Voeren]] between the [[Taal Aktie Komitee]] and the Walloon leader [[Jose Happart]].
====See also====
*[[Flemish movement]]
*[[Flemish independence]]
*[[Ijzerbedevaart|Yser pilgrimage]], [[Ijzerwake|Wake of the Yser]], [[Ijzertoren|The Yser tower]]
*[[Volksunie]]
*[[Vlaams Belang]] or [[Vlaams Blok]]
*[[Front Démocratique des Francophones]]
*[[Brussels-Halle-Vilvoorde]]
*[[Municipalities with language facilities]]
===The rise of the federal state===
{{main|State reform in Belgium}}
The successive linguistic wars have made the successive Belgian governments very unstable. The three major parties (Liberal -right wing-, Catholic -center- and, Socialist -left wing-) split in two according to their French- or Dutch-speaking electorate. A language border was determined by the first Gilson Act of [[November 8]], [[1962]]. The boundaries of certain [[provinces]], [[arrondissements]] and [[municipalities]] were modified (among others, [[Mouscron]] became a part of [[Hainaut (province)|Hainaut]] and [[Voeren]] became a part of [[Limburg (Belgium)|Limburg]]) and [[Municipalities with language facilities|facilities]] for linguistic minorities were introduced in 25 municipalities. On [[August 2]], [[1963]], the second Gilson Act entered into force, fixing the division of Belgium into four language areas: a [[Dutch language|Dutch]], a [[French language|French]] and a [[German language]] area, and [[Brussels]] as a [[bilingual]] area with both French and Dutch as its [[official languages]].
In [[1970]], there was a first state reform,<ref>{{cite web | url = http://www.belgium.be/eportal/application?languageRedirected=yes&docId=6681.0&pageid=contentPage&languageRedirected=yes | title = Belgium}}</ref> which resulted in the establishment of three cultural communities: the Dutch Cultural Community, the French Cultural Community and the German Cultural Community. This reform was a response to the [[Flanders|Flemish]] demand for cultural autonomy. The constitutional revision of 1970 also laid the foundations for the establishment of three [[Communities and regions of Belgium|Regions]], which was a response to the demand of the [[Wallonia|Walloons]] and the French-speaking inhabitants of [[Brussels Capital Region|Brussels]] for economic autonomy. On February 18, 1970, [[Prime Minister of Belgium|Prime Minister]] [[Gaston Eyskens]] announces the end of "La Belgique de papa".
The second state reform took place in [[1980]], when the cultural communities became [[Communities and regions of Belgium|Communities]]. The Communities assumed the competencies of the cultural communities with regard to cultural matters, and became responsible for the 'matters relating to the person', such as health and youth policy. From then on, these three Communities were known as the [[Flemish Community]], the [[French Community of Belgium|French Community]] and the [[German-speaking Community of Belgium|German-speaking Community]]. Two Regions were established as well in [[1980]]: the [[Flemish Region]] and the [[Wallonia|Walloon Region]]. However, in Flanders it was decided in [[1980]] to immediately merge the institutions of the Community and the Region. Although the creation of a Brussels Region was provided for in [[1970]], the [[Brussels-Capital Region]] was not established until the third state reform.
During the third state reform in [[1988]] and [[1989]],<ref>{{cite web | url=http://www.belgium.be/eportal/application?languageRedirected=yes&origin=indexDisplay.jsp&docId=6684.0&pageid=contentPage&languageRedirected=yes&event=bea.portal.framework.internal.refresh | title = Belgium}}</ref> under [[Prime Minister of Belgium|Prime Minister]] [[Wilfried Martens]], the [[Brussels-Capital Region]] was established with its own regional institutions, as well as [[Dutch language|Dutch]] and [[French language|French]] institutions for community matters. The Brussels-Capital Region remained limited to 19 municipalities. Other changes included that the competencies of the Communities and Regions were expanded. One notable responsibility that was transferred to the Communities during the third state reform is education.
The fourth state reform, which took place in [[1993]] under [[Prime Minister of Belgium|Prime Minister]] [[Jean-Luc Dehaene]], consolidated the previous state reforms and turned Belgium into a fully-fledged federal state. The first article of the [[Constitution of Belgium|Belgian Constitution]] was amended to read as follows, “Belgium is a Federal State which consists of Communities and Regions”. During the fourth state reform, the responsibilities of the Communities and the Regions were expanded again, their resources were increased and they were given more fiscal responsibilities. Other major changes included the direct election of the parliaments of the Communities and the Regions, the splitting up of the [[Province of Brabant]] into [[Flemish Brabant]] and [[Walloon Brabant]], and the reformation of the [[Federal Parliament of Belgium|Federal Parliament's]] [[bicameralism|bicameral]] system and the relations between the Federal Parliament and the [[Belgian Federal Government|Federal Government]].<ref>{{cite web | url = http://www.vlaamsparlement.be/vpWeb/p3app/htmlpages/vp/HoeWerktHetVlaamsParlement/AlgemeneSituering/OntstaanEnGroeiVlaamsParlement/Mijlpalen.html#1970EersteStaatsHervorming | title = 1970 Eerste Staats Hervorming}}</ref> The first direct elections for the parliaments of the Communities and the Regions took place on [[May 21]], [[1995]].
However, the fourth state reform was not the end of the process of federalization. In [[2001]], a fifth state reform took place,<ref>{{cite web | url = http://www.belgium.be/eportal/application?origin=indexDisplay.jsp&event=bea.portal.framework.internal.refresh&pageid=contentPage&docId=42152.0 | title = Belgium}}</ref> under [[Prime Minister of Belgium|Prime Minister]] [[Guy Verhofstadt]], with the Lambermont and the Lombard Accords. During the fifth state reform, more powers were transferred to the Communities and the Regions, with regard to agriculture, fisheries, foreign trade, development cooperation, auditing of electoral expenses and the supplementary financing of the political parties. The Regions became responsible for twelve regional taxes, and local and provincial government became a matter for the Regions. The first municipal and provincial elections under the supervision of the Regions were the [[Belgian municipal elections, 2006|2006 municipal elections]]. The functioning of the Brussels institutions was also amended during the fifth state reform, which resulted among other things in a guaranteed representation of the Flemish inhabitants of Brussels in the [[Parliament of the Brussels-Capital Region]].
The fifth state reform is the last state reform to date. However, several Flemish political parties want a sixth state reform following the [[Belgian general election, 2007|2007 general election]], while the vast majority of Walloon politicians opposes this. Major issues that a sixth state reform would have to deal with include, among others, [[Brussels-Halle-Vilvoorde]]. After the 2007 elections nine months of extremely troublesome negotiations between Flemish and Walloon parties followed, resulting in the formation of the first Leterme cabinet on March 20, 2008. Decisions on further state reforms were delayed and remained a matter of considerable debate.
====See also====
*[[Politics of Belgium]]
*[[Politics of Flanders]]
*[[Politics of Wallonia]]
*[[List of governments in Belgium]]
*[[Flemish Community Commission]]
*[[French Community Commission]]
===The fall of the Belgian economic miracle===
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Belgium created huge debts during times when rates were low and generated new debts to service the initial debt. Its debts amounted to about 130% of the [[Gross Domestic Product|GDP]] in [[1992]] and were reduced to about 99% in [[2001]] when Belgium entered the [[Eurozone]]. This drastic economic policy resulted in deep budget spending cuts, such as significant cuts to scientific research.
====See also====
*[[Jean-Luc Dehaene]]
*[[Philippe Maystadt]]
===The Marc Dutroux Scandal===
{{main|Marc Dutroux}}
In [[1996]], Belgium's political and criminal justice systems were shaken when [[Marc Dutroux]] was arrested and charged with several counts of murder and kidnapping. Many felt that local law enforcement had not acted competently enough to observe and eventually arrest Dutroux and his accomplices before they kidnapped at least six girls (Julie & Melissa, An & Eefje, Sabine & Laetitia) of which they murdered four (Sabine & Laetitia being rescued just in time) and most probably some gang members. Dutroux went on trial in March 2004 and got a life sentence in prison.
Subsequent parliamentary inquiries indeed proved that the three main police forces were horribly incompetent, bureaucratic, with considerable degree of infighting. On top of that, the judicial system appeared to suffer from similar problems: bureaucracy, very poor communication with, and support for, the victims, slow procedures and many loopholes for criminals.
Following the scandal, on [[October 26]], 1996, about 300,000 Belgians marched in Brussels to protest at the failures of the police force and judicial system in this affair. It was one of the largest [[Demonstration (people)|demonstrations]] in Belgium's history and was called the "[[White March]]" (French: "''Marche Blanche''", Dutch: "''Witte Mars''").
===The rise of the Green parties===
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The three-party (i.e. six plus some purely Flemish and Walloon parties) political systems got disturbed by the Green parties (the Dutch-speaking [[Agalev]], now [[Groen!]], and the French-speaking [[Ecolo]]) in the 1980s which took a lot of influence after the Marc Dutroux Scandal and the "[[dioxin]] affair", a food scandal (chickens containing dioxin levels far above the maximum allowed) which would not have had any major repercussions, had it not erupted just days before the elections.
====See also====
*[[Political parties in Belgium]]
===1999–present===
In the [[Belgian general election, 1999|1999 Belgian general election]], the government parties suffered an historical defeat due to the so-called "[[dioxin]] affair" and [[Jean-Luc Dehaene]]'s reign of eight years ended. [[Guy Verhofstadt]] formed a government of [[Liberals]], [[Socialists]] and [[Green movement|Greens]]. For the first time in since [[1958]], Belgium had a government that did not include the [[Christian Democratic and Flemish|Christian People's Party]] (''Christelijke Volkspartij'').
During the [[Kosovo crisis]] of [[1999]], 600 Belgian [[paratroopers]] participated in Operation Allied Harbour, a [[NATO]] operation to protect and provide assistance to the huge number of ethnic Albanian [[refugees]] in [[Albania]] and [[Republic of Macedonia|Macedonia]]. That same year, 1100 Belgian soldiers left for [[Kosovo]] to participate in the [[Kosovo Force]] (KFOR), a NATO-led [[peacekeeping]] force for Kosovo. In December 1999, the [[Belgian Federal Government]] announced that it would again pursue an active foreign policy, particularly in [[Central Africa]] where among others Belgium's former colony, the [[Democratic Republic of the Congo]], is situated. As soon as there would be peace in the region, Belgium would support the reconstruction.
In July [[1999]], Belgium's nuclear phase-out legislation was decided by the [[Flemish Liberals and Democrats]]-led Government including the Belgian [[Green party]], [[Groen!]]. The phase-out law calls for each of [[List of nuclear reactors#Belgium|Belgium's seven reactors]] to close after 40 years of operation with no new [[nuclear reactor|reactors]] built subsequently. When the law was being passed, it was speculated it would be overturned again as soon as an administration without the Greens was in power.<ref>{{cite web | url = http://www.scientific-alliance.org/pdf/essential_programme_to_underpin_government_policy_on_nuclear_power.pdf | format = PDF | title = Essential Programme to Underpin Government Policy on Nuclear Power | publisher = Scientific Alliance}}</ref> After a new government was elected in [[2003]] without the Greens, there is still no indication the current Government will revoke the phase-out law<ref>{{cite web | url = http://www10.antenna.nl/wise/index.html?http://www10.antenna.nl/wise/596-8/h3.php | title = Antenna}}</ref> after the incident at Tihange in [[November 22]], [[2002]] turned public opinion against nuclear power.<ref>{{cite web | url = http://www10.antenna.nl/wise/index.html?http://www10.antenna.nl/wise/582/5485.html | title = Antenna}}</ref> [[Christian-Democratic and Flemish]] in [[2006]] proposed reconsidering the planned phase-out and stated that it intends to bring the nuclear phase-out up again during the negotiations for forming the next government following [[Belgian general election, 2007|next year's election]].<ref>{{cite web | url = http://www.vrtnieuws.net/nieuwsnet_master/versie2/nieuws/details/060429kernenergie/ | title = VRT Nieuws}}</ref> On [[December 2]], [[2006]], the [[Humanist Democratic Centre]] proposed adopting a new timetable for the phase-out.<ref>{{cite web | url = http://www.vrtnieuws.net/nieuwsnet_master/versie2/nieuws/details/061202cdhkernenergie/ | title = Ernenergie}}</ref>
On [[January 1]], [[1999]], the [[euro]] was introduced and the [[Belgian franc]] ceased to exist independently, when it became fixed at one EUR=40.3399 BEF. New notes and coins were introduced on [[January 1]], [[2002]]. Old coins and notes lost their [[legal tender]] status on [[February 28]], [[2002]].
Belgium pursued a policy of strong anti-Iraq-war diplomacy during the [[Iraq crisis of 2003]], and formally and officially opposed the [[Iraq War]]. The stance of [[Prime Minister of Belgium|Prime Minister]] [[Guy Verhofstadt]] was that [[Saddam Hussein]] had to leave and [[Iraq]] had to disarm, but that a solution had to be found by diplomatic means, and that military action could only be considered if that failed and only after approval by the [[United Nations]].<ref>{{cite web | url = http://www.gva.be/dossiers/-i/irak/23.asp | title = Irak | work = Dossier | publisher = GVA}}</ref>
On [[January 30]], [[2003]], Belgium became the second country in the world to legally recognize [[same-sex marriage]]. However, this law did not permit [[Gay adoption|adoption by same-sex partners]]; and as birth within a same-sex marriage did not imply affiliation, the same-sex spouse of the biological parent had no way to become the legal parent. On [[December 1]], [[2005]], a controversial proposal of the [[SP.A]] to permit adoption was approved by the [[Belgian Chamber of Representatives]], thereby enabling legal co-parenting by same-sex couples.
====See also====
*[[Guy Verhofstadt]]
*[[Louis Michel]]
*[[Same-sex marriage in Belgium]]
*[[War Crimes Law (Belgium)]]
*[[Joe Van Holsbeeck|Murder of Joe Van Holsbeeck]]
*[[Henri Pirenne]]
*[[Hans Van Themsche]]
==References==
{{reflist}}
*{{factbook}}
*{{StateDept}}
==External links==
*[http://www.zum.de/whkmla/histatlas/lowcountries/haxbelgium.html Historical maps of Belgium from 1340 to 1990 on WHKMLA]
*[http://eudocs.lib.byu.edu/index.php/History_of_Belgium:_Primary_Documents History of Belgium: Primary Documents]
*[http://vlib.iue.it/hist-belgium/Index.html World Wide Web Virtual Library — Belgian History Index]
*[http://www.sacred-destinations.com/belgium/sacred-sites.htm Sacred Destinations: Belgium] — Cathedrals, Catholic shrines, churches, Jewish sites
*[http://www.rulers.org/rulb1.html#belgium Rulers.org — Belgium] List of rulers for Belgium
{{History of Europe}}
[[Category:History of Belgium|*]]
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