History of Greece 565594 225608181 2008-07-14T15:12:13Z 66.158.134.82 /* Minoan civilization */ {{History of Greece}}{{dablink|This article covers the Greek civilization. For the Greek language as a whole, see [[Greek language]]. For the Classical Greek language, see [[Ancient Greek]].}} The '''History of Greece''' traditionally encompasses the study of the [[Greeks|Greek people]], the areas they ruled historically, and the territory now composing the modern state of [[Greece]]. The scope of Greek habitation and rule has varied significantly through the ages, and as a consequence, the history of Greece is similarly elastic in what it includes. Each era has its own related sphere of interest. The first [[Proto-Greek language|(proto-) Greek-speaking]] tribes are generally thought to have arrived in the Greek mainland between the late 3rd and the first half of the 2nd millennium BC, where various pre-Greek peoples had already been practicing agriculture since the [[Sesklo|7th millennium BC]]. At its geographical peak, Greek civilization spread from Greece to [[Egypt]] and to the [[Hindu Kush]] mountains in [[Pakistan]] . Since then, Greek minorities have remained in former Greek territories (e.g., [[Turkey]], [[Italy]], and [[Libya]], [[Levant]], etc.), and Greek [[emigrants]] have assimilated into differing societies across the globe (e.g., [[North America]], [[Australia]], [[Northern Europe]], [[South Africa]] etc.). Still today, most Greeks live in the modern states of Greece (independent since [[1821]]) and [[Cyprus]]. == Minoan civilization == {{main|Aegean civilization}} One of the earliest civilizations to appear around Greece was the [[Minoan civilization]] in [[Crete]], which lasted approximately from 2700 ([[Early Minoan]]) BC to 1450 BC, and the [[Early Helladic]] period on the Greek mainland from ca. 2800 BC to 2100 BC. Little specific information is known about the Minoans (even the name is a modern appellation, from [[Minos]], the legendary king of [[Crete]]). They have been characterized as a [[Old European culture|pre-Indo-European]] people, apparently the linguistic ancestors of the [[Eteo-Cretan]] speakers of [[Classical Antiquity]], their language being encoded in the undeciphered [[Linear A]] script. They were primarily a mercantile people engaged in overseas trade, taking advantage of their land's rich natural resources. [[Timber]], at that time, was an abundant natural resource that was commercially exploited and exported to nearby lands such as [[Cyprus]], [[Ancient Egypt|Egypt]] and the [[Aegean Islands]]. Although the causes of their demise are uncertain, they were eventually invaded by the [[Mycenaeans]] from mainland Greece. This invasion took place around 1400 BC, and in conjunction with the [[Thera eruption]], it presents a likely scenario for the final end of the [[Minoan civilization]]. According to this theory, the Minoan fleet and ports were irrevocably destroyed by colossal seismic and tidal waves. Possible [[climate change|climatic changes]] affected crops for many years, which in turn could have led to famine and social breakdown. The Mycenaean invaders wrote the final chapter of a civilization that flourished for some 1600 years. == Mycenaean Greece (Bronze Age) == {{main|Mycenaean Greece}} Mycenaean Greece, also known as Bronze Age Greece, is the [[Late Helladic]] [[Bronze Age]] civilization of [[Ancient Greece]]. It lasted from the arrival of the Greeks in the [[Aegean Sea|Aegean]] around [[1600 BC]] to the collapse of their Bronze Age civilization around [[1100 BC]]. It is the historical setting of the [[Epic poetry|epic]]s of [[Homer]] and much other [[Greek mythology]]. The Mycenaean period takes its name from the archaeological site [[Mycenae]] in the northeastern [[Argolid]], in the [[Peloponnesos]] of southern Greece. [[Athens]], [[Pylos]], [[Thebes (Greece)|Thebes]], and [[Tiryns]] are also important Mycenaean sites. Mycenaean civilization was dominated by a warrior [[aristocracy]]. Around [[1400 BC]] the [[Mycenaeans]] extended their control to [[Crete]], center of the [[Minoan civilization]], and adopted a form of the Minoan script called [[Linear A]] to write their early form of [[Greek language|Greek]]. The Mycenaean era script is called [[Linear B]]. The Mycenaeans buried their nobles in [[beehive tombs]] (''tholoi''), large circular burial chambers with a high vaulted roof and straight entry passage lined with stone. They often buried daggers or some other form of military equipment with the deceased. The nobility were frequently buried with gold masks, tiaras, armour, and jeweled weapons. Mycenaeans were buried in a sitting position, and some of the nobility underwent [[mummy|mummification]]. Around [[1100 BC]] the Mycenaean civilization collapsed. Numerous cities were sacked and the region entered what historians see as a [[Greek dark ages|dark age]]. During this period Greece experienced a decline in [[population]] and [[literacy]]. The Greeks themselves have traditionally blamed this decline on an [[Dorian invasion|invasion]] by another wave of Greek people, the [[Dorians]], although there is scant archaeological evidence for this view. == Greek Dark Ages == {{main|Greek Dark Ages}} The ''Greek Dark Ages'' (ca. [[1100 BC]]&ndash;[[800 BC]]) refers to the period of Greek history from the presumed [[Dorian invasion]] and end of the [[Mycenaean civilization]] in the [[11th century BC]] to the rise of the first [[Ancient Greece|Greek]] [[city-state]]s in the [[9th century BC]] and the epics of [[Homer]] and earliest writings in [[Greek alphabet|alphabetic]] [[Greek language|Greek]] in the [[8th century BC]]. The collapse of the Mycenaean coincided with the fall of several other large empires in the near east, most notably the [[Hittites|Hittite]] and the [[Ancient Egypt|Egyptian]]. The cause may be attributed to an invasion of the [[sea people]] wielding iron weapons. When the Dorians came down into Greece they also were equipped with superior iron weapons, easily dispersing the already weakened Mycenaeans. The period that follows these events is collectively known as the Greek Dark Ages. [[Archaeology]] shows a collapse of civilization in the Greek world in this period. The great palaces and cities of the Mycenaeans were destroyed or abandoned. The [[Greek language]] ceased to be written. Greek Dark Age pottery has simple geometric designs and lacks the figurative decoration of Mycenaean ware. The Greeks of the Dark Age lived in fewer and smaller settlements, suggesting famine and depopulation, and foreign goods have not been found at archaeological sites, suggesting minimum international trade. Contact was also lost between foreign powers during this period, yielding little cultural progress or growth of any sort. Kings ruled throughout this period until eventually they were replaced with an aristocracy, then still later, in some areas, an aristocracy within an aristocracy&mdash;an elite of the elite. Warfare shifted from a focus on cavalry to a great emphasis on infantry. Due to its cheapness of production and local availability, iron replaced bronze as the metal of choice in the manufacturing of tools and weapons. Slowly equality grew among the different sects of people, leading to the dethronement of the various Kings and the rise of the family. Families began to reconstruct their past in attempts to link their bloodlines with heroes from the [[Trojan War]], more specifically [[Heracles]]. While most of this was legend, some were sorted by poets of the school of [[Hesiod]]. Most of these poems are lost, though, but some famous "storywriters", as they were called, were [[Hecataeus of Miletus]] and [[Acusilaus]] of [[Argos]]. It is thought that the epics by [[Homer]] contain a certain amount of tradition preserved orally during the Dark Ages period. The historical validity of Homer's writings is vigorously disputed; see the article on [[Troy]] for a discussion. At the end of this period of stagnation, the Greek civilization was engulfed in a renaissance that spread the Greek world as far as the [[Black Sea]] and [[Spain]]. Writing was relearned from the [[Phoenicians]], eventually spreading north into [[Italy]] and the [[Gauls]]. == Ancient Greece == {{main|Ancient Greece}} [[Image:Cape Sounion AC.JPG|thumb||fruit|[[Cape Sounion]] in Attica, looking out to the Aegean islands.]] There are no fixed or universally agreed dates for the beginning or the end of the Ancient/Classical Greek period. In common usage it refers to all Greek history before the [[Roman Empire]], but historians use the term more precisely. Some writers include the periods of the [[Minoan civilization|Minoan]] and [[History of Mycenaean Greece|Mycenaean]] civilizations, while others argue that these civilizations were so different from later Greek cultures that they should be classed separately. Traditionally, the Ancient Greek period was taken to begin with the date of the first [[Olympic Games]] in [[776 BC]], but most historians now extend the term back to about [[1000 BC]]. The traditional date for the end of the Ancient Greek period is the death of [[Alexander the Great]] in [[323 BC]]. The following period is classed as [[History of Hellenistic Greece|Hellenistic]]. Not everyone treats the Ancient and Hellenic periods as distinct, however, and some writers treat the Ancient Greek civilization as a continuum running until the advent of [[Christianity]] in the [[third century]] AD. Ancient Greece is considered by most historians to be the foundational culture of [[Western world|Western Civilization]]. Greek culture was a powerful influence in the [[Roman Empire]], which carried a version of it to many parts of [[Europe]]. Ancient Greek civilization has been immensely influential on the language, politics, educational systems, philosophy, art and architecture of the modern world, particularly during the [[Renaissance]] in Western Europe and again during various [[Classicism|neo-Classical]] revivals in [[18th century|18th]] and [[19th century]] Europe and [[The Americas]]. The basic unit of politics in Ancient Greece was the [[polis]], sometimes translated as [[city-state]]. "Politics" literally means "the things of the polis." Each city was independent, at least in theory. Some cities might be subordinate to others (a colony traditionally deferred to its mother city), some might have had governments wholly dependent upon others (the [[Thirty Tyrants]] in [[Athens]] was imposed by [[Sparta]] following the [[Peloponnesian War]]), but the titularly supreme power in each city was located within that city. This meant that when Greece went to war (e.g., against the [[Persian Empire]]), it took the form of an alliance going to war. It also gave ample opportunity for wars within Greece between different cities. Most of the Greek names known to modern readers flourished in this age. Among the poets, [[Homer]], [[Hesiod]], [[Pindar]], [[Aeschylus]], [[Sophocles]], [[Euripides]], [[Aristophanes]], and [[Sappho]] were active. Famous politicians include [[Themistocles]], [[Pericles]], [[Lysander]], [[Epaminondas]], [[Alcibiades]], [[Philip II of Macedon]], and his son [[Alexander the Great]]. [[Plato]] wrote, as did [[Aristotle]], [[Heraclitus of Ephesus]], [[Parmenides]], [[Democritus]], [[Herodotus]], [[Thucydides]] and [[Xenophon]]. Almost all of the mathematical knowledge formalized in [[Euclid]]'s ''[[Euclid's Elements|Elements]]'' at the beginning of the Hellenistic period was developed in this era. Two major wars shaped the Ancient Greek world. The [[Greco-Persian Wars|Persian Wars]] (500&ndash;448 BC) are recounted in [[Herodotus]]'s ''[[The Histories of Herodotus|Histories]]''. [[Ionia]]n Greek cities [[Ionian Revolt|revolted]] from the [[Persian Empire]] and were supported by some of the mainland cities, eventually led by [[History of Athens|Athens]]. (The notable battles of this war include [[Battle of Marathon|Marathon]], [[Battle of Thermopylae|Thermopylae]], [[Battle of Salamis|Salamis]], and [[Battle of Plataea|Plataea]].) In order to prosecute the war, and subsequently to defend Greece from further Persian attack, Athens founded the [[Delian League]] in [[477 BC]]. Initially, each city in the League would contribute ships and soldiers to a common army, but in time Athens allowed (and then compelled) the smaller cities to contribute funds so that it could supply their quota of ships. Revolution from the League could be punished. Following military reversals against the Persians, the treasury was moved from [[Delos]] to Athens, further strengthening the latter's control over the League. The Delian League was eventually referred to pejoratively as the Athenian Empire. In 458 BC, while the Persian Wars were still ongoing, war broke out between the Delian League and the [[Peloponnesian League]], comprising [[Sparta]] and its allies. After some inconclusive fighting, the two sides signed a peace in [[447 BC]]. That peace, it was stipulated, was to last thirty years: instead it held only until [[431 BC]], with the onset of the [[Peloponnesian War]]. Our main sources concerning this war are [[Thucydides]]'s ''[[History of the Peloponnesian War]]'' and [[Xenophon]]'s ''[[Hellenica (Xenophon)|Hellenica]]''. The war began over a dispute between [[Corcyra]] and [[Epidamnus]]; the latter was a minor enough city that Thucydides has to tell his reader where it is. [[Corinth]] intervened on the Epidamnian side. Fearful lest Corinth capture the Corcyran navy (second only to the Athenian in size), Athens intervened. It prevented Corinth from landing on Corcyra at the [[Battle of Sybota]], laid siege to [[Battle of Potidaea|Potidaea]], and forbade all commerce with Corinth's closely situated ally, [[Megara]] (the [[Megarian decree]]). There was disagreement among the Greeks as to which party violated the treaty between the Delian and Peloponnesian Leagues, as Athens was technically defending a new ally. The Corinthians begged Sparta for aid. Fearing the growing might of Athens, and witnessing Athens' willingness to use it against the Megarians (the embargo would have ruined them), Sparta declared the treaty to have been violated and the Peloponnesian War began in earnest. The first stage of the war (known as the Archidamian War for the Spartan king, [[Archidamus II]]) lasted until [[421 BC]] with the signing of the [[Peace of Nicias]]. The Athenian general [[Pericles]] recommended that his city fight a defensive war, avoiding battle against the superior land forces led by Sparta, and importing everything needful by maintaining its powerful navy: Athens would simply outlast Sparta, whose citizens feared to be out of their city for long lest the [[helots]] revolt. This strategy required that Athens endure regular [[siege]]s, and in [[430 BC]] it was visited with an awful [[Plague of Athens|plague]] which killed approximately a quarter of its people, including Pericles. With Pericles gone, less conservative elements gained power in the city and Athens went on the offensive. It captured 300&ndash;400 Spartan [[hoplite]]s at the [[Battle of Pylos]]. This represented a significant fraction of the Spartan fighting force which the latter decided it could not afford to lose. Meanwhile, Athens had suffered humiliating defeats at [[Battle of Delium|Delium]] and [[Battle of Amphipolis|Amphipolis]]. The Peace of Nicias concluded with Sparta recovering its hostages and Athens recovering the city of [[Amphipolis]]. Those who signed the Peace of Nicias in 421 BC swore to uphold it for fifty years. The second stage of the Peloponnesian War began in [[415 BC]] when Athens embarked on the [[Sicilian Expedition]] to support an ally ([[Segesta]]) attacked by [[Syracuse, Italy|Syracuse]] and to conquer [[Sicily]]. Initially, Sparta was not going to aid its ally, but [[Alcibiades]], the Athenian general who had argued for the Sicilian Expedition, defected to the Spartan cause upon being accused of grossly impious acts and convinced them that they could not allow Athens to subjugate Syracuse. The campaign ended in disaster for the Athenians. Athens' Ionian possessions rebelled with the support of Sparta, as advised by Alcibiades. In [[411 BC]], an oligarchical revolt in Athens held out the chance for peace, but the Athenian navy, which remained committed to the democracy, refused to accept the change and continued fighting in Athens' name. The navy recalled Alcibiades (who had been forced to abandon the Spartan cause after reputedly seducing the wife of [[Agis II]], a Spartan king) and made him its head. The oligarchy in Athens collapsed and Alcibiades proceeded to reconquer what had been lost. In [[407 BC]], Alcibiades was replaced following a minor naval defeat at the [[Battle of Notium]]. The Spartan general [[Lysander]], having fortified his city's naval power, won victory after victory. Following the [[Battle of Arginusae]], which Athens won but was prevented by bad weather from rescuing some of its sailors, Athens executed or exiled eight of its top naval commanders. Lysander followed with a crushing blow at the [[Battle of Aegospotami]] in [[405 BC]] which virtually destroyed the Athenian fleet. Athens surrendered one year later, ending the Peloponnesian War. The war had left devastation in its wake. Discontent with the Spartan hegemony that followed (including the fact that it ceded [[Ionia]] and [[Cyprus]] to the [[Persian Empire]] at the conclusion of the [[Corinthian War]] (395&ndash;387 BC); see [[Treaty of Antalcidas]]) induced the [[Thebes, Greece|Thebans]] to attack. Their general, [[Epaminondas]], crushed Sparta at the [[Battle of Leuctra]] in [[371 BC]], inaugurating a period of Theban dominance in Greece. In [[346 BC]], unable to prevail in its ten year war with [[Phocis]], Thebes called upon [[Philip II of Macedon]] for aid. [[Macedon]] quickly conquered the exhausted cites of Greece. The basic unit of politics from that point was the [[empire]], and the Hellenistic Age had begun. == Hellenistic Greece == {{main|Hellenistic Greece}} [[Image:Philip V of Macedon.jpg|thumb|200px|Philip V of Macedon, "the darling of Hellas", wearing the [[monarchy|royal]] [[diadem (personal wear)|diadem]].]] The Hellenistic period of Greek history begins with the death of [[Alexander the Great]] in [[323 BC]] and ends with the [[annexation]] of the Greek peninsula and islands by [[Roman Republic|Rome]] in [[146 BC]]. Although the establishment of Roman rule did not break the continuity of Hellenistic society and culture, which remained essentially unchanged until the advent of [[Christianity]], it did mark the end of Greek political independence. During the Hellenistic period the importance of "Greece proper" (that is, the territory of modern Greece) within the Greek-speaking world declined sharply. The great centres of Hellenistic culture were [[Alexandria]] and [[Antioch]], capitals of [[Ptolemaic Egypt]] and [[Seleucid Empire|Seleucid Syria]] respectively. (See [[Hellenistic civilization]] for the history of Greek culture outside of Greece in this period.) [[Image:Stoa in Athens.jpg|thumb|300px|The restored [[Stoa of Attalos|Stoa of Attalus]], [[Athens]].]] Athens and her allies revolted against [[Macedon]] upon hearing that Alexander had died, but were defeated within a year in the [[Lamian War]]. Meanwhile, a struggle for power broke out among Alexander's generals, which resulted in the break-up of his empire and the establishment of a number of new kingdoms (see the [[Wars of the Diadochi]]). [[Ptolemy I Soter|Ptolemy]] was left with [[Egypt]], [[Seleucus I Nicator|Seleucus]] with the [[Levant]], [[Mesopotamia]], and points east. Control of Greece, [[Thrace]], and [[Anatolia]] was contested, but by [[298 BC]] the [[Antigonid dynasty]] had supplanted the [[Antipatrid dynasty|Antipatrid]]. Macedonian control of the Greek city-states was intermittent, with a number of revolts. [[Athens]], [[Rhodes]], [[Pergamum]] and other Greek states retained substantial independence, and joined the [[Aetolian League]] as a means of defending it. The [[Achaean League]], while nominally subject to the [[Ptolemaic dynasty|Ptolemies]] was in effect independent, and controlled most of southern Greece. [[Sparta]] also remained independent, but generally refused to join any league. In [[267 BC]] [[Ptolemy II]] persuaded the Greek cities to revolt against Macedon, in what became the [[Chremonidean War]], after the Athenian leader [[Chremonides]]. The cities were defeated and Athens lost her independence and her democratic institutions. This marked the end of Athens as a political actor, although it remained the largest, wealthiest and most cultivated city in Greece. In [[255 BC|225]] Macedon defeated the Egyptian fleet at [[Kos|Cos]] and brought the [[Aegean Sea|Aegean]] islands, except Rhodes, under its rule as well. [[Sparta]] remained hostile to the Achaeans, and in [[227 BC]] invaded [[Achaea]] and seized control of the League. The remaining Acheans preferred distant Macedon to nearby Sparta, and allied with the former. In [[222 BC]] the Macedonian army defeated the Spartans and annexed their city&mdash;the first time Sparta had ever been occupied by a foreign power. [[Philip V of Macedon]] was the last Greek ruler with both the talent and the opportunity to unite Greece and preserve its independence against the ever-increasing power of [[Roman Republic|Rome]]. Under his auspices the [[Peace of Naupactus]] ([[217 BC]]) brought conflict between Macedon and the Greek leagues to an end, and at this time he controlled all of Greece except Athens, Rhodes and Pergamum. In [[215 BC]], however, Philip formed an alliance with Rome's enemy [[Carthage]]. Rome promptly lured the Achaean cities away from their nominal loyalty to Philip, and formed alliances with Rhodes and Pergamum, now the strongest power in [[Asia Minor]]. The [[First Macedonian War]] broke out in [[212 BC|212]], and ended inconclusively in [[205 BC|205]], but Macedon was now marked as an enemy of Rome. In [[202 BC]] Rome defeated Carthage, and was free to turn her attention eastwards. In [[198 BC|198]] the [[Second Macedonian War]] broke out for obscure reasons, but basically because Rome saw Macedon as a potential ally of the [[Seleucid Empire|Seleucids]], the greatest power in the east. Philip's allies in Greece deserted him and in [[197 BC|197]] he was decisively defeated at the [[Battle of Cynoscephalae]] by the Roman proconsul [[Titus Quinctius Flaminius]]. Luckily for the Greeks, Flaminius was a moderate man and an admirer of Greek culture. Philip had to surrender his fleet and become a Roman ally, but was otherwise spared. At the [[Isthmian Games]] in [[196 BC|196]], Flaminius declared all the Greek cities free, although Roman garrisons were placed at Corinth and [[Chalcis]]. But the freedom promised by Rome was an illusion. All the cities except Rhodes were enrolled in a new League which Rome ultimately controlled, and aristocratic constitutions were favoured and actively promoted. ==Roman Greece== {{main|Roman Greece}} Militarily Greece itself declined to the point that the [[Roman Republic|Romans]] conquered the land ([[187 BC]] onwards), though Greek culture would in turn conquer Roman life. Although the period of Roman rule in Greece is conventionally dated as starting from the sacking of [[Corinth]] by the Roman [[Lucius Mummius]] in 123 BC, Macedonia had already come under Roman control with the defeat of its king, [[Perseus]], by the Roman [[Aemilius Paullus]] at [[Pydna]] in 168 BC. The Rubens divided the region into four smaller republics, and in 146 BC Macedonia officially became a Roman province, with its capital at [[Thessalonica]]. The rest of the Greek [[city-states]] gradually and eventually paid homage to Rome ending their ''de jure'' autonomy as well. The Romans left local administration to the [[Greeks]] without making any attempt to abolish traditional political patterns. The [[agora]] in [[Athens]] continued to be the centre of civic and political life. Pedi's decree in 212 AD, the [[Constitutio Antoniniana]], extended citizenship outside of [[Italy]] to all free adult males in the entire [[Roman Empire]], effectively raising provincial populations to equal status with the city of [[Rome]] itself. The importance of this decree is historical rather than political. It set the basis for integration where the economic and judicial mechanisms of the state could be applied throughout the entire Mediterranean as was once done from Latium into all of Italy. In practice of course, integration did not take place uniformly. Societies already integrated with Rome, such as Greece, were favored by this decree, in comparison with those far away, too poor or just too alien such as Britain, Palestine or Egypt. Caracalla's decree did not set in motion the processes that led to the transfer of power from Italy and the West to Greece and the East, but rather accelerated them, setting the foundations for the rise of Greece as a major power in [[Europe]] and the [[Mediterranean]] in the [[Middle Ages]]. == Byzantine Empire == {{main|Byzantine Empire|Roman and Byzantine Greece}} The history of the Byzantine Empire is described by scholar August Heisenberg as the history "of the Roman state of the Greek nation, that turned Christian". The division of the empire into East and West and the subsequent collapse of the [[Western Roman Empire]] were developments that constantly accentuated the position of the Greeks in the empire and eventually allowed them to become identified with it altogether. The leading role of [[Constantinople]] began when [[Constantine the Great]] turned [[Byzantium]] into the new capital of the Roman Empire, henceforth to be known as [[Constantinople]], placing the city at the center of Hellenism a beacon for the [[Greeks]] that lasted to the modern era. [[Image:Theodora mosaik ravenna.jpg|thumb|right|300px|[[Empress Theodora]] and her retinue (mosaic from [[Basilica of San Vitale]], [[Ravenna]], 6th century).]] The figures of [[Constantine the Great]] and [[Justinian I|Justinian]] dominated during 324&ndash;610. Assimilating the Roman tradition, the emperors sought to provide the basis for subsequent developments and for the formation of the Byzantine Empire. Efforts to secure the borders of the Empire and to restore the Roman territories marked the early centuries. At the same time, the definitive formation and establishment of the [[Orthodox]] doctrine, but also a series of conflicts resulting from heresies that developed within the boundaries of the empire marked the early period of Byzantine history. In the first period of the middle Byzantine era (610&ndash;867) the empire was attacked both by old enemies ([[Persians]], [[Langobards]], [[Eurasian Avars|Avars]] and [[Slavs]]) as well as by new ones, appearing for the first time in history ([[Arabs]], [[Bulgarians]]). The main characteristic of this period was that the enemy attacks were not localized to the border areas of the state but they were extended deep beyond, even threatening the capital itself. At the same time, these attacks lost their periodical and temporary character and became permanent settlements that transformed into new states, hostile to Byzantium. Those states were referred by the Byzantines as ''[[Sclavinia]]s''. Changes were also observed in the internal structure of the empire which was dictated by both external and internal conditions. The predominance of the small free farmers, the expansion of the military estates and the development of the system of [[theme (Byzantine administrative unit)|theme]]s, brought to completion developments that had started in the previous period. Changes were noted also in the sector of administration: the administration and society had become immiscibly [[Greeks|Greek]], while the restoration of [[Orthodox]] after the [[iconoclasm|iconoclast]] movement, allowed the successful resumption of missionary action among neighboring peoples and their placement within the sphere of Byzantine cultural influence. During this period the state was geographically reduced and economically damaged, since it lost wealth-producing regions; however, it obtained greater lingual, dogmatic and cultural homogeneity. From the late 8th century, the Empire began to recover from the devastating impact of successive invasions, and the reconquest of Greece began. Greeks from [[Sicily]] and [[Asia Minor]] were brought in as settlers. The [[Slavs]] were either driven out or assimilated and the Sclavinias were eliminated. By the middle of the 9th century, Greece was Greek again, and the cities began to recover due to improved security and the restoration of effective central control. ===Economic prosperity=== When the Byzantine Empire was rescued from a period of crisis by the resolute leadership of the three [[Komnenos|Komnenoi]] emperors [[Alexios I Komnenos|Alexios]], [[John II Komnenos|John]] and [[Manuel I Komnenos|Manuel]] in the twelfth century, Greece prospered. Recent research has revealed that this period was a time of significant growth in the rural economy, with rising population levels and extensive tracts of new agricultural land being brought into production. The widespread construction of new rural churches is a strong indication that prosperity was being generated even in remote areas. A steady increase in population led to a higher population density, and there is good evidence that the demographic increase was accompanied by the revival of towns. According to Alan Harvey in his book ‘’Economic expansion in the Byzantine Empire 900-1200’’, towns expanded significantly in the twelfth century. Archaeological evidence shows an increase in the size of urban settlements, together with a ‘notable upsurge’ in new towns. Archaeological evidence tells us that many of the medieval towns, including [[Athens]], [[Thessaloniki]], [[Thebes, Greece|Thebes]] and [[Corinth]], experienced a period of rapid and sustained growth, starting in the eleventh century and continuing until the end of the twelfth century. The growth of the towns attracted the [[Venice|Venetians]], and this interest in trade appears to have further increased economic prosperity in Greece. Certainly, the Venetians and others were active traders in the ports of the [[Holy Land]], and they made a living out of shipping goods between the [[Crusader states|Crusader]] Kingdoms of [[Outremer]] and the West while also trading extensively with Byzantium and [[Egypt]]. ===Artistic revival=== The 11th and 12th centuries are said to be the Golden Age of [[Byzantine art]] in Greece. Many of the most important Byzantine churches in around Athens, for example, were built during these two centuries, and this reflects the growth of urbanisation in Greece during this period. There was also a revival in the mosaic art with artists showing great interest in depicting natural landscapes with wild animals and scenes from the hunt. Mosaics became more realistic and vivid, with an increased emphasis on depicting three-dimensional forms. With its love of luxury and passion for color, the art of this age delighted in the production of masterpieces that spread the fame of Byzantium throughout the whole of the Christian world. [[Image:Athens Church.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Byzantine Church in the Agora, Athens]] Beautiful silks from the work-shops of Constantinople also portrayed in dazzling color animals - lions, elephants, eagles, and griffins - confronting each other, or representing Emperors gorgeously arrayed on horseback or engaged in the chase. The eyes of many patrons were attracted and the economy of Greece grew. In the provinces, regional schools of Architecture began producing many distinctive styles that drew on a range of cultural influences. All this suggests that there was an increased demand for art, with more people having access to the necessary wealth to commission and pay for such work. Yet the marvelous expansion of Byzantine art during this period, one of the most remarkable facts in the history of the empire, did not stop there. From the tenth to the twelfth century Byzantium was the main source of inspiration for the West. By their style, arrangement, and iconography the mosaics of St. Mark's at Venice and of the cathedral at Torcello clearly reveal their Byzantine origin. Similarly those of the Palatine Chapel, the Martorana at Palermo, and the cathedral of Cefalu, together with the vast decoration of the cathedral at Monreale, demonstrate the influence of Byzantium οn the Norman Court of Sicily in the twelfth century. Hispano-Moorish art was unquestionably derived from the Byzantine. Romanesque art owes much to the East, from which it borrowed not only its decorative forms but the plan of some of its buildings, as is proved, for instance, by the domed churches of south-western France. Princes of Kiev, Venetian doges, abbots of Monte Casino, merchants of Amalfi, and the Norman kings of Sicily all looked to Byzantium for artists or works of art. Such was the influence of Byzantine art in the twelfth century, that Russia, Venice, southern Italy and Sicily all virtually became provincial centers dedicated to its production. ===The Fourth Crusade=== {{main|Fourth Crusade}} The year [[1204]] marks the beginning of the late Byzantine period, when probably the most important event for the Empire occurred. [[Constantinople]] was lost for the Greek people for the first time, and the empire was conquered by [[Latin]] crusaders and would be replaced by a new [[Latin Empire|Latin]] one, for 57 years. In addition, the period of Latin occupation decisively influenced the empire's internal development, as elements of feudality entered aspects of Byzantine life. In [[1261]] the Greek empire was divided between the former Greek Byzantine [[Comnenos]] dynasty members (Epirus) and [[Palaiologos]] dynasty (the last dynasty until the fall of Constantinople). After the gradual weakening of the structures of the Greek Byzantine state and the reduction of its land from [[Ottoman Empire|Turkish]] invasions, came the fall of the Greek Byzantine Empire, at the hands of the [[Ottomans]], in 1453, when the Byzantine period is considered to have ended. It must be pointed out that the term "Byzantine" is a contemporary one established by historians. People used to call the Empire from the 10th century on as the Greek Empire as well as Romeo-Greek before that time; that's why Greeks call themselves sometimes as Romioi in a colloquial form. The Romeo term was used sometimes because of the legal tradition left in many aspects of the political administration of the Empire. It must also be added that many empires all around Europe had been using this term, in addition to the Greek Byzantines, like the [[Carolingians]], or the Heiliges Römisches Reich (Latin Sacrum Romanum Imperium) of the [[Germans]] looking themselves as the legitimate heirs of the Roman Empire. ==Ottoman rule== {{main|Ottoman Greece|History of Modern Greece}} [[Image:Navarino.jpg|thumb|left|250px|The [[Battle of Navarino]], in October 1827, marked the effective end of Ottoman rule in Greece.]] When the [[Ottomans]] arrived, two Greek migrations occurred. The first migration entailed the Greek [[intelligentsia]] migrating to Western Europe and influencing the advent of the Renaissance. The second migration entailed Greeks leaving the plains of the Greek peninsula and resettling in the mountains.<ref>Vacalopoulos, p. 45. ''The Greeks never lost their desire to escape from the heavy hand of the Turks, bad government, the impressment of their children, the increasingly heavy taxation, and the sundry caprices of the conqueror. Indeed, anyone studying the last two centuries of Byzantine rule cannot help being struck by the propensity of the Greeks to flee misfortune. The routes they chiefly took were: first, to the predominantly Greek territories, which were either still free or Frankish-controlled (that is to say, the Venetian fortresses in the Despotate of Morea, as well as in the Aegean and Ionian Islands) or else to Italy and the West generally; second, to remote mountain districts in the interior where the conqueror's yoke was not yet felt.''</ref> The [[millet system]] contributed to the ethnic cohesion of Orthodox Greeks by segregating the various peoples within the Ottoman Empire based on religion. The Greek Orthodox Church, an ethno-religious institution, helped the Greeks from all geographical areas of the peninsula (i.e., mountains, plains, and islands) to preserve their ethnic, cultural, and linguistic heritage during the years of Ottoman rule. The Greeks living in the plains during Ottoman occupation were either Christians who dealt with the burdens of foreign rule or Crypto-Christians (Greek Muslims who were secret practitioners of the Greek Orthodox faith). Many Greeks became [[Crypto-Christians]] in order to avoid heavy taxes and at the same time express their identity by maintaining their secret ties to the Greek Orthodox Church. However, Greeks who converted to [[Islam]] and were not Crypto-Christians were deemed Turks in the eyes of Orthodox Greeks, even if they didn't adopt Turkish language. ==Modern Greek state == {{main|History of Modern Greece}} [[Image:Carte grece 1843.jpg|thumb|150px|left|Greece in 1843 after independence.]] [[Image:Greekhistory.GIF|thumb|400px|right|The expansion of Greece from 1832 to 1947, showing territories awarded to Greece by the Treaty of Sèvres but lost in 1923 under the Treaty of Lausanne (click to enlarge).]] The Ottomans ruled Greece until the early [[19th century]]. On March 25, [[1821]] (also the same day as the Greek Orthodox day of the [[March 25 (Eastern Orthodox liturgics)|Annunciation of the Theotokos]]), the Greeks [[Greek War of Independence|rebelled and declared their independence]], but did not achieve it until [[1829]]. The big European powers saw the war of Greek independence, with its accounts of Turkish [[wiktionary:atrocity|atrocities]], in a romantic light (see, for example, the [[1824]] painting ''Massacre of [[Chios]]'' by [[Eugène Delacroix]]). Scores of non-Greeks volunteered to fight for the cause, including [[Lord Byron]]. At times the Ottomans seemed on the point of suppressing the Greek revolution but for the threatened direct military intervention of [[France]], [[ukgbi|Britain]] or [[Russia]]. The Russian minister for foreign affairs, [[Ioannis Kapodistrias]], himself a Greek, returned home as President of the new Republic following Greek independence. That republic disappeared when the European powers helped turn Greece into a monarchy; the first king, [[Otto of Greece|Otto]] came from [[Bavaria]] and the second, [[George I of Greece|George I]] from [[Denmark]]. During the 19th and early [[20th century|20th]] centuries, in a series of wars with the Ottomans, Greece sought to enlarge its boundaries to include the ethnic Greek population of the Ottoman Empire. (The [[Ionian Islands]] were returned by Britain upon the arrival of the new king from Denmark in 1863, and [[Thessaly]] was ceded by the Ottomans without a fight). As a result of the [[Balkan Wars]] of 1912-13 [[Epirus (region)|Epirus]], southern [[Macedonia (region)|Macedonia]], [[Crete]] and the [[Aegean Islands]] were annexed into Greece. Greece reached its present configuration in [[1947]]. ===World War I, Greco-Turkish War, and the League of Nations=== In [[World War I]], Greece sided with the [[Triple Entente|entente]] powers against [[Ottoman Empire|Turkey]] and the other [[Central Powers]]. In the war's aftermath, the Great Powers awarded parts of [[Asia Minor]] to Greece, including the city of [[Smyrna]] (known as [[İzmir]] today) which had a Greek population of significant size. At that time, however, the Turkish nationalists led by [[Kemal Atatürk|Mustafa Kemal Atatürk]], overthrew the Ottoman government, organised a military assault on the Greek troops, and defeated them. Immediately afterwards, over one million native Greeks of Turkey had to leave for Greece as a [[Population exchange between Greece and Turkey|population exchange]] with hundreds of thousands of Muslims then living in the Greek state (see [[Greco-Turkish War (1919-1922)|Greco-Turkish War of 1919-1922]]). In [[1923]], the [[League of Nations]] failed Greece during the "[[Corfu incident]]." Italian dictator [[Benito Mussolini]] was allowed to exercise undue influence in this territorial conflict between Greece and [[Albania]]. In [[1925]], Greece and [[Bulgaria]] faced off during the "[[The incident at Petrich|incident at Petrich]]." Unlike Corfu, resolution of this conflict was a League of Nations' success. ===World War II=== Despite the country's numerically small and ill-equipped armed forces, Greece made a decisive contribution to the [[Allies|Allied]] efforts in [[World War II]]. At the start of the war Greece sided with the Allies and refused to give in to Italian demands. [[Italy]] invaded Greece on [[28 October]] [[1940]], but Greek troops repelled the invaders after a bitter struggle (see [[Greco-Italian War]]). This marked the first Allied victory in the war. Primarily to secure his strategic southern flank, German dictator [[Adolf Hitler]] reluctantly stepped in and launched the [[Battle of Greece]]. Troops from [[Germany]], [[Bulgaria]], and [[Italy]] successfully invaded Greece, overcoming Greek, British, [[Australian]], and [[New Zealand]] units. On [[May 20]] [[1941]], the Germans attempted to [[Battle of Crete|seize Crete]] in a massive attack by [[paratroop]]s&mdash;with the aim of reducing the threat of a counter-offensive by Allied forces in [[Egypt]]&mdash;but faced heavy resistance. The Greek campaign delayed German military plans against Russia and it is argued that German invasion of the [[Soviet Union]] started on the 22nd of June instead of the planed 20th of May. The heavy losses lead the Germans to launch no further large-scale air-invasions. During the years of [[Occupation of Greece by Nazi Germany]], thousands of Greeks died in direct combat, in concentration camps or of starvation. The occupiers murdered the greater part of the [[Jewish]] community despite efforts by the [[Church of Greece|Greek Orthodox]] Church and many [[Christian]] Greeks to shelter Jews. The economy was devastated. ===Greek Civil War=== The [[Greek Civil War]] ({{lang-el|Eμφύλιος πόλεμος ''Emfilios polemos''}}), was fought between [[1944]] and [[1949]] in [[Greece]] between the Governmental forces of Greece supported by the [[United Kingdom]] at first, and later by the [[USA]], and the [[Democratic Army of Greece]]; the military branch of the Greek communist party. According to some analysts, it represented the first example of a post-[[World War II|war]] West interference in the political situation of a foreign country.<ref name= Noam&Chomsky>{{cite book|last=Chomsky|first=Noam|title=''World Orders, Old And New''|publishers=Pluto Press London|date= 1994}}</ref> The victory of the British - and later US-supported government forces led to Greece's membership in [[NATO]] and helped to define the ideological balance of power in the [[Aegean Sea|Aegean]] for the entire [[Cold War]]. The civil war consisted on one side of the armed forces of the postwar non-marxist Greek administrations, and on the other, communist-led forces, and key members of the former [[resistance movement|resistance]] organization ([[National People's Liberation Army (Greece)|ELAS]]), the leadership of which was controlled by the [[Communist Party of Greece]] (KKE). The first phase of the civil war occurred in [[1942]]-[[1944]]. Marxist and non-marxist resistance groups fought each other in a fratricidal conflict to establish the leadership of the Greek resistance movement. In the second phase ([[1944]]) the ascendant communists, in military control of most of Greece, confronted the returning Greek [[government in exile]], which had been formed under Western Allied auspices in [[Cairo]] and originally included six KKE-affiliated ministers. In the third phase (commonly called the "Third Round" by the Communists) ([[1946]]-[[1949]]), guerrilla forces controlled by [[KKE]] fought against the internationally recognized Greek Government which was formed after elections boycotted by KKE. Although the involvement of [[KKE]] in the uprisings was universally known, the party remained legal until 1948, continuing to coordinate attacks from its [[Athens]] offices until [[proscription]]. The civil war left Greece with a legacy of political polarization; as a result, Greece also entered into alliance with the United States and joined NATO, while relationships with its Communist northern neighbours, both pro-Soviet and neutral, became strained. ===Postwar recovery=== In the [[1950s]] and [[1960s]], Greece developed rapidly, initially with the help of the U.S. [[Marshall Plan|Marshall]] Plans' grants and loans, and later through growth in the [[tourism]] sector. In [[1967]], the Greek military seized power in a [[coup d'état]], overthrew the centre right government of [[Panagiotis Kanellopoulos]] and established the [[Greek military junta of 1967-1974]] which became known as the ''Régime of the Colonels''. The [[Central Intelligence Agency]] was involved in the coup and [[Bill Clinton|President Clinton]] later apologized for the interference. Also taking part in the 1967 coup was a secret army network called "LOK" set up by NATO as a "stay behind" guerrilla army.<ref>[http://www.danieleganser.ch/e/zeitungsartikel/pdf/Ganser_ISN_Gladio_Security_Watch_15.12.04.pdf Ganser, Daniele. "NATO's secret armies linked to terrorism?" ''ISN Security Watch'', 15 December 2004]</ref> In [[1973]], the régime abolished the [[Kings of Greece|Greek monarchy]]. In [[1974]], dictator [[George Papadopoulos|Papadopoulos]] denied help to the U.S. After a second coup that same year, Colonel [[Dimitrios Ioannides|Ioannides]] was appointed as the new head-of-state. Many hold Ioannides responsible for the coup against President [[Makarios]] of [[Cyprus]]&mdash;the ''coup'' seen as the pretext for the first wave of the [[Turkish invasion of Cyprus]] in [[1974]] (see [[Greco-Turkish relations]]). The Cyprus events and the outcry following a bloody suppression of [[Athens Polytechnic uprising]] in [[Athens]] led to the implosion of the military régime. An exiled politician, [[Konstantinos Karamanlis]], returned from [[Paris]] and became interim prime minister on [[July 23]], [[1974]]<ref>[http://www.nato.int/docu/update/70-79/1974e.htm NATO Update 1974]</ref> and later gained re-election for two further terms at the head of the [[Conservatism|conservative]] [[Nea Dimokratia]] party. On the [[August 14]], [[1974]], Greek forces withdrew from the integrated military structure of NATO in protest at the Turkish occupation of northern Cyprus.<ref>[http://www.nato.int/docu/update/70-79/1974e.htm NATO Update 1974]</ref><ref>History, Editorial Consultant: Adam Hart-Davis, Dorling Kindersley Limited publisher, ISBN 9781856130622</ref> ===Restoration of democracy=== In [[1975]], following a referendum to confirm the deposition of King [[Constantine II of Greece|Constantine II]], a democratic republican constitution came into force. Another previously exiled politician, [[Andreas Papandreou]] also returned and founded the [[socialist]] [[PASOK]] party, which won the elections in [[1981]] and dominated the country's political course for almost two decades. Since the restoration of democracy, the stability and economic prosperity of Greece have grown remarkably. Greece rejoined [[NATO]] in [[1980]].<ref>History, Editorial Consultant: Adam Hart-Davis, Dorling Kindersley Limited publisher, ISBN 9781856130622</ref> Greece joined the [[European Union]] in [[1981]] and adopted the [[euro]] as its currency in [[2001]]. New infrastructure, funds from the EU and growing revenues from tourism, shipping, services, light industry and the telecommunications industry have brought Greeks an unprecedented standard of living. Tensions continue to exist between Greece and [[Turkey]] over [[Cyprus]] and the delimitation of borders in the [[Aegean Sea]] but relations have considerably thawed following successive earthquakes&mdash;first in Turkey and then in Greece&mdash;and an outpouring of sympathy and generous assistance by ordinary Greeks and Turks. ==See also== {| |- style="vertical-align: top;" | * [[Ancient Greece]] * [[Byzantine Empire]] * [[Church of Greece]] * [[History of the Balkans]] * [[History of Europe]] * [[Minoan civilization]] * [[Aegean Sea]] * [[Mycenae]], [[Mycenaean language]], [[Linear B]] * [[Achaeans]] * [[Helladic]], [[Bronze Age]] * [[Ancient Olympic Games]] * [[Architecture of Ancient Greece]] * [[Art in Ancient Greece]] * [[Eleusinian Mysteries]] | * [[Fiction set in Ancient Greece]] * [[Greek literature]] * [[Greek mathematics]] * [[Greek philosophy]] * [[Greek theatre]] * [[Greek refugees]] * [[History of Athens]] * [[History of the Greek language]] * [[Homosexuality in the militaries of ancient Greece]] * [[List of ancient Greeks]] * [[List of ancient Greek cities]] * [[Timeline of Ancient Greece]] * [[Timeline of modern Greek history]] * [[Timeline of Greek history]] |} ==References== * {{cite book | author= [[John Chadwick|Chadwick, John]]| title=The Mycenaean World | publisher=[[Cambridge University Press|Cambridge UP]] | year=1976 | id=ISBN 0-521-29037-6}} * {{cite book | author= Mountjoy, P.A. | title=Mycenaean Decorated Pottery: A Guide to Identification | publisher=Studies in Mediterranean Archaeology 73. [[Göteborg]]: Paul Åströms Forlag | year=1986 | id=ISBN 91-86098-32-2}} * {{cite book | author=Mylonas, George E. | title=Mycenae and the Mycenaean Age | publisher=[[Princeton University Press|Princeton UP]] | year=1966 | id=ISBN 0-691-03523-7}} * Podzuweit, Christian (1982). "Die mykenische Welt und [[Troy|Troja]]". In: B. Hänsel (ed.), ''Südosteuropa zwischen 1600 und 1000 v. Chr.'', 65-88. * {{cite book | author= Taylour, Lord William| title=The Mycenaeans | publisher=Revised edition (1990). London: [[Thames & Hudson]] | year=1964 | id=ISBN 0-500-27586-6}} *[[Joachim Latacz|Latacz, J.]] ''Between [[Troy]] and [[Homer]]. The so-called Dark Ages in Greece'', in: Storia, Poesia e Pensiero nel Mondo antico. Studi in Onore di M. Gigante, [[Rome]], [[1994]] *Vacalopoulos, Apostolis. ''The Greek Nation, 1453-1669''. Rutgers University Press, 1976. ==Footnotes== {{reflist}} ==External links== *[http://projectsx.dartmouth.edu/classics/history/bronze_age/index.html Jeremy B. Rutter, "The Prehistoric Archaeology of the Aegean"]: chronology, history, bibliography *[http://eudocs.lib.byu.edu/index.php/History_of_Greece:_Primary_Documents History of Greece: Primary Documents] * [http://www.ahistoryofgreece.com/ A short history of Greece] {{History of Europe}} [[Category:History of Greece| ]] [[Category:National histories|Greece]] [[Category:Governments in exile during World War II]] [[ar:تاريخ اليونان]] [[cy:Hanes Groeg]] [[de:Geschichte Griechenlands]] [[el:Ελληνική ιστορία]] [[es:Historia de Grecia]] [[eu:Greziako historia]] [[fr:Histoire de la Grèce]] [[hr:Povijest stare Grčke]] [[it:Storia della Grecia]] [[he:היסטוריה של יוון]] [[la:Historia Graeca]] [[lt:Graikijos istorija]] [[jbo:xelso citri]] [[hu:Görögország történelme]] [[nl:Geschiedenis van Griekenland]] [[no:Hellas' historie]] [[pl:Historia Grecji]] [[pt:História da Grécia]] [[ro:Istoria Greciei]] [[ru:История Греции]] [[fi:Kreikan historia]] [[sv:Greklands historia]] [[uk:Історія Греції]] [[zh:希腊历史]]