History of Hinduism
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/* Hinduism in early Modern period */ the person who wrote this obviously has no idea
{{Hinduism small}}
[[Hinduism]] is an umbrella term for a wide variety of [[Hindu denominations|religious traditions]] native to [[Indian subcontinent|India]]. Historically, it encompasses the development of [[Religion in India]] since the [[Mauryan period]] as the [[decline of Buddhism in India]] from the 2nd century BCE gives rise to a religious mainstream reviving pre-Buddhist ([[Iron Age India|Iron Age]]) traditions, which in turn hark back to [[prehistoric religion]]s such as that of the Bronze Age [[Indus Valley Civilization]], that of [[Proto-Indo-Iranian]] culture, followed by the sacrificial [[Historical Vedic religion|Vedic religion]] of the [[Vedic priesthood|priestly elite]].
[[Hindu philosophy]] had six branches, evolving from about the 2nd century BCE to the 6th century CE, viz. [[Samkhya]], [[Raja Yoga|Yoga]], [[Nyaya]], [[Vaisheshika]], [[Mimamsa]], and [[Vedanta]]. [[Shaivism]] and [[Vaishnavism]] developed during this same period.
Classical [[Pauranic Hinduism]] is established in the Middle Ages, as was[[Adi Shankara]]'s [[Advaita Vedanta]] which reconciled the Vaishna and Shaiva sects, and gave rise to [[Smartism]], while initiating the decline of the non-Vedantic schools of philosophy.
Hinduism under the [[Islamic empires in India|Islamic Rulers]] saw the increasing prominence of the [[Bhakti movement]], which remains influential today. The [[Colonial India|colonial period]] saw the emergence of various [[Hindu reform movement]]s partly inspired as reactions against western civilization, including spiritism ([[Theosophy]]) and the [[national mysticism]] of the time. The [[Partition of India]] in 1947 was along religious lines, with the [[Republic of India]] emerging with a Hindu majority.
During the 20th century, due to the [[Indian diaspora]], Hindu minorities have formed in all continents, with the largest communities in the [[Hinduism in the United States|United States]] and the [[Hinduism in the United Kingdom|United Kingdom]]. In the Republic of India, [[Hindu nationalism]] has emerged as a strong political force since the 1980s, the [[religious right]] [[Bharatiya Janata Party]] even forming the [[Government of India]] from 1999 to 2004.
==Prehistory==
[[Image:Pashupati.gif|thumb|right|An Indus Valley seal showing the "[[pashupati]]" figure.]]
Evidence of [[prehistoric religion]] in India is found in the Bronze Age [[Indus Valley Civilization]], showing the certain elements of Hinduism such as [[baths]] (assumed to serve a ritual purpose) and [[phallus|phallic symbols]], compared to the [[Shiva lingam]]<ref>{{wikiref |id=Basham-1967 |text=Basham 1967}}</ref><ref
name=History>{{Cite web |url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/religion/religions/hinduism/history/history_1.shtml |title=Hindu History}}</ref>.
Many male and female figurines, the female figurines popularly dubbed "Mother Goddesses" have been found in the Indus Valley, although some have expressed doubt as to the divine character of these female figures.<ref> Clark, Sharri R. The social lives of figurines: recontextualizing the third millennium BC terracotta figurines from Harappa, Pakistan. Harvard PhD 2007</ref>
A seal discovered during excavation of the [[Mohenjodaro|Mohenjo-daro]] archaeological site in the [[Indus Valley Civilization|Indus Valley]] has drawn attention as a possible representation of a "yogi" or "proto-Shiva" figure.<ref>Flood (1996), pp. 28-29.</ref> This "[[Pashupati]]" (Lord of Animals, Sanskrit ''{{IAST|paśupati}}'')<ref>Marshall, Sir John, ''Mohenjo Daro and the Indus Civilization'', London 1931</ref><ref>For translation of ''{{IAST|paśupati}}'' as "Lord of Animals" see: Michaels, p. 312.</ref> seal shows a seated figure, possibly ithyphallic, surrounded by animals.<ref>For a drawing of the seal see Figure 1 ''in'': Flood (1996), p. 29.</ref><ref>Singh, S.P., ''Rgvedic Base of the Pasupati Seal of Mohenjo-Daro'', Puratattva 19: 19-26. 1989</ref><ref>Kenoyer, Jonathan Mark. ''Ancient Cities of the Indus Valley Civilization''. Karachi: Oxford University Press, 1998.</ref> Some observers describe the figure as sitting in a traditional cross-legged yoga pose with its hands resting on its knees. The discoverer of the seal, Sir John Marshall, and others have claimed that this figure is a prototype of Shiva, and have described the figure as having three faces, seated in a "yoga posture" with the knees out and feet joined.
==Vedic period==
{{main|Vedism|Vedic period|Vedic Sanskrit}}
{{see|Iron Age India}}
[[Vedism]] was the sacrificial religion of the early [[Indo-Aryan]]-speaking peoples who [[Indo-Aryan migration|entered India]] from about 1500 BC from the [[Iranian plateau]] via the [[Hindukush]].<ref>[[Encyclopedia Britannica]] [http://britannica.com/ online edition] s.v. "Vedic religion".</ref>
The earliest literature of Hinduism is made up of the four [[Vedas]]: the [[Rig-Veda]], [[Sama-Veda]], [[Yajur-Veda]] and the [[Atharva-Veda]]. Of these, the Rig-Veda is the oldest surviving work. These texts were composed between ca. 1500 and 800 BC, and were transmitted by [[oral tradition]] alone until the advent of [[Brahmi alphabet|writing in India]], and by a combination of written and oral tradition since then.
===Rigvedic religion===
[[Image:Rigvedic geography.jpg|thumb|250px|The geographical horizon of the Rigveda (given with [[Rigvedic rivers|river names]], together with the extent of the [[Swat culture|Swat]] and [[Cemetery H culture|Cemetery H]]) extends from the [[Hindu Kush]] and the [[Punjab region]] to the upper [[Gangetic plain]].]]
The earliest text of the [[Vedas]] is the [[Rigveda]], a collection of poetic hymns used in the sacrificial rites of [[Vedic priesthood]]. Many Rigvedic hymns concern the [[fire worship|fire ritual]] ([[Agnihotra]]) and especially the offering of [[Soma]] to the gods ([[Somayajna]]). Soma is both an intoxicant and a god itself, as is the sacrificial fire, [[Agni]]. The royal [[horse sacrifice]] ([[Ashvamedha]]) is a central rite in the [[Yajurveda]].
The [[Rigvedic deities|gods in the Rig-Veda]] are mostly personified concepts, who fall into two categories: the [[deva (Hinduism)|deva]]s, who were gods of nature, such as the King of the gods, the weather deity [[Indra]], [[Agni]] ("fire"), and [[Ushas]] ("dawn"), [[Surya]] "sun", Apas "waters", and on the other hand, the [[asura]]s, gods of moral concepts, such as [[Mitra (Vedic)|Mitra]] ("contract"), [[Aryaman]] (guardian of guest friendship and marriage), [[Bhaga]] "share" or [[Varuna]], the supreme Asura (or Aditya).
While Rigvedic ''deva'' is variously applied to most gods, including many of the Asuras, the Devas are characterized as Younger Gods while Asuras are the Older Gods (pūrve devāḥ). In later Vedic texts, the Asuras become demons.
The Rigveda has 10 Mandalas ('books'). There is significant variation in the language and style between the family books (2-7), [[RV 8|book 8]], the "Soma Mandala" ([[RV 9]]), and the more recent books [[RV 1|1]] and [[RV 10|10]]. The older books share many aspects of common [[Indo-Iranian]] religion, and is an important source for the reconstruction of earlier [[Proto-Indo-European mythology|common Indo-European traditions]]. Especially [[RV 8]] has striking similarity to the [[Avesta]],<ref>Indo-Iranian Studies: I by J.C. Tavadia, Vishva Bharati, Santiniketan, 1950</ref> containing allusions to [[Afghanistan|Afghan]] Flora and Fauna<ref>(RV 8.5; 8.46; 8.56)</ref>, e.g. to camels (''{{IAST|úṣṭra-}}'' = [[Avestan]] ''uštra''. Many of the central religious terms in Vedic Sanskrit have cognates in the religious vocabulary of other Indo-European languages (''deva'': Latin ''deus''; ''[[hotar]]'': Germanic ''[[god (word)|god]]''; ''asura'': Germanic ''[[ansuz]]''; ''[[yajna]]'': Greek ''[[hagios]]''; ''[[brahman]]'': Norse ''[[Bragi]]'' (or perhaps Latin ''[[flamen]]'') etc.)
===Brahmanism===
{{see|Brahmana|Aranyaka|Shrauta Sutra}}
[[Image:Map of Vedic India.png|thumb|300px|Map of early Iron Age [[Vedic India]] after Witzel (1989). Location hypotheses for Vedic ''[[shakha]]s'' are shown in green.]]
In [[Iron Age India]], during a period roughly spanning the 10th to 6th centuries BC, the [[Mahajanapadas]] arise from the earlier petty kingdoms of the various [[Rigvedic tribes]], and the failing remnants of the [[Late Harappan]] culture. In this period the ''mantra'' portions of the Vedas are largely completed, and a flowering industry of [[Vedic priesthood]] organized in numerous schools ([[shakha]]) develops exegetical literature, viz. the [[Brahmanas]]. These schools also edited the Vedic ''mantra'' portions into fixed recensions, that were to be preserved purely by [[patha|oral tradition]] over the following two millennia.
This period of dominance of priestly [[Brahmanic Hinduism]] declines with the appearance of [[mysticism|mystical]] traditions (the oldest [[Upanishad]]s, [[Bṛhadāraṇyaka|BAU]], [[Chāndogya|ChU]] and [[Jaiminiya Upanishad Brahmana|JUB]] besides the [[Shatapatha Brahmana]]) attacking the rigid [[ritualism]] available only to the elite, in favour of spiritual insight through [[asceticism]] and [[meditation]]. The rise of [[Buddhism]] at this time, according to tradition originating with [[Gautama Buddha]], a 6th century BC Hindu prince, renouncing his status for [[enlightenment]], is exemplary of this tendency. Politically, the Mahajanapadas declined, in the west falling to the invasion of [[Darius the Great]], and from the east absorbed into the [[Magadha Empire]] which as the [[Maurya Empire]] would encompass the entire subcontinent by the time of [[Ashoka]].
===Legacy of Vedas===
Vedism as the religious tradition of Hinduism of a priestly elite was marginalized by other traditions such as [[Jainism]] and [[Buddhism]] in the later Iron Age, but in the Middle Ages would rise to renewed prestige with the [[Mimamsa]] school, which as well as all other ''[[Astika and Nastika|astika]]'' traditions of Hinduism, considered them authorless (''[[apaurusheyatva]]'') and eternal. A last surviving elements of [[Vedic Hinduism]] or Vedism is [[Śrauta]] tradition, following many major elements of Vedic religion and is prominent in [[Southern India]], with communities in [[Tamil Nadu]], [[Kerala]], [[Karnataka]], [[Andhra Pradesh]], but also in some pockets of [[Uttar Pradesh]], [[Maharashtra]] and other states; the best known of these groups are the [[Nambudiri]] of Kerala, whose traditions were notably documented by [[Frits Staal]].<ref>Staal, J. F. 1961. ''Nambudiri Veda Recitations'' Gravenhage.</ref><ref>Staal, J. F. 1983. ''Agni: The Vedic ritual of the fire altar''. 2 vols. Berkeley.</ref><ref name="Staal">{{cite book |author=Staal, Frits |title=Universals: studies in Indian logic and linguistics |publisher=University of Chicago Press |location=Chicago |year=1988 |pages= |isbn=0-226-76999-2 |oclc= |doi= |accessdate=}}</ref>
==Hinduism in ancient India==
Hinduism in the narrow sense (to the exclusion of Vedism and Iron Age Brahmanism) is the new religious mainstream arising with the [[decline of Buddhism in India]] from the 2nd century BC.
===Mauryan period===
{{see|Hinduism and Buddhism|Vedanga|Dharmaśāstra|Yoga Sutras|Nyāya Sūtras|Brahma Sutras}}
[[Image:Mauryan Empire Map.gif|thumb|[[Ashoka the Great]] for the first time united the entire [[Indian subcontinent]] under a single ruler.]]
[[Mauryan period|Mauryan India]] was dominated by [[Buddhism]] following Emperor [[Ashoka]]'s conversion,
but suffered a steady [[Decline of Buddhism in India|decline]] over the centuries, beginning as early as the 1st century BCE under the [[Sunga Empire]], allowing the advent of a "golden age of Hinduism" during the [[Gupta period]]. Nevertheless, the Mauryan period saw an early flowering of [[classical Sanskrit]] [[Sutra]] and [[Shastra]] literature and the scholarly exposition of the "circum-Vedic" fields of the [[Vedanga]].
There nevertheless remained a substantial Buddhist community living in the [[Indus]] basin until the [[Muslim conquest of the Indian subcontinent|Islamic conquest]]. Later Hindu scriptures, such as the [[Bhagavata purana]], describe the [[Buddha as an Avatar of Vishnu|Buddha as an incarnation of Vishnu]].<ref>"[http://www.krishna.com/e-books/Srimad-Bhagavatam_Canto_01.pdf Srimad-Bhagavatam]" by A. C. Bhaktivedanta Swami Prabhupada, Bhaktivedanta Book Trust.</ref><ref>[http://www.sanatansociety.org/hindu_gods_and_goddesses/buddha.htm ''sanatansociety.org'']</ref>
===Gupta period===
{{see|Gupta Empire}}
{{see|Hindu philosophy|Mimamsa|Samkhya}}
The [[Gupta period]] (4th to 6th centuries) saw a flowering of scholarship, the emergence of the classical schools of [[Hindu philosophy]], and of classical [[Sanskrit literature]] in general on topics ranging from medicine, veterinary science, mathematics, to astrology and astronomy and astrophysics. The famous [[Aryabhata]] and [[Varahamihira]] belong to this age. The Gupta established a strong central government which also allowed a degree of local control. Gupta society was ordered in accordance with Hindu beliefs. This included a strict caste system, or class system. The peace and prosperity created under Gupta leadership enabled the pursuit of scientific and artistic endeavors.
The practice of dedicating temples to different deities came into vogue followed by fine artistic [[Hindu temple architecture|temple architecture]] and sculpture (se [[Vastu Shastra]]).
===Expansion in South-East Asia===
{{see|Indianized kingdom}}
{{splitsection|Indianized kingdom|Hinduism in Southeast Asia}}
[[Image:Cultural expansion of Hinduism in Southeast Asia.png|thumb|300px|Expansion of Hinduism in Southeast Asia.]]
From about the [[1st century]], India started to strongly influence [[Southeast Asia]]n countries. Trade routes linked India with southern [[Burma]], central and southern [[Siam]], lower [[Cambodia]] and southern [[Vietnam]] and numerous urbanized coastal settlements were established there.
For more than a thousand years, Indian Hindu/Buddhist influence was therefore the major factor that brought a certain level of cultural unity to the various countries of the region. The [[Pāli|Pali]] and [[Sanskrit]] languages and the Indian script, together with [[Theravada]] and [[Mahayana]] [[Buddhism]], [[Brahmanism]] and [[Hinduism]], were transmitted from direct contact as well as through sacred texts and Indian literature, such as the [[Ramayana]] and the [[Mahabharata]] epics.
From the [[5th century|5th]] to the [[13th century]], South-East Asia had very powerful Indian colonial empires and became extremely active in Buddhist architectural and artistic creation. The [[Sri Vijaya]] Empire to the south and the [[Khmer Empire]] to the north competed for influence.
[[Langkasuka]] (-''langkha'' [[Sanskrit]] for "resplendent land" -''sukkha'' of "bliss") was a ancient Hindu kingdom located in the [[Malay Peninsula]]. The kingdom, along with [[Old Kedah]] settlement, are probably the earliest territorial footholds founded on the Malay Peninsula. According to tradition, the founding of the kingdom happened in the [[2nd century]]; [[Malay people|Malay]] legends claim that Langkasuka was founded at [[Kedah]], and later moved to [[Pattani province|Pattani]].
From the 5th-[[15th century|15th centuries]] [[Sri Vijaya|Sri Vijayan
empire]], a maritime empire centered on the island of [[Sumatra]] in
[[Indonesia]], had adopted Mahayana and Vajrayana Buddhism under a line of rulers named the [[Sailendras]]. The Empire of [[Sri Vijaya]] declined due to conflicts with the [[Chola]] rulers of India. The [[Majapahit Empire]] succeeded the [[Singhasari]] empire. It was one of the last and greatest Hindu empires in the [[Malay Archipelago]].
[[Funan]] was a pre-[[Angkor]] [[Cambodia]]n kingdom, located around the [[Mekong]] delta, probably established by [[Mon-Khmer]] settlers speaking an [[Austro-Asiatic]] language. According to reports by two Chinese envoys, [[K'ang T'ai]] and [[Chu Ying]], the state was established by an Indian [[Brahmin]] named [[Kaundinya]], who in the [[1st century|first century]] C.E. was given instruction in a dream to take a magic bow from a temple and defeat a Khmer queen, [[Soma (queen)|Soma]]. Soma, the daughter of the king of the [[Nagas (people)|Nagas]], married Kaundinya and their lineage became the royal dynasty of Funan. The myth had the advantage of providing the legitimacy of both an Indian Brahmin and the divinity of the cobras, who at that time were held in religious regard by the inhabitants of the region.
The kingdom of [[Champa]] (or ''Lin-yi'' in [[China|Chinese]] records)
controlled what is now south and central [[Vietnam]] from approximately [[192]] through [[1697]]. The dominant religion of the [[Cham people]] was [[Hinduism]] and the culture was heavily influenced by [[India]].
Later, from the [[9th century|9th]] to the [[13th century]], the Mahayana Buddhist and Hindu [[Khmer Empire]] dominated much of the South-East Asian peninsula. Under the Khmer, more than 900 temples were built in Cambodia and in neighboring Thailand. [[Angkor]] was at the center of this development, with a temple complex and urban organization able to support around one million urban dwellers. The largest temple complex of the world , Angkor Wat , stands here; built by the king Vishnuvardhan , a king of the dynasty that believed themselves to be incarnations of Vishnu.
==Hinduism in middle Ages==
By the 8th century, the "Hindu golden age" of the past millennium was over.
The formerly rich philosophic literature tended to be reduced to scholastic quarreling and infighting between innumerable sects, notably between emerging traditions of [[Vaishnavism]] and [[Shaivism]]. [[Adi Shankara]] in the 8th century managed to reconcile the antagonistic sects and to establish Hinduism as a single, if diverse, religious tradition. The compilation of the [[Puranas]] provided a mythical backdrop for this tradition, and served as a means of [[acculturation]] of the various pre-literate tribal societies to the new religious mainstream. Various reforms of the later Middle Ages, notably the [[Bhakti movement]], besides new [[Yoga|Yogic]] schools ([[Jnana yoga]], [[Karma yoga]], [[Hatha yoga]], [[Bhakti yoga]]) gave Hinduism its classical form as described by the 18th to 19th century pioneers of [[Indology]].
=== Advaita Vedanta ===
{{main|Advaita Vedanta|Adi Shankara}}
The introduction of [[Advaita Vedanta]] by [[Adi Shankara]] unified the theistic sects into a common framework of [[Shanmata]] system. Shankara stressed the importance of the Vedas, introducing the concept of ''[[apaurusheyatva]]'', and his efforts helped Hinduism regain strength and popularity.
He is the main figure in the tradition of [[Advaita Vedanta]]. He is the founder of the ''[[Dashanami Sampradaya]]'' of [[Hindu]] [[monasticism]] and ''[[Shanmata]]'' tradition of worship. He travelled all over India ([[Kerala]] to [[Kashmir]] and [[Nepal]]) three times over and was a major cause in the revival and integration of Sanatana Dharma. Shankara's reform essentially eclipsed all earlier schools of Hindu philosophy and became the nucleus of the medieval traditions, including [[Smartism]] and [[Sant Mat]] lineages,<ref> {{cite paper
|author=Ron Geaves
|date=March 2002
|title=From Totapuri to Maharaji: Reflections on a Lineage (Parampara)
|publisher=27th Spalding Symposium on Indian Religions, Oxford
}}
</ref> that lead up to the current religion.
Adi Shankara, along with [[Madhvacharya|Madhva]] and [[Ramanuja]], were instrumental in the revival of Hinduism. In their writings and debates, they provided polemics against the non-Vedantic schools of [[Sankhya]], [[Vaisheshika]] etc. Thus, they paved the way for [[Vedanta]] to be the dominant and most widely followed tradition among the schools of Hindu philosophy.
===Pauranic Hinduism===
{{see|Puranas}}
[[Brahmanic Hinduism]] evolves out of Vedism during Iron Age India, and in turn contributes to the development of [[Vedanta|Vedantic]] and eventually classical [[Pauranic Hinduism]].
The transformation of Brahmanism into Pauranic Hinduism in post-[[Gupta period|Gupta]] India was due to a process of [[acculturation]]. The Puranas helped establish a religious mainstream among the pre-literate tribal societies undergoing acculturation. The tenets of Brahmanic Hinduism and of the [[Dharmashastras]] underwent a radical transformation at the hands of the Purana composers, resulting in the rise of a mainstream "Hinduism" that overshadowed all earlier traditions.<ref>Vijay Nath, ''From 'Brahmanism' to 'Hinduism': Negotiating the Myth of the Great Tradition'', Social Scientist 2001, pp. 19-50.</ref>
===Muslim period ===
{{see|Muslim conquest of South Asia}}
Muslim rulers began to extend their rule across Hindu populated lands in the 8th century CE and [[Islam]] began to spread across the
Indian-subcontinent over several centuries. Most converts were from
[[Hinduism]] or [[Buddhism]]; the two dominant local religions.
It took several centuries for Islam to spread across India and how it did so is a topic of intense debate. Some quarters hold that Hindus were forcibly converted to Islam by the establishment of [[Jizya]] and [[Dhimmitude]] favoring Muslim citizens, and the threat of naked force: the "Conversion by the Sword Theory." Others hold that it occurred through inter-marriage, conversions, economic integration, to escape caste structures, and through the influence of [[Sufism|Sufi]] preachers.<ref>Ram Puniyani. [http://www.sacw.net/2002/ramPuniyaniOct02.html Question of Faith.]</ref>
Embedded within this controversy lies the [[national myth]] of native Hinduism resisting the imposition of foreign Islam, resulting the failure of the project to [[Islamicization|Islamicize]] the Indian subcontinent and is highly embroiled with the politics of the [[Partition of India|partition]] and [[Communalism (South Asia)|communalism]] in India.<ref>Peter van der Veer, ''"Religious Nationalism: Hindus and Muslims in India"'', University of California Press, [[February 7]], [[1994]], ISBN 0-520-08256-7</ref>
===Bhakti movement===
{{main|Bhakti movement}}
{{seealso|Tulsidas|Kabir|Mirabai|Chaitanya}}
The Bhakti movement was a [[Hinduism|Hindu]] religious movement in which the main spiritual practice was the ''fostering of loving devotion to God'', called '''[[bhakti]]'''. It was a monotheistic movement generally devoted to worship of [[Shiva]], [[Vishnu]] or [[Shakti]].
The first documented bhakti movement was founded by
[[Karaikkal-ammaiyar]]. She wrote poems in [[Tamil language|Tamil]] about her love for [[Shiva]] and probably lived around the [[6th century]] CE. <sup>[[#References|1]], [[#References|2]], [[#References|3]]</sup>
The twelve [[Alvars]] who were Vaishnavite devotees and the sixty-three [[Nayanars]] who were Shaivite devotees nurtured the incipient bhakti movement in [[Tamil Nadu]]. They constitute [[South India's 75 Apostles of Bhakti]].
During the [[12th century]] CE in Karnataka, the Bhakti movement took the form of the [[Virashaiva]] movement. It was inspired by [[Basavanna]], a Hindu reformer who created the sect of [[Lingayats]] or [[Shiva]] ''bhaktas''. During this time, a unique
and native form of [[Kannada]] literature-poetry called [[Vachanas]] was born.
==Hinduism in early Modern period==
The [[Mughal Empire]] reduced its Hindu subjects to [[Dhimmitude]] throughout the 17th century; the empire had reached its zenith by 1700. But, Hinduism once again rose to political prestige, under the [[Maratha Empire]], from 1707 to [[Battle of Panipat (1761)|1761]].
In the century from 1760 to 1860, India was once more divided into numerous petty and unstable kingdoms: the [[Sikh Confederacy]]; the "lesser Mughals" following [[Bahadur Shah I]]; the [[Kingdom of Mysore]]; [[Hyderabad State]]; the [[Durrani Empire]]; and the territories held by the [[Company rule in India|British East India Company]]. The entire subcontinent fell under [[British India|British rule]] (partly [[indirect rule|indirectly]], via [[List of Indian Princely States|Princely states]]) following the [[Indian Rebellion of 1857]].
===Mughal India===
{{see|Mughal period}}
The official State religion of the Mughal Empire was [[Islam]], with the preference to the [[jurisprudence]] of the [[Hanafi]] [[Madh'hab|Madhab]] (Mazhab). However, throughout its history, subjects had complete freedom to practice any religion of their choice, though Non-Muslim able-bodied adult males with income were obliged to pay the [[Jizya]] (poll-tax to be spent by the State only on protection of non-Muslims), which signified their status as [[Dhimmis]] (responsibility of the State, in regard to safety of life and property).
After the [[invasion]] of Persia by the [[Mongol Empire]], a regional Turko-Persio-Mongol dynasty formed. Just as eastern Mongol dynasties inter-married with locals and adopted the local religion of [[Buddhism]] and the [[Chinese culture]], this group adopted the local religion of [[Islam]] and the [[Persian culture]]. One of [[Akbar]]'s most unusual ideas regarding religion was [[Din-i-Ilahi]] (Faith of God), which was an eclectic mix of [[Islam]], [[Zoroastrianism]], Hinduism, [[Jainism]] and [[Christianity]]. It was proclaimed the state religion until his death. These actions however met with stiff opposition from the Muslim clergy, especially the [[Sufi]] Shaykh Alf Sani [[Ahmad Sirhindi]]. Akbar's abolition of poll-tax on non-Muslims, acceptance of ideas from other religious philosophies, toleration of public worship by all religions and his interest in other faiths showed an attitude of considerable religious tolerance, which, in the minds of his orthodox Muslim opponents, were tantamount to [[apostasy]].
The emperor [[Jahangir]], half Rajput, was also a religious moderate, his mother being Hindu. The influence of his two Hindu queens (the Maharani Maanbai and Maharani Jagat) kept religious moderation as a center-piece of state policy which was extended under his son, emperor Shah Jahan, who was by blood 75% [[Rajput]] and only 25% [[Moghul]].
Religious orthodoxy would only play an important role during the reign of Shah Jahan's son and successor, [[Aurangzeb]], a devout Sunni Muslim. Aurangzeb was comparatively less tolerant of other faiths than his predecessors had been, and his reign saw an increase in the number and importance of Islamic institutions and scholars. He led many military campaigns against the remaining non-Muslim powers of the Indian subcontinent - the [[Sikh]] states of the Punjab, the last independent Hindu [[Rajputs]] and the [[Maratha]] rebels - as also against the Shia Muslim kingdoms of the [[Deccan]]. He also virtually stamped out, from his empire, open proselytisation of Hindus and Muslims by foreign Christian [[Missionaries]], who remained successfully active, however, in the adjoining regions: the present day [[Kerala]], [[Tamilnadu]] and [[Goa]].
===Early colonialism===
{{see|Christianity in India|Goa Inquisition}}
[[Portugal|Portuguese]] missionaries had reached the [[Malabar Coast]] in the late [[15th century]], made contact with the [[Saint Thomas Christians|St Thomas Christians]] in [[Kerala]] and sought to introduce the [[Latin liturgical rites|Latin Rite]] among them. Since the priests for St Thomas Christians were served by the [[Eastern Catholic Churches|Eastern Christian Churches]], they were following Eastern Christian practices at that time. Throughout this period, foreign missionaries also made many new converts to Christianity. This led to the formation of the Latin Catholics in Kerala.
The [[Goa Inquisition]] was the office of the [[Inquisition]] acting in the [[India]]n city of [[Goa]] and the rest of the [[Portuguese empire]] in [[Asia]]. [[St. Francis Xavier]], in a 1545 letter to [[John III of Portugal|John III]], requested for an [[Inquisition]] to be installed in Goa. It was installed eight years after the death of Francis Xavier in [[1552]]. Established in [[1560]] and operating until [[1774]], this highly controversial institution was aimed primarily at [[Hinduism|Hindus]] and wayward new converts.
===Maratha Empire===
{{see|Maratha Empire}}
[[Image:Marathas.GIF|thumb|The last [[Hindu]] empire of [[India]] - The [[Maratha Empire]] in [[1760]].]]
The [[Hindu]] Marathas long had lived in the [[Desh]] region around
[[Satara]], in the western portion of the [[Deccan]] plateau, where the plateau meets the eastern slopes of the [[Western Ghats]] mountains. They had resisted incursions into the region by the [[Muslim]] [[Mughal]] rulers of northern India. Under their ambitious leader [[Shivaji]], the Maratha freed themselves from the [[Muslim]] sultans of [[Bijapur Sultanate|Bijapur]] to the southeast and, becoming much more aggressive, began to frequently raid Mughal territory, eventually sacking the wealthy Mughal port of [[Surat]] in 1664. After sustantial territorial gains, Shivaji was proclaimed 'Chatrapati' (Emperor) in 1674; the Marathas had spread and conquered much of central India by Shivaji's death in 1680.
== Hinduism under British Raj ==
{{main|Hindu revivalism}}
{{see|Bengal Renaissance|Brahmo Samaj|Arya Samaj|Ramakrishna Math}}
[[Image:Brit IndianEmpireReligions3.jpg|thumb|'''1909 Prevailing Religions''', Map of British Indian Empire, 1909, showing the prevailing majority religions of the population for different districts.]]
During the 19th century, Hinduism developed a large number of [[new religious movement]]s, partly inspired by the European [[Romanticism]], [[nationalism]], [[scientific racism]] and [[esotericism]] ([[Theosophy]]) popular at the time (while conversely and contemporaneously, India had a similar effect on European culture with [[Orientalism]], "[[Hindoo style]]" architecture, reception of [[Buddhism in the West]] and similar).
These reform movements are summarized under [[Hindu revivalism]] and continue into the present.
*[[Sahajanand Swami]] establishes the [[Swaminarayan Sampraday]] sect around 1800.
*[[Brahmo Samaj]] is a social and religious movement founded in [[Kolkata]] in 1828 by [[Ram Mohan Roy|Raja Ram Mohan Roy]]. He was influenced by western thought and was one of the first Indians to visit [[Europe]]. He died in [[Bristol]], [[England]]. The Brahmo Samaj movement thereafter resulted in the Brahmo religion in [[1850]] founded by [[Debendranath Tagore]] — better known as the father of [[Rabindranath Tagore]].
*[[Sri Ramakrishna]] and his pupil [[Swami Vivekananda]] led a reform in Hinduism in late 19th century. Their ideals and sayings have inspired numerous Indians as well as non-Indians, Hindus as well as non-Hindus. Among the prominent figures whose ideals were very much influenced by them were [[Rabindranath Tagore]], [[Gandhi]], [[Subhas Bose]], [[Satyendranath Bose]], [[Megh Nad Saha]], and [[Sister Nivedita]].
*Arya Samaj (''Aryan Society'' or ''Society of Nobles'') is a [[Hindu]] [[reform movement]] in [[India]] that was founded by [[Swami Dayananda]] in [[1875]]. He was a [[sannyasin]] (renouncer) who believed in the [[infallible]] [[Moral absolutism|authority]] of the [[Vedas]]. Dayananda advocated the doctrine of [[karma]] and [[reincarnation]], and emphasised the ideals of [[brahmacharya]] ([[chastity]]) and [[sanyasa]] ([[renunciation]]). [[Dayananda]] claimed to be rejecting all non-Vedic beliefs altogether. Hence the Arya Samaj unequivocally condemned [[idolatry]], [[animal sacrifice]]s, [[ancestor worship]], [[pilgrimage]]s, [[priest]]craft, offerings made in [[temple]]s, the [[caste]] system, [[Dalit|untouchability]] and [[child marriage]]s, on the grounds that all these lacked Vedic sanction. It aimed to be a [[universal church]] based on the authority of the [[Vedas]]. Dayananda stated that he wanted 'to make the whole world Aryan'. That is, he wanted to develop ''[[missionary]]'' Hinduism, based on the universality of the Vedas and [[Arya Samaj]] started [[Shuddhi]] movement in early 20th century to bring back to [[Hinduism]] people converted to [[Islam]] and [[Christianity]]. To this end the Arya Samaj set up schools and missionary organisations, extending its activities outside India. It now has branches around the world. It has a disproportional amount of adherents among people of Indian ancestry in [[Suriname]] and the [[Netherlands]], in comparison with India.
An important aspect of 20th-century Hinduism has been its spread among non-Indians, who have accepted the religion voluntarily. This perhaps began with the sojourn of [[Vivekananda]] to the [[World Parliament of Religions]] in [[Chicago]] in [[1893]]. He founded the [[Ramakrishna Mission]], which today operates temples, [[ashram]]s, charitable hospitals, and schools worldwide.
==Modern Hinduism and contemporary world ==
{{main|Contemporary Hindu movements|Hindu denominations|Contemporary Sant Mat movements|List of Hindu organisations}}
Modern Hinduism is the reflection of continuity and progressive changes that occurred in various traditions and institutions of Hinduism during the [[19th century|19th]] and [[20th centuries]].
Its main divisions are into [[Vaishnavism]] (largely influenced by [[Bhakti]]), [[Shaivism]], [[Shaktism]] and [[Smartism]] ([[Advaita Vedanta]]).
Besides these traditional denominations, movements of [[Hindu revivalism]] look to founders such as [[Swami Vivekananda]], [[Swami Dayananda]] ([[Arya Samaj]]), [[Rabindranath Tagore]], [[Ramana Maharshi]], [[Aurobindo]], [[Shriram Sharma Acharya]], [[Swami Sivananda]], [[Swami Rama Tirtha]], [[Narayana Guru]], [[Paramhansa Yogananda]], [[Shrii Shrii Anandamurti]], [[Pandurang Shastri Athavale]] ([[Swadhyay Movement]]) and others.
Influential in spreading Hinduism to a western audience were [[A.C. Bhaktivedanta Swami Prabhupada]] ([[Hare Krishna movement]]), [[Sri Aurobindo]], [[Meher Baba]], [[Jiddu Krishnamurti]], [[Osho]], [[Maharishi Mahesh Yogi]] ([[Transcendental Meditation]]), [[Sathya Sai Baba]], [[Mother Meera]], among others.
The [[Hindutva]] movement advocating [[Hindu nationalism]] originated in the 1920s and has remained a strong political force in India. The major party of the religious right, [[Bharatiya Janata Party]], since its foundation in 1980 has won several elections, and after a [[Indian general election, 2004|defeat in 2004]] remains the leading force of opposition against the current [[Indian National Congress|Congress Party]] government.
The resurgence of [[Hinduism in Indonesia]] is occurring in all parts of the country. In the early seventies, the [[Toraja]] people of [[Sulawesi]] were the first to be identified under the umbrella of 'Hinduism', followed by the Karo Batak of Sumatra in 1977 and the Ngaju Dayak of Kalimantan in 1980.
The growth of Hinduism has been driven also by the famous Javanese prophesies of [[Sabdapalon]] and [[Jayabaya]]. Many recent converts to Hinduism had been members of the families of [[Sukarno]]'s PNI, and now support [[Megawati Sukarnoputri]]. This return to the 'religion of [[Majapahit]]' (Hinduism) is a matter of nationalist pride.
The new Hindu communities in Java tend to be concentrated around recently built temples (''pura'') or around archaeological temple sites (''candi'') which are being reclaimed as places of Hindu worship. An important new Hindu temple in eastern Java is Pura Mandaragiri Sumeru Agung, located on the slope of [[Semeru|Mt. Semeru]], Java's highest mountain. Mass conversions have also occurred in the region around Pura Agung Blambangan, another new temple, built on a site with minor archaeological remnants attributed to the kingdom of [[Blambangan]], the last Hindu polity on
Java, and Pura Loka Moksa Jayabaya (in the village of Menang near Kediri), where the Hindu king and prophet [[Jayabaya]] is said to have achieved spiritual liberation (''[[Moksha|moksa]]''). Another site is the new Pura Pucak Raung in East Java, which is mentioned in Balinese literature as the place from where [[Maharishi Markandeya]] took Hinduism to Bali in the fifth century CE.
==References==
{{reflist}}
==See also==
*[[History of India]]
*[[History of Yoga]]
*[[History of Shaivism]]
*[[Indian religions]]
*[[Religion in India]]
*[[Hindu scriptures]]
*[[Sanskrit literature]]
*''[[Who is a Hindu?]]''
*''[[Hindutva: Who is a Hindu?]]''
==References==
#{{cite book |last=Majumdar |first=R. C. |authorlink=R. C. Majumdar |coauthors=H. C. Raychauduri, Kaukinkar Datta |title=An Advanced History of India |url=http://dli.iiit.ac.in/cgi-bin/Browse/scripts/use_scripts/advnew/aui/bookreader/bookReader_public.cgi?path1=/server6/disk2/DATA%20SUBMITTED/An_Advancd_History_Of_India_Part%20II/&first=1&last=432&barcode=5010010000259 |year=1960 |publisher=Macmillan and Company Limited |location= Great Britain|id=ISBN 0-333-90298-X }}
#[[Benjamin Walker]] ''Hindu World: An Encyclopedic Survey of Hinduism'', (Two Volumes), Allen & Unwin, London, 1968; Praeger, New York, 1968; Munshiram Manohar Lal, New Delhi, 1983; Harper Collins, New Delhi, 1985; Rupa, New Delhi, 2005, ISBN 81-291-0670-1.
==External links==
* [http://encyclopediaofauthentichinduism.org Encyclopedia of Authentic Hinduism]
* [http://encarta.msn.com/encyclopedia_761555715_9/Hinduism.html History of Hinduism on MSN Encarta encyclopedia]
* [http://www.i3pep.org/archives/2003/11/01/hinduism-in-modern-times/ Hinduism in Modern Times]
[[Category:Hindu history]]
[[Category:History of religion]]
[[fr:Histoire de l'hindouisme]]
[[nl:Geschiedenis van het hindoeïsme]]
[[ps:د هندويزم تاريخ]]
[[pl:Historia hinduizmu]]
[[ru:История индуизма]]