History of Iran 64213 225810325 2008-07-15T14:44:43Z Sa.vakilian 1293253 /* General */ Turko-Persian tradition {{History of Iran}} {{wikibooks|Iranian History}} [[Image:Scythia-Parthia 100 BC.png|thumb|Geographical extent of Iranian influence in the 1st century BC. The [[Parthia]]n Empire (mostly [[Western Iranian languages|Western Iranian]]) is shown in red, other areas, dominated by [[Scythia]] (mostly [[Eastern Iranian languages|Eastern Iranian]]), in orange.]] :''See Also: [[Persian Empire]]'' '''History of [[Iran]]''' and '''[[Greater Iran]]''' (also referred to as the "'''Iranian Cultural Continent'''" by the [[Encyclopedia Iranica]]) consists of the area from the [[Euphrates]] in the west to the [[Indus River]] and [[Syr Darya|Jaxartes]] in the east and from the [[Caucasus]], [[Caspian Sea]], and [[Aral Sea]] in the north to the [[Persian Gulf]] and the [[Gulf of Oman]] in the south. It includes the modern nations of [[Iran]], [[Azerbaijan]], [[Afghanistan]], [[Turkmenistan]], [[Tajikistan]], [[Uzbekistan]], the eastern parts of [[Turkey]] and [[Iraq]], and the parts of [[Pakistan]] west of the Indus. It is one of the world's oldest continuous major [[civilization]]s, covering thousands of years, from the ancient civilization on the [[Iranian plateau]], [[Mannaeans]] civilization in [[Azerbaijan (Iran)|Azarbaijan]], [[Shahr-i Sokhta]] (''Burned City'') near [[Zabol]] in Sistan va Baluchestan, and the ancient [[Jiroft civilization]] in Kerman (more than [[5th millennium BC|5000]] [[Common Era|BCE]]) followed by the [[monarchy|kingdom]] of [[Elam]] (more than [[3rd millennium BC|3000]] [[Common Era|BCE]]) and the [[Medes|Median]], [[Achaemenid]], the [[Parthia]]n, the [[Sassanian]] dynasties and following Empires to the modern [[Islamic Republic of Iran]]. Once a major empire of [[superpower]] proportions<ref>http://anthropology.net/user/kambiz_kamrani/blog/2006/12/05/engineering_an_empire_the_persians</ref> <ref>[http://www.encyclopedia.com/doc/1G1-155920057.html Persia and the Greeks.(Persian Fire: The First World Empire<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref>, Persia has been overrun frequently and has had its territory altered throughout the centuries. Invaded and occupied by [[Arab]]s, [[Seljuk Turks|Turks]], [[Mongols]], [[United Kingdom|British]] and [[Russia]]ns, and others -- and often caught up in the affairs of larger powers -- Persia has always reasserted its [[national identity]] and has developed as a distinct political and cultural entity. Iran is home to one of the world's oldest continuous major civilizations, with historical and urban settlements dating back to 4000 BC.<ref name="xinhuaciv">[http://news.xinhuanet.com/english/2007-08/10/content_6508609.htm Xinhua, "New evidence: modern civilization began in Iran", 10 Aug 2007], retrieved 1 Oct 2007</ref><ref name="iran-daily">[http://www.iran-daily.com/1385/2795/html/panorama.htm Iran Daily, "Panorama", 3 Mar 2007], retrieved 1 Oct 2007</ref><ref name="iranian.ws">[http://www.iranian.ws/iran_news/publish/article_22427.shtml Iranian.ws, "Archaeologists: Modern civilization began in Iran based on new evidence", 12 Aug 2007], retrieved 1 Oct 2007</ref> The [[Medes]] unified Iran as a nation and empire in [[625]] BC..<ref name="Encyclopædia Britannica Concise Encyclopedia Article: Media"/><ref name="Encyclopædia Britannica Concise Encyclopedia Article: Media">http://www.britannica.com/ebc/article-9371723 Encyclopædia Britannica Concise Encyclopedia Article: Media</ref> [[Achaemenid Empire]](550–330 BC) was the first of the [[Persian Empire]]s to rule over [[Middle east]], [[Greece]] and [[central Asia]]. They were succeeded by the [[Seleucid Empire]], [[Parthians]] and [[Sassanids]] which governed Iran for more than 1000 years. The [[Islamic conquest of Persia]] (633–656) and the end of the [[Sassanid Empire]] was a turning point in Iranian history. [[Islamicization in Iran]] took place during 8th to 10th century and led to the eventual decline of the [[Zoroastrianism|Zoroastrian]] religion in [[Iran|Persia]]. However, the achievements of the previous Persian civilizations were not lost, but were to a great extent absorbed by the new [[Islam]]ic polity and [[Islamic civilization|civilization]]. After centuries of foreign occupation and short-lived native dynasties, Iran was once again reunified as an independent state in 1551 by the [[Safavid|Safavid dynasty]] who established [[Shi'a Islam]]<ref name="savoryeiref"> R.M. Savory, ''Safavids'', [[Encyclopedia of Islam]], 2nd edition</ref> as the official [[religion]] of their empire, marking one of the most important turning points in the [[history of Islam]].<ref name="islamic1600">[http://www.ucalgary.ca/applied_history/tutor/islam/empires/safavid/abbas.html "The Islamic World to 1600", The Applied History Research Group, The University of Calgary, 1998], retrieved 1 Oct 2007</ref> Iran had been a monarchy ruled by a shah, or emperor, almost without interruption from 1501 until the 1979 [[Iranian revolution]], when Iran officially became an [[Islamic Republic]] on [[1 April]], [[1979]].<ref>[http://www.britannica.com/ebi/article-202892 Iran Islamic Republic], Encyclopaedia Britannica retrieved 23 January 2008</ref><ref name = "Britannica">[http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-32981 Encyclopædia Britannica]23 January 2008</ref> ==Pre-Historic era== {{main|Tappeh Sialk|Jiroft civilization|Shahr-i Sokhta}} [[Image:Marlik cup iran.jpg|thumb|120px|right|Golden Cup excavated at [[National Museum of Iran]]. First half of first millennium BC.]] The earliest archaeological artifacts in Iran were found in the [[Kashafrud]] and [[Ganj Par]] sites that date back to [[Lower Paleolithic]]. [[Mousterian]] Stone tools made by [[Neanderthal]] man have also been found.<ref name=Museum>http://www.pbase.com/k_amj/tehran_museum retrieved 27 Mar 2008</ref> There are also 9000 year old human and animal figurines from Teppe Sarab in Kermanshah Province among the many other ancient artifacts.<ref name=Museum/> There are more cultural remains of [[Neanderthal]] man dating back to the [[Middle Paleolithic]] period, which mainly have been found in the Zagros region and fewer in central Iran at sites such as Shanidar, Kobeh, Kunji, Bisetun, Tamtama, [[Warwasi]], Palegawra, and Yafteh Cave.<ref>J.D. Vigne, J. Peters and D. Helmer, ''First Steps of Animal Domestication'', Proceedings of the 9th Conference of the International Council of Archaeozoology, Durham, August 2002, ISBN 1842171216</ref> Evidence for [[Upper Paleolithic]] and [[Epipaleolithic]] periods are known mainly from the [[Zagros]] region in the caves of [[Kermanshah]] and [[Khoramabad]]. In the 6th millennium BC the world developed a fairly sophisticated agricultural society and proto-urban population centres. The south-western part of Iran was part of the [[Fertile Crescent]] where most of humanity's first major crops were grown. 7000 year old [[jar]]s of [[wine]] [[Excavation|excavated]] in the [[Zagros Mountains]]<ref>[http://www.museum.upenn.edu/new/research/Exp_Rese_Disc/NearEast/wine.shtml Research<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref> (now on display at The University of Pennsylvania) and ruins of 7000 year old settlements such as [[Sialk]] are further testament to this. Two main Neolithic Iranian settlements were the [[Zayandeh Rud civilization]], [[Ganj Dareh]]. Dozens of [[prehistory|pre-historic]] sites across the Iranian plateau point to the existence of ancient cultures and urban settlements in the [[fourth millennium BC]],<ref name="xinhuaciv">[http://news.xinhuanet.com/english/2007-08/10/content_6508609.htm Xinhua, "New evidence: modern civilization began in Iran", 10 Aug 2007], retrieved 1 Oct 2007</ref><ref name="iran-daily">[http://www.iran-daily.com/1385/2795/html/panorama.htm Iran Daily, "Panorama", 3 Mar 2007], retrieved 1 Oct 2007</ref><ref name="iranian.ws">[http://www.iranian.ws/iran_news/publish/article_22427.shtml Iranian.ws, "Archaeologists: Modern civilization began in Iran based on new evidence", 12 Aug 2007], retrieved 1 Oct 2007</ref> One of the earliest civilizations in Iranian plateau was the [[Jiroft Civilization]] in southeastern Iran, in the province of [[Kerman]]. It is one of the most artifact-rich archaeological sites in the Middle East. Archaeological excavations in Jiroft led to the discovery of several objects belonging to the [[fourth millennium BC]], a time that goes beyond the age of civilization in Mesopotamia. There is a large quantity of objects decorated with highly distinctive engravings of animals, mythological figures, and architectural motifs. The objects and their iconography are unlike anything ever seen before by archeologists. Many are made from [[chlorite]], a gray-green soft stone; others are in [[copper]], [[bronze]], [[terracotta]], and even [[lapis lazuli]]. Recent excavations at the sites have produced the world's earliest inscription which pre-dates Mesopotamian inscriptions.<ref>[http://www.chnpress.com/news/?section=2&id=6126 Cultural Heritage news agency] retrieved 27 Mar 2008</ref><ref name="IRANIAN HISTORY">{{cite encyclopedia |last=Yarshater |first=Yarshater | title = Iranian history | encyclopedia = Encyclopedia Iranica | accessdate = 2008-06-23|url=http://www.iranica.com/newsite/articles/v13f2/v13f2024ii_part1.html}}</ref> ==Pre-Islamic history== ===Early history (3200&nbsp;BC&ndash;625&nbsp;BC)=== {{main|Tappeh Sialk|Jiroft civilization|Elam|Mannaeans}} [[Image:NE 1300bc.jpg|thumb|300px|left|Iran in 1300 BC, before migration of [[Iranian peoples]]]] There are records of numerous ancient civilizations on the [[Iranian plateau]] before the arrival of [[Ancient Iranian peoples|Iranian]] tribes from Central Asia during the [[Early Iron Age]]. One of main civilizations of Iran was the [[Elam]] to the east of [[Mesopotamia]], which started from around 5000 BC, and lasted well into the 6th century BC. The [[Early Bronze Age]] saw the rise of urbanization into organized city states and the invention of writing (the [[Uruk period]]) in the Near East. Modern Iranians are descendants of early Proto-Iranians. Having descended from the Proto-Indo-Iranians, the Proto-Iranians separated from the Indo-Aryans around in the early 2nd millennium BC. The Proto-Iranians are traced to the [[Bactria-Margiana Archaeological Complex]], a Bronze Age culture of Central Asia.<ref name="Panshin"> [http://www.panshin.com/trogholm/wonder/indoeuropean/indoeuropean3.html "The Palaeolithic Indo-Europeans"] &mdash; Panshin.com (retrieved [[4 June]] [[2006]])</ref> By the 1st millennium BC, [[Medes]], [[Iranian peoples|Persian]]s, [[Bactrians]] and [[Parthians]] populated the [[Iranian plateau]], while others such as the [[Scythians]], [[Sarmatians]], [[Cimmerians]] and [[Alans]] populated the steppes north of the [[Black Sea]]. The [[Saka]] and [[Scythian]] tribes remained mainly in the south and spread as far west as the [[Balkans]] and as far east as [[Xinjiang]]. [[Avestan]] is an eastern Old Iranian language that was used to compose the sacred hymns and canon of the [[Zoroastrianism|Zoroastrian]] [[Avesta]] in ''c.'' 1000 BC. [[Zoroastrianism]] was the main religion of the [[people of Iran]] and the state religion of the Achaemenid empire and later Iranian empires, until the 7th century. In the 1st millennium B.C the spread of populations Proto-Iranian people onto the Persian plateau forced the Elamites to relinquish one area of their empire after another and to take refuge in [[Susiana]], [[Khuzistan]] and nearby area, which only then became coterminous with Elam.<ref name="Elam">{{cite encyclopedia |last=Lackenbacher |first=Sylvie | title = Elam | encyclopedia = Encyclopedia Iranica | accessdate = 2008-06-23|url=http://www.iranica.com/newsite/articles/v8f3/v8f340.html}}</ref> ===Median and Achaemenid Empire (900 BC&ndash;248 BC)=== {{main|Median Empire|Achaemenid Empire}} [[Image:Achaemenid Empire.jpg|thumb|left|249px|[[Achaemenid dynasty|Achaemenid empire]] at its greatest extent.]] During the [[Neo-Assyrian Empire]] the Persians and the Medes were vassals of Assyria and paid tribute. In the second half of the 7th century BC, the [[Mede|Median]] tribes gained their independence and were united by [[Deioces]]. In 612 BC the Babylonian king Nabopolassar, along with [[Cyaxares]] the Mede, finally destroyed [[Nineveh]], the Assyrian capital, and Assyria fell. The Medes are credited with the foundation of Iran as a nation and empire, and established the first Iranian empire, the largest of its day until [[Cyrus the Great]] established a unified empire of the Medes and [[Persian people|Persians]] leading to the [[Achaemenid dynasty|Achaemenian Empire]] (648–330 BC). After his father's death in 559 BC, [[Cyrus the Great]] became king of Anshan but like his predecessors, Cyrus had to recognize [[Mede]] overlordship. In 552 BC Cyrus led his armies against the Medes and captured [[Ecbatana]] in 549 BC, effectively conquering the Median Empire and also inheriting [[Assyria]]. Cyrus later conquered [[Lydia]] and [[Neo-Babylonian Empire|Babylon]]. Cyrus the Great created the [[Cyrus Cylinder]], considered to be the first declaration of human rights and was the first king whose name has the suffix "Great". After Cyrus' death, his son [[Cambyses II of Persia|Cambyses]] ruled for seven years (531-522 BC) and continued his father's work of conquest, making significant gains in [[Ancient Egypt|Egypt]]. A power struggle followed Cambyses' death and, despite his tenuous connection to the royal line, [[Darius I of Persia|Darius]] was declared king (ruled 522-486 BC). He was to be arguably the greatest of the ancient Persian rulers. [[Image:Arge Bam Arad edit.jpg|thumb|200px|The [[Arg-e Bam]] citadel, built before 500 BC. A great example of Iranian castles of the time.]] Darius' first capital was at [[Susa]], and he started the building programme at [[Persepolis]]. He built a canal between the [[Nile]] and the [[Red Sea]], a forerunner of the modern [[Suez Canal]]. He improved the extensive [[road]] system, and it is during his reign that mention is first made of the [[Royal Road]] (shown on map), a great highway stretching all the way from Susa to [[Sardis]] with posting stations at regular intervals. Major reforms took place under Darius. [[Coinage]], in the form of the ''daric'' (gold coin) and the ''shekel'' (silver coin) was introduced (coinage had already been invented over a century before in Lydia ca. 660 BCE),<ref>[http://www.thebritishmuseum.ac.uk/forgottenempire/persia/darius.html FORGOTTEN EMPIRE the world of Ancient Persia | The Persian Empire | Darius I<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref> and administrative efficiency was increased. The [[Old Persian]] language appears in royal inscriptions, written in a specially adapted version of [[cuneiform]]. Under [[Cyrus the Great]] and [[Darius the Great]], the Persian Empire eventually became the largest empire in human history up until that point, ruling and administrating over most of the then known world.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.wsu.edu/~dee/MESO/PERSIANS.HTM |title=The Persians |year=1996 |first=Richard |last=Hooker |accessdate=2006-08-20}}</ref> Their greatest achievement was the empire itself. The Persian Empire represented the world's first superpower.<ref>http://anthropology.net/user/kambiz_kamrani/blog/2006/12/05/engineering_an_empire_the_persians</ref> <ref>[http://www.encyclopedia.com/doc/1G1-155920057.html Persia and the Greeks. (Persian Fire: The First World Empire<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref> that was based on a model of tolerance and respect for other cultures and religions.<ref>[http://web.utk.edu/~persian/benevolent.htm Benevolent Persian Empire<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref> In 499 BC [[Athens]] lent support to a revolt in [[Miletus]] which resulted in the sacking of [[Sardis]]. This led to an Achaemenid campaign against Greece known as the [[Greco-Persian Wars]] which lasted the first half of the 5th century BC. During the Greco-Persian wars Persia made some major advantages and razed Athens in 480 BC, But after a string of Greek victories the Persians were forced to withdraw. Fighting ended with the peace of Callias in 449 BC. In 404 BC following the death of [[Darius II]] Egypt rebelled under [[Amyrtaeus]]. Later Egyptian [[Pharaohs of Egypt|Pharaohs]] successfully resisted Persian attempts to reconquer [[Egypt]] until 343 BC when Egypt was reconquered by [[Artaxerxes III]]. ===The Hellenic conquest=== In 334 BC-331 BC [[Alexander the Great]], also known in the [[Zoroastrianism|Zoroastrian]] [[Book of Arda Viraf|''Arda Wiraz Nâmag'']] as "the accursed Alexander", defeated [[Darius III]] in the battles of [[Battle of Granicus|Granicus]], [[Battle of Issus|Issus]] and [[Battle of Gaugamela|Gaugamela]], swiftly conquering the [[Persian Empire]] by 331 BCE. Alexander's empire broke up shortly after his death, and Alexander's general, [[Seleucus I Nicator]], tried to take control of [[Persia]], [[Mesopotamia]], and later Syria and [[Asia Minor]]. His ruling family is known as the [[Seleucid Dynasty]]. However he was killed in 281 BC by Ptolemy Keraunos. Greek language, philosophy, and art came with the colonists. During the [[Seleucid Dynasty]] throughout Alexander's former empire, Greek became the common tongue of diplomacy and literature. Overland trade brought about some fascinating cultural exchanges. Buddhism came in from India, while [[Zoroastrianism]] travelled west to influence [[Judaism]]. Incredible statues of the [[Gautama Buddha|Buddha]] in classical Greek styles have been found in Persia and [[Afghanistan]], illustrating the mix of cultures that occurred around this time (See [[Greco-Buddhism]]). ===Parthian Empire (248 BC – 224 AD)=== {{main|Parthian Empire}} [[Image:SurenaImage.jpg|thumb|150px|left|<center>Bronze Statue of General Surena, [[National Museum of Iran]].]] [[Image:Parthian Queen Bust.jpg|thumb|150px|right|A bust from The [[National Museum of Iran]] of Queen [[Musa of Parthia|Musa]], wife of [[Phraates IV of Parthia]].]] [[Parthia]] was led by the [[Arsacid dynasty]], who reunited and ruled over the Iranian plateau, after defeating the [[Hellenic Greece|Greek]] [[Seleucid Empire]], beginning in the late 3rd century BC, and intermittently controlled [[Mesopotamia]] between ca 150 BC and 224 AD. It was the second native dynasty of ancient Iran ([[Persia]]). Parthia was the arch-enemy of the [[Roman Empire]] in the east; and it limited Rome's expansion beyond [[Cappadocia]] (central [[Anatolia]]). The Parthian armies included two types of [[cavalry]]: the heavily-armed and armoured [[cataphract]]s and lightly armed but highly-mobile [[Horse archer|mounted archers]]. For the Romans, who relied on heavy [[infantry]], the Parthians were too hard to defeat, as both types of cavalry were much faster and more mobile than foot soldiers. On the other hand, the Parthians found it difficult to occupy conquered areas as they were unskilled in [[siege warfare]]. Because of these weaknesses, neither the Romans nor the Parthians were able to completely [[annex]] each other. The Parthian empire lasted five centuries, longer than most Eastern Empires. The end of this long lasted empire came in 224 AD, when the empire was loosely organized and the last king was defeated by one of the empire's vassals, the Persians of the [[Sassanian]] dynasty. ====Sassanian Empire (224 – 651 AD)==== {{main|Sassanian Empire}} The first Shah of the [[Sassanian Empire]], [[Ardashir I]], started reforming the country both economically and militarily. The empire's territory encompassed all of today's Iran, [[Iraq]], [[Armenia]], [[Afghanistan]], eastern parts of [[Turkey]], and parts of [[Syria]], [[Pakistan]], [[Caucasia]], [[Central Asia]] and [[Arabia]]. During [[Khosrau II]]'s rule in 590-628, [[Egypt]], [[Jordan]], [[Palestine]] and [[Lebanon]] were also annexed to the Empire. The Sassanians called their empire ''Erânshahr'' (or ''Iranshahr'', "Dominion of the Aryans", i.e. of [[Iranian peoples|Iranians]]).<ref>Garthwaite, Gene R., ''The Persians'', p. 2</ref> [[Image:Sassanid-empire-610CE.png|thumb|right|230px|The [[Sassanian Empire]] at its greatest extent.]] <!-- Unsourced image removed: [[Image:Schapur I.jpg|thumb|left|200px|A giant rock relief at [[Naqsh-e Rostam]], depicting the triumph of Persian King [[Shapur I]] over three Roman Emperors [[Valerian]], [[Gordian III]] and [[Philip the Arab]]]] --> A chapter of Iran's history followed after roughly six hundred years of conflict with the [[Roman Empire]]. During this time, the Sassanian and Romano-Byzantine armies clashed for influence in Mesopotamia, Armenia and the Levant. Under Justinian I, the war came to an uneasy peace with payment of tribute to the Sassanians. However the Sassanians used the deposition of the Byzantine Emperor Maurice as a ''casus belli'' to attack the Empire. After many gains, the Sassanians were defeated at Issus, Constantinople and finally Nineveh, resulting in peace. With the conclusion of the [[Roman-Persian wars]], the war-exhausted Persians lost the [[Battle of al-Qâdisiyah]] (632) in [[Hilla]], (present day [[Iraq]]) to the invading forces of Islam. The Persian general [[Rostam Farrokhzad]] had been criticised for his decision to face the Arabs on their own ground, suggesting that the Persians could have prevailed if they had stayed on the opposite bank of the [[Euphrates]]. The first day of battle ended with Persian advances and the Arab force appeared as though it would succumb to the much larger [[Sassanian]] army. In particular, the latter's elephants terrified the Arab cavalry. By the third day of battle, Arab veterans arrived on the scene and reinforced the Arab army. In addition a clever trick whereby the Arab horses were decorated in costume succeeded in frightening the Persian elephants. When an Arab warrior succeeded in slaying the lead elephant, the rest fled into the rear, trampling numerous Persian fighters. At dawn of the fourth day, a sandstorm broke out blowing sand in the Persian army's faces resulting in total disarray for the [[Sassanian]] army and paving way for the [[Islamic conquest of Persia]]. [[Image:Knight-Iran.JPG|thumb|The Statue of [[Khosrow II|Khosrow Parviz(King)]] in his full armour riding his favourite horse, Shabdiz, ([[Taq-e Bostan]], [[Kermanshah]]).]] The Sassanian era, encompassing the length of the [[Late Antiquity]] period, is considered to be one of the most important and influential historical periods in Iran, and had a major impact on the world. In many ways the Sassanian period witnessed the highest achievement of [[Persian culture|Persian civilization]], and constituted the last great Iranian Empire before the adoption of Islam. Persia influenced Roman civilization considerably during Sassanian times,<ref>J. B. Bury, p.109.</ref> their cultural influence extending far beyond the empire's territorial borders, reaching as far as Western Europe,<ref>Durant.</ref> Africa,<ref>[http://www.transoxiana.com.ar/0104/sasanians.html Transoxiana 04: Sassanians in Africa]</ref> China and India<ref>Sarfaraz, pp.329-330.</ref> and also playing a prominent role in the formation of both European and Asiatic medieval art.<ref>[http://www.artarena.force9.co.uk/sass2.htm Iransaga: The art of Sassanians]</ref> This influence carried forward to the [[Islamic world]]. The dynasty's unique and aristocratic culture transformed the Islamic conquest and destruction of Iran into a Persian Renaissance.<ref>Durant.</ref> Much of what later became known as Islamic culture, architecture, writing and other contributions to civilization, were taken from the Sassanian Persians into the broader Muslim world.<ref>Zarinkoob, p.305.</ref> ==Caliphate and Sultanate era== {{main|Caliphate|Sultanate}} ===Islamic Conquest=== * '''{{main|Islamic conquest of Iran}}''' [[Image:Age-of-caliphs.png|300px|thumb|Stages of Islamic conquest {{legend|#a1584e|Expansion under the Prophet Mohammad, 622-632}} {{legend|#ef9070|Expansion during the Patriarchal Caliphate, 632-661}} {{legend|#fad07d|Expansion during the Umayyad Caliphate, 661-750}}]] Muslims invaded Iran in the time of [[Umar]] (637) and conquered it after several great battles. [[Yazdegerd III]] fled from one district to another until a local miller killed him for his purse at [[Merv]] in 651.<ref>{{cite web | url=http://p2.www.britannica.com/oscar/print?articleId=106324&fullArticle=true&tocId=9106324 | title=Iran | publisher=[[Encyclopædia Britannica]]}}</ref> By 674, Muslims had conquered [[Greater Khorasan]] (which included modern Iranian Khorasan province and modern [[Afghanistan]], [[Transoxania]], and [[Pakistan]]). The [[Islamic conquest of Persia]] led to the end of the [[Sassanid Empire]] and the eventual decline of the [[Zoroastrianism|Zoroastrian]] religion in [[Persian Empire|Persia]]. The majority of Iranians gradually converted to Islam. However, the most of the achievements of the previous Persian civilizations were not lost, but were absorbed by the new [[Islam]]ic polity. As [[Bernard Lewis]] has quoted<ref name="lewis">{{cite web | url=http://www.tau.ac.il/dayancenter/mel/lewis.html | title=Iran in history | first=Bernard | last=Lewis | publisher=[[Tel Aviv University]] | accessdate=2007-04-03}}</ref> <blockquote>"These events have been variously seen in Iran: by some as a blessing, the advent of the true faith, the end of the age of ignorance and heathenism; by others as a humiliating national defeat, the conquest and subjugation of the country by foreign invaders. Both perceptions are of course valid, depending on one's angle of vision."</blockquote> ===Umayyad dynasty=== {{main|Umayyad}} After the fall of [[Sasanian|Sasanian dynasty]] in 651, the [[Umayyad]] Arabs adopted many Persian customs especially the administrative and the court mannerisms. Arab provincial governors were undoubtedly either Persianized [[Arameans]] or ethnic Persians; certainly Persian remained the language of official business of the caliphate until the adoption of Arabic toward the end of the 7th century,<ref>Hawting G., ''The First Dynasty of Islam. The Umayyad Caliphate AD 661-750'', (London) 1986, pp. 63-64</ref> when in 692 minting began at the caliphal capital, [[Damascus]]. The new Islamic coins evolved from imitations of Sasanian coins (as well as [[Byzantine]]), and the [[Middle-Persian|Pahlavi]] script on the coinage was replaced with [[Arabic alphabet]]. During the reign of the [[Ummayad]] dynasty, the [[Arab]] conquerors imposed [[Arabic language|Arabic]] as the primary language of the subject peoples throughout their empire. [[Hajjāj ibn Yusuf]], who was not happy with the prevalence of the [[Persian language]] in the [[divan]], ordered the official language of the conquered lands to be replaced by Arabic, sometimes by force.<ref>[[Cambridge History of Iran]], by [[Richard Nelson Frye]], [[Abdolhosein Zarrinkoub]], et al. Section on The Arab Conquest of Iran and . Vol 4, 1975. London. p.46</ref> In [[Biruni]]'s ''From The Remaining Signs of Past Centuries'' for example it is written: <blockquote>"When [[Qutaibah bin Muslim]] under the command of [[Al-Hajjaj bin Yousef]] was sent to [[Khwarazmia]] with a military expedition and conquered it for the second time, he swiftly killed whomwever wrote the Khwarazmian native language that knew of the Khwarazmian heritage, history, and culture. He then killed all their [[Zoroastrian]] priests and burned and wasted their books, until gradually the illiterate only remained, who knew nothing of writing, and hence their history was mostly forgotten."<ref>[[Biruni]]. الآثار الباقية عن القرون الخالية, p.35,36,48 وقتی قتبیه بن مسلم سردار حجاج، بار دوم بخوارزم رفت و آن را باز گشود هرکس را که خط خوارزمی می نوشت و از تاریخ و علوم و اخبار گذشته آگاهی داشت از دم تیغ بی دریغ درگذاشت و موبدان و هیربدان قوم را یکسر هلاک نمود و کتابهاشان همه بسوزانید و تباه کرد تا آنکه رفته رفته مردم امی ماندند و از خط و کتابت بی بهره گشتند و اخبار آنها اکثر فراموش شد و از میان رفت</ref> </blockquote> There are a number of historians who see the rule of the Umayyads as setting up the "[[dhimmi|dhimmah]]" to increase taxes from the ''[[dhimmi]]s'' to benefit the Arab Muslim community financially and by discouraging conversion.<ref name="Astren">Fred Astren pg.33-35</ref> Governors lodged complaints with the caliph when he enacted laws that made conversion easier, depriving the provinces of revenues. In the 7th century AD, when many non-Arabs such as [[Persian people|Persians]] entered Islam were recognized as [[Mawali]] and treated as second class citizens by the ruling Arab elite, until the end of the [[Umayyad]] dynasty. During this era Islam was initially associated with the ethnic identity of the Arab and required formal association with an Arab tribe and the adoption of the client status of ''[[mawali]]''.<ref name="Astren"/> The half-hearted policies of the late [[Umayyad]]s to tolerate non-Arab Muslims and [[Shi'a]]s had failed to quell unrest among these minorities. With the death of the [[Umayyad]] [[Caliph]] [[Hisham ibn Abd al-Malik]] in 743, the Islamic world was launched into civil war. [[Abu Muslim Khorasani|Abu Muslim]] was sent to Khorasan by the Abbasids initially as a propagandist and then to revolt on their behalf. He took [[Merv]] defeating the [[Umayyad]] governor there [[Nasr ibn Sayyar]]. He became the [[de facto]] Abbasid governor of Khurasan. In 750, Abu Muslim became leader of the Abbasid army and defeated the Umayyads at the [[Battle of the Zab]]. Abu Muslim stormed [[Damascus]], the capital of the Umayyad caliphate, later that year. ===Abbasid dynasty and Iranian Semi-independent governments=== {{main|Abbasid|Tahirid|Saffarid|Ziyarid|Samanid|Buwayhid}} [[Image:Sculpture of Abu Muslim Khorasani.jpg|thumb|200px|A sculpture of [[Abu Muslim Khorasani]]]] The Abbasid army consisted primarily of Khorasanians and was led by an Iranian general, [[Abu Muslim Khorasani]]. It contained both Iranian and Arab elements, and the Abbasids enjoyed both Iranian and Arab support. The Abbasids, who overthrew the Umayyads in 750.<ref name="Islamic Conquest">[http://www.iranchamber.com/history/islamic_conquest/islamic_conquest.php Islamic Conquest]</ref> One of the first changes the Abbasids made after taking power from the Umayyads was to move the empire's capital from [[Damascus]], in [[Levant]], to [[Iraq]]. The latter region was influenced by Persian history and culture, and moving the capital was part of the Persian mawali demand for less Arab influence in the empire. The city of [[Baghdad]] was constructed on the [[Tigris River]], in 762, to serve as the new Abbasid capital. The Abbasids established the position of [[vizier]] like [[Barmakids]] in their administration, which was the equivalent of a "vice-caliph," or second-in-command. Eventually, this change meant that many caliphs under the Abbasids ended up in a much more ceremonial role than ever before, with the vizier in real power. A new Persian bureaucracy began to replace the old Arab aristocracy, and the entire administration reflected these changes, demonstrating that the new dynasty was different in many ways to the Umayyads.<ref name="AHGC"> Applied History Research Group, University of Calagary, "[http://www.ucalgary.ca/applied_history/tutor/islam/fractured/ The Islamic World to 1600", Last accessed August 26, 2006 </ref> [[Image:Abbasprovinz.png|thumb|250px|left|Provinces of Abbasid caliphate during 750-820 CE]] By the 9th century, Abbasid control began to wane as regional leaders sprang up in the far corners of the empire to challenge the central authority of the Abbasid caliphate.<ref name="AHGC"/> The Abbasid caliphs began enlisting Turkic-speaking warriors who had been moving out of Central Asia into [[Transoxiana]] as slave warriors as early as the ninth century. Shortly thereafter the real power of the Abbasid caliphs began to wane; eventually they became religious figureheads while the warrior slaves ruled. As the power of the Abbasid caliphs diminished, a series of dynasties rose in various parts of Iran, some with considerable influence and power. Among the most important of these overlapping dynasties were the [[Tahirids]] in [[Khorasan]] (820-72); the [[Saffarids]] in [[Sistan]] (867-903); and the [[Samanids]] (875-1005), originally at [[Bokhara]]. The Samanids eventually ruled an area from central Iran to [[Pakistan]].<ref name="Islamic Conquest"/> By the early 10th century, the Abbasids almost lost control to the growing Persian faction known as the [[Buwayhid dynasty]](934-1055). Since much of the Abbasid administration had been Persian anyway, the Buwayhid were quietly able to assume real power in Baghdad. The Buwayhid were defeated in the mid-11th century by the [[Seljuk]] Turks, who continued to exert influence over the Abbasids, while publicly pledging allegiance to them. The balance of power in Baghdad remained as such - with the Abbasids in power in name only - until the Mongol invasion of 1258 sacked the city and definitively ended the Abbasid dynasty.<ref name="AHGC"/> [[Image:Iran circa 1000AD.png|thumb|right|250px|Map of Iranian Dynasties ''c.'' 1000]] During the [[Abbassid]] period an enfranchisement was experienced by the ''mawali'' and a shift was made in political conception from that of a primarily Arab empire to one of a Muslim empire<ref name="Tobin">Tobin 113-115</ref> and c. 930 a requirement was enacted that required all bureaucrats of the empire be Muslim.<ref name="Astren">Fred Astren pg.33-35</ref> ===Conversion to Islam, [[Shu'ubiyya]] movement and [[Persianization]] process=== {{Seealso|Islamization in Iran|Shu'ubiyya}} [[Islamization]] was a long process by which [[Islam]] was gradually adopted by the majority population of Iran. [[Richard Bulliet]]'s "conversion curve" indicates that only about 10% of Iran converted to Islam during the relatively Arab-centric [[Umayyad]] period. Beginning in the [[Abassid]] period, with its mix of Persian as well as Arab rulers, the Muslim percentage of the population rose. As Persian muslims consolidated their rule of the country, the Muslim population rose from approx. 40% in the mid 9th century to close to 100% by the end of 11th century.<ref name="Tobin"/> [[Seyyed Hossein Nasr]] suggests that the rapid increase in conversion was aided by the Persian nationality of the rulers.<ref>Nasr, Hoseyn; Islam and the pliqht of modern man</ref> Although Persians adopted the religion of their conquerors, over the centuries they worked to protect and revive their distinctive language and culture, a process known as [[Persianization]]. Arabs and Turks participated in this attempt.<ref>Richard Frye, The Heritage of Persia, p. 243.</ref><ref>Rayhanat al- adab, (3rd ed.), vol. 1, p. 181.</ref><ref name="britannica">[[Encyclopaedia Britannica]], ''"Seljuq"'', Online Edition, ([http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9066688 LINK])</ref> [[Image:bukhara14.jpg|thumb|200px|right|[[Samanid mausoleum]] (between 892 and 943) in [[Bukhara]], [[Uzbekistan]] (photo 2003).]] In the [[9th Century|9th]] and [[10th Century|10th]] centuries, non-Arab subjects of the [[Ummah]] created a movement called [[Shu'ubiyyah]] in response to the privileged status of Arabs. Most of those behind the movement were Persian, but references to [[Egyptians]], [[Berbers]] and [[Aramaeans]] are attested.<ref>Enderwitz, S. "Shu'ubiyya". ''Encyclopedia of Islam''. Vol. IX (1997), pp. 513-14.</ref> Citing as its basis Islamic notions of equality of races and nations, the movement was primarily concerned with preserving [[Persia]]n culture and protecting Persian identity, though within a Muslim context. The most notable effect of the movement was the survival of the [[Persian language]] to the present day. The [[Samanid dynasty]] was the first fully native dynasty to rule Iran since the Muslim conquest, and led the revival of Persian culture. The first important Persian poet after the arrival of Islam, [[Rudaki]], was born during this era and was praised by Samanid kings. The Samanids also revived many ancient Persian festivals. Their successor, the [[Ghaznavid Empire|Ghaznawids]], who were of non-Iranian Turkic origin, also became instrumental in the revival of Persian.<ref>[http://www.iranchamber.com/history/samanids/samanids.php Samanid Dynasty]</ref> The culmination of the [[Persianization]] movement was the [[Shahname]], the national epic of Iran, written almost entirely in Persian. This voluminous work, reflects Iran's ancient history, its unique cultural values, its pre-islamic [[Zoroastrian]] religion, and its sense of nationhood. According to [[Bernard Lewis]]:<ref name="lewis"/> <blockquote>"Iran was indeed Islamized, but it was not Arabized. Persians remained Persians. And after an interval of silence, Iran reemerged as a separate, different and distinctive element within Islam, eventually adding a new element even to Islam itself. Culturally, politically, and most remarkable of all even religiously, the Iranian contribution to this new Islamic civilization is of immense importance. The work of Iranians can be seen in every field of cultural endeavor, including Arabic poetry, to which poets of Iranian origin composing their poems in Arabic made a very significant contribution. In a sense, Iranian Islam is a second advent of Islam itself, a new Islam sometimes referred to as Islam-i Ajam. It was this Persian Islam, rather than the original Arab Islam, that was brought to new areas and new peoples: to the Turks, first in Central Asia and then in the Middle East in the country which came to be called Turkey, and of course to India. The Ottoman Turks brought a form of Iranian civilization to the walls of Vienna..."</blockquote> ===Turko-Persian Dynasties=== [[Image:Kharaghan.jpg|thumb|200px|left|The [[Kharraqan towers|Kharaghan twin towers]], built in 1067 AD, Persia, contain tombs of Seljuki princes.]] {{Main|Ghaznavids|Seljuks|Khwarezmid Dynasty}} In 962 a Turkish governor of the Samanids, [[Alptigin]], conquered [[Ghazna]] (in present-day Afghanistan) and established a dynasty, the [[Ghaznavids]], that lasted to 1186.<ref name="Islamic Conquest"/> The Ghaznavid empire grew by taking all of the Samanid territories south of the [[Amu Darya]] in the last decade of the 10th century, and eventually occupied much of present-day [[Iran]], [[Afghanistan]], [[Pakistan]] and northwest [[India]]. The Ghaznavids are generally credited with launching Islam into [[Hindu]]-dominated India. The invasion of India was undertaken in 1000 by the Ghaznavid ruler, [[Mahmud of Ghazna|Mahmud]], and continued for several years. They were unable to hold power for long, however, particularly after the death of Mahmud in 1030. By 1040 the Seljuks had taken over the Ghaznavid lands in Iran.<ref name="AHGC"/> The [[Seljuks]], who like the Ghaznavids were Turks, slowly conquered Iran over the course of the 11th century.<ref name="Islamic Conquest"/> The dynasty had its origins in the [[Oghuz Turks|Turcoman]] tribal confederations of Central Asia and marked the beginning of [[Turkic peoples|Turkic]] power in the [[Middle East]]. They established a [[Sunni]] [[Muslim]] dynasty that ruled parts of [[Central Asia]] and the [[Middle East]] from the 11th to 14th centuries. They set up an empire known as Great Seljuk Empire that stretched from [[Anatolia]] to [[Pakistan]] and was the target of the [[First Crusade]]. Today they are regarded as the cultural ancestors of the Western [[Turkish people|Turks]], the present-day inhabitants of [[Azerbaijan]], [[Turkey]], and [[Turkmenistan]], and they are remembered as great patrons of [[Persian culture]], [[Persian art|art]], [[Persian literature|literature]], and [[Persian language|language]].<ref name="iranica">O.Özgündenli, ''"Persian Manuscripts in Ottoman and Modern Turkish Libraries"'', [[Encyclopaedia Iranica]], Online Edition, ([http://www.iranica.com/newsite/articles/ot_grp7/ot_pers_mss_ott_20050106.html LINK])</ref><ref name="britannica">[[Encyclopaedia Britannica]], ''"Seljuq"'', Online Edition, ([http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9066688 LINK]): ''"... Because the Turkish Seljuqs had no Islamic tradition or strong literary heritage of their own, they adopted the cultural language of their Persian instructors in Islam. Literary Persian thus spread to the whole of Iran, and the Arabic language disappeared in that country except in works of religious scholarship ..."''</ref><ref name="Ravandi">M. Ravandi, ''"The Seljuq court at Konya and the Persianisation of Anatolian Cities"'', in Mesogeios (Mediterranean Studies), vol. 25-6 (2005), pp. 157-69</ref> Their leader, [[Tughril Beg]], turned his warriors against the Ghaznavids in Khorasan. He moved south and then west, conquering but not wasting the cities in his path. In 1055 the caliph in Baghdad gave Tughril Beg robes, gifts, and the title King of the East. Under Tughril Beg's successor, [[Malik Shah]] (1072&ndash;1092), Iran enjoyed a cultural and scientific renaissance, largely attributed to his brilliant Iranian vizier, [[Nizam al Mulk]]. These leaders established the observatory where [[Omar Khayyám]] did much of his experimentation for a new calendar, and they built [[Nizamiyya|religious schools]] in all the major towns. They brought [[Abu Hamid Ghazali]], one of the greatest Islamic theologians, and other eminent scholars to the Seljuk capital at Baghdad and encouraged and supported their work.<ref name="Islamic Conquest"/> [[Image:Seljuk Empire locator map.svg|thumb|right|300px|Seljuq empire at the time of its greatest extent, at the death of Malik Shah I]] When Malik Shah I died in 1092, the empire split as his brother and four sons quarrelled over the apportioning of the empire among themselves. In Anatolia, Malik Shah I was succeeded by [[Kilij Arslan I]] who founded the [[Sultanate of Rûm]] and in [[Syria]] by his brother [[Tutush I]]. In [[Persia]] he was succeeded by his son [[Mahmud I of Great Seljuk|Mahmud I]] whose reign was contested by his other three brothers [[Barkiyaruq]] in [[Iraq]], [[Muhammad I of Great Seljuk|Muhammad I]] in [[Baghdad]] and [[Ahmed Sanjar|Ahmad Sanjar]] in [[Greater Khorasan|Khorasan]]. As Seljuk power in Iran weakened, other dynasties began to step up in its place, including a resurgent Abbasid caliphate and the [[Khwarezmid Empire|Khwarezmshahs]]. The Khwarezmid Empire was a Sunni Muslim dynasty that ruled in Central Asia. Originally vassals of the Seljuks, they took advantage of the decline of the Seljuks to expand into Iran.<ref>[http://search.eb.com/eb/article-9045365 Encyclopædia Britannica]</ref> In 1194 the Khwarezmshah [[Tekish|Ala ad-Din Tekish]] defeated the Seljuk sultan [[Tugrul III]] in battle and the Seljuk empire in Iran collapsed. Of the former Seljuk Empire, only the [[Sultanate of Rüm]] in [[Anatolia]] remained. A serious internal threat to the Seljuks during their reign came from the [[Ismailis]], a secret sect with headquarters at [[Alamut]] between [[Rasht]] and [[Tehran]]. They controlled the immediate area for more than 150 years and sporadically sent out adherents to strengthen their rule by murdering important officials. Several of the various theories on the etymology of the word ''[[assassin]]'' derive from these killers.<ref name="Islamic Conquest"/> ==Mongol invasions and local governments== {{main|Mongol invasion of Central Asia|Mongol Empire|Ilkhanate|Timurid dynasty}} [[Image:PremongolEurasia.png|thumb|left|300px|[[Eurasia]] on the eve of the Mongol invasions, ''c.'' 1200.]] The Khwarezmid Empire only lasted for a few decades, until the arrival of the [[Mongols]]. [[Genghis Khan]] had unified the Mongols, and under him the [[Mongol Empire]] quickly expanded in several directions, until by 1218 it bordered Khwarezm. At that time, the Khwarezmid Empire was ruled by [[Muhammad II of Khwarezm|Ala ad-Din Muhammad]] (1200-1220). Muhammad, like Genghis, was intent on expanding his lands and had gained the submission of most of Iran. He declared himself shah and demanded formal recognition from the Abbasid caliph [[an-Nasir]]. When the caliph rejected his claim, Ala ad-Din Muhammad proclaimed one of his nobles caliph and unnsuccessfully tried to depose an-Naisr. The [[Mongol invasion]] of Iran began in 1219, after two diplomatic missions to Khwarezm sent by Genghis Khan had been massacred. During 1220–21 [[Bukhara]], [[Samarkand]], [[Herat]], [[Tus]], and [[Neyshabur]] were razed, and the whole populations were slaughtered. The Khwarezm-Shah fled, to die on an island off the Caspian coast.<ref> <a href="http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-32173/Iran"> Mongol invasion of Iran</a></ref> Before his death in 1227, Genghis had reached western Azarbaijan, pillaging and burning cities along the way. The Mongol invasion was disastrous to the Iranians. Although the Mongol invaders were eventually converted to Islam and accepted the culture of Iran, the Mongol destruction of the Islamic heartland marked a major change of direction for the region. Much of the six centuries of Islamic scholarship, culture, and infrastructure was destroyed as the invaders burned libraries, and replaced mosques with Buddhist temples.<ref>[http://www.ucalgary.ca/applied_history/tutor/islam/mongols/ ]The Il-khanate]</ref> The Mongols killed many civilians. Just in [[Merv]] and [[Urgench]](Gorganj) about 2.5 million civilians were slaughtered.<ref>[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Death_toll#Individual_battles_and_sieges]</ref>{{Verify source|date=June 2007}} Destruction of [[qanat]] irrigation systems destroyed the pattern of relatively continuous settlement, producing numerous isolated oasis cities in a land where they had previously been rare.<ref> Water, ch. 3</ref> A large number of people, particularly males, were killed; between 1220 and 1258, the total population of Iran may have dropped from 2,500,000 to 250,000 as a result of mass [[murder|extermination]] and [[famine]].<ref>[http://www.sfusd.k12.ca.us/schwww/sch618/Ibn_Battuta/Battuta's_Trip_Three.html Battuta's Travels: Part Three - Persia and Iraq]</ref> [[Image:Mongol Empire History.jpg|thumb|300px|The Mongol Empire and its successor [[khanate]]s]] After Genghis' death, Iran was ruled by several Mongol commanders. Genghis' grandson, [[Hulagu Khan]], was tasked with expanding the Mongol empire in Iran in 1255. Arriving with an army, he established himself in the region and founded the [[Ilkhanate]], which would rule Iran for the next eighty years. He seized Baghdad in 1258 and put the last Abbasid caliph to death. The westward advance of his forces was stopped by the [[Bahri dynasty|Mamelukes]], however, at the [[Battle of Ain Jalut]] in [[Palestine]] in 1260. Hulagu's campagains against the Muslims also enraged [[Berke]], khan of the [[Golden Horde]] and a convert to Islam. Hulagu and Berke fought against each other, demonstrating the weakening unity of the Mongol empire. The rule of Hulagu's great-grandson, [[Ghazan Khan]] (1295-1304) saw the establishment of Islam as the state religion of the Ilkhanate. Ghazan and his famous Iranian vizier, [[Rashid al-Din]], brought Iran a partial and brief economic revival. The Mongols lowered taxes for artisans, encouraged agriculture, rebuilt and extended irrigation works, and improved the safety of the trade routes. As a result, commerce increased dramatically. Items from India, China, and Iran passed easily across the Asian steppes, and these contacts culturally enriched Iran. For example, Iranians developed a new style of painting based on a unique fusion of solid, two-dimensional Mesopotamian painting with the feathery, light brush strokes and other motifs characteristic of China. After Ghazan's nephew [[Abu Said]] died in 1335, however, the Ilkhanate lapsed into civil war and was divided between several petty dynasties - most prominently the [[Jalayirids]], [[Muzaffarids]], [[Sarbadars]] and [[Kartids]]. [[Image:Timurid Dynasty 821 - 873 (AD).PNG|thumb|250px|left|Map of the [[Timurid Empire]]]] Iran remained divided until the arrival of [[Timurlane]], who is variously described as of Mongol or Turkic origin. After establishing a power base in Transoxiana, he invaded Iran in 1381 and conquered it piece by piece. Timerlane's campaigns were known for their brutality; many people were slaughtered and several cities were destroyed. His regime was characterized by its inclusion of Iranians in administrative roles and its promotion of architecture and poetry. His successors, the [[Timurids]], maintained a hold on most of Iran until 1452, when they lost the bulk of it to [[Black Sheep Turkmen]]. The Black Sheep Turkmen were conquered by the [[White Sheep Turkmen]] under [[Uzun Hasan]] in 1468; Uzun Hasan and his successors were the masters of Iran until the rise of the Safavids.<ref>This section incorporates test from the public domain [[Library of Congress Country Studies]] [http://lcweb2.loc.gov/frd/cs/irtoc.html]</ref> == Iran and the Islamic culture and civilization == {{Main article|Islamic Golden Age}} [[Image:Ghotb2.jpg|thumb|right|Photo taken from medieval manuscript by [[Qutb al-Din al-Shirazi|Qotbeddin Shirazi]] (1236–1311), a Persian Astronomer. The image depicts an epicyclic planetary model.]] The [[Islamization in Iran|Islamization of Iran]] was to yield deep transformations within the cultural, scientific, and political structure of Iran's society: The blossoming of [[Persian literature]], [[Iranian philosophy|philosophy]], [[Science and technology in Iran|medicine]] and [[Persian art|art]] became major elements of the newly-forming Muslim civilization. Inheriting a heritage of thousands of years of civilization, and being at the "crossroads of the major cultural highways",<ref>Caheb C., Cambridge History of Iran, ''Tribes, Cities and Social Organization'', vol. 4, p305–328</ref> contributed to Persia emerging as what culminated into the "[[Islamic Golden Age]]". During this period, [[List of Iranian scientists and scholars|hundreds of scholars and scientists]] vastly contributed to technology, science and medicine, later influencing the rise of European science during [[the Renaissance]].<ref>Kühnel E., in ''Zeitschrift der deutschen morgenländischen Gesell'', Vol. CVI (1956)</ref> The most important scholars of almost all of the Islamic sects and schools of thought were Persian or live in Iran including most notable and reliable [[Hadith]] collectors of [[Shia]] and [[Sunni]] like [[Shaikh Saduq]], [[Mohammad Ya'qub Kulainy|Shaikh Kulainy]], [[Muhammad al-Bukhari|Imam Bukhari]], [[Muslim ibn al-Hajjaj|Imam Muslim]] and [[Hakim al-Nishaburi]], the greatest [[Kalam|theologians]] of Shia and Sunni like [[Shaykh Tusi]], [[Al-Ghazali|Imam Ghazali]], [[Fakhr al-Din al-Razi|Imam Fakhr al-Razi]] and [[Al-Zamakhshari]], the greatest [[physicians]], [[Islamic astronomy|astronomers]], [[Logic in Islamic philosophy|logicians]], [[Islamic mathematics|mathematicians]], [[Metaphysics|metaphysicians]], [[Early Islamic philosophy|philosophers]] and [[Islamic science|scientists]] like [[Al-Farabi]], [[Avicenna]], and [[Nasīr al-Dīn al-Tūsī]], the greatest [[Shaykh of Sufism]] like [[Jalal ad-Din Muhammad Rumi|Rumi]], [[Abdul-Qadir Gilani]]. [[Ibn Khaldun]] narrates in his [[Muqaddimah]]:<ref>Translated by F. Rosenthal (III, pp. 311-15, 271-4 [Arabic]; R.N. Frye (p.91)</ref> <blockquote>''It is a remarkable fact that, with few exceptions, most Muslim scholars…in the intellectual sciences have been non-Arabs, thus the founders of grammar were [[Sibawaih]] and after him, [[al-Farsi]] and Az-[[Zajjaj]]. All of them were of [[Persian people|Persian]] descent they invented rules of ([[Arabic language|Arabic]]) grammar. Great jurists were Persians. Only the Persians engaged in the task of preserving knowledge and writing systematic scholarly works. Thus the truth of the [[Hadith|statement]] of the prophet ([[Muhammad]]) becomes apparent, "[[If learning were suspended in the highest parts of heaven the Persians would attain it]]"…The intellectual sciences were also the preserve of the Persians, left alone by the [[Arabs]], who did not cultivate them…as was the case with all crafts…This situation continued in the cities as long as the Persians and Persian countries, [[Iraq]], [[Khorasan]] and [[Transoxiana]] (modern Central Asia), retained their sedentary culture.''</blockquote> ===Sunnis in Iran=== [[Image:Haruniyeh.JPG|thumb|right|250px|Haruniyah structure in [[Tus]], [[Iran]], named after [[Harun al-Rashid]], the mausoleum of [[Al-Ghazali|Ghazali]] is expected to be situated on the entrance of this monument]] Sunnism was dominant form of Islam in most part of Iran from the beginning until rise of Safavids empire. According to [[Mortaza Motahhari]] the majority of Iranian scholars and masses remained Sunni till the time of the Safawids.<ref name="Motahhari">[http://www.al-islam.org/al-tawhid/iran/mutual.htm Islam and Iran: A Historical Study of Mutual Services]</ref> [[Nizamiyya]]s were the medieval institutions of [[madrassa|Islamic higher education]] established by [[Nizam al-Mulk|Khwaja Nizam al-Mulk]] in the eleventh century. Nizamiyyah institutes were the first well organized [[university|universities]] in the [[Muslim world]]. The most famous and celebrated of all the nizamiyyah schools was [[Al-Nizamiyya of Baghdad]] (established [[1065]]), where Khwaja Nizam al-Mulk appointed the distinguished philosopher and theologian, [[al-Ghazali]], as a professor. Other nizamiyyah schools were located in [[Nishapur]], [[Balkh]], [[Herat]] and [[Isfahan (city)|Isfahan]]. ===Shiism in Iran=== {{mainarticle|Islam in Iran}} The domination of Sunnis did not mean Shia were rootless in Iran. The writers of [[The Four Books]] of Shia were Iranian as well as many other great Shia scholars. [[Mortaza Motahhari]] has quoted:<ref name="Motahhari">[http://www.al-islam.org/al-tawhid/iran/mutual.htm Islam and Iran: A Historical Study of Mutual Services]</ref> <blockquote>The majority of Iranians turned to Shi'ism from the Safavid period onwards. Of course, it cannot be denied that Iran's environment was more favourable to the flourishing of the Shi'ism as compared to all other parts of the Muslim world. Shi'ism did not penetrate any land to the extent that it gradually could in Iran. With the passage of time, Iranians' readiness to practise Shi'ism grew day by day. Had Shi`ism not been deeply rooted in the Iranian spirit, the Safavids (907-1145/ 1501-1732) would not have succeeded in converting Iranians to the Shi'i creed and making them follow the Prophet's Ahl al-Bayt sheerly by capturing political power.</blockquote> ====Shiaism in Iran before Safavids==== [[Image:Imam Ali Reza.jpg|thumb|left|300px|[[Imam Reza shrine]], the greatest religious site in Iran, which was built in 9th century and the pilgrimage site for all Muslims since then]] The domination of the Sunni creed during the first nine Islamic centuries characterizes the religious history of Iran during this period. There were however some exceptions to this general domination which emerged in the form of the [[Zaidiyyah|Zaydīs]] of [[Tabaristan]], the [[Buwayhid]], the rule of [[Öljeitü|Sultan Muhammad Khudabandah]] (r. Shawwal 703-Shawwal 716/1304-1316) and the [[Sarbedaran]]. Nevertheless, apart from this domination there existed, firstly, throughout these nine centuries, Shia inclinations among many Sunnis of this land and, secondly, original [[Twelvers|Imami Shiism]] as well as [[Zaidiyyah|Zaydī Shiism]] had prevalence in some parts of Iran. During this period, Shia in Iran were nourished from [[Kufah]], [[Baghdad]] and later from [[Najaf]] and [[Hillah]].<ref>[http://www.al-islam.org/mot/iraqishiism/ Four Centuries of Influence of Iraqi Shiism on Pre-Safavid Iran]</ref> Shiism were dominant sect in [[Tabaristan]], [[Qom]], [[Kashan]], [[Avaj]] and [[Sabzevar]]. In many other areas merged population of Shia and Sunni lived. The first Zaidi state was established in [[Daylaman]] and [[Tabaristan]] (northern [[Iran]]) in 864 C.E. by the [[Alavids]];<ref>Article by Sayyid 'Ali ibn 'Ali Al-Zaidi, A short History of the Yemenite Shi‘ites (2005) Referencing: Iranian Influence on Moslem Literature</ref> it lasted until the death of its leader at the hand of the [[Samanids]] in 928 C.E. Roughly forty years later the state was revived in [[Gilan]] (north-western Iran) and survived under Hasanid leaders until 1126 C.E. After which from the 12th-13th centuries, the Zaidis of [[Daylaman]], [[Gilan]] and [[Tabaristan]] then acknowledge the Zaidi Imams of Yemen or rival Zaidi Imams within Iran.<ref>Article by Sayyid 'Ali ibn 'Ali Al-Zaidi, A short History of the Yemenite Shi‘ites (2005) Referencing: Encyclopedia Iranica</ref> Twelvers came to Iran from Arab regions in the course of four stages. First, through the [[Asharis tribe]] at the end of the first(AH)/seventh(AD) and during the second(AH)/eighth(AD) century. Second through the pupils of [[Sabzevar]], and especially those of [[Shaykh Mufid]], who were from [[Ray, Iran|Ray]] and [[Sabzawar]] and resided in those cities. Third, through the school of [[Hillah]] under the leadership of [[Allama Hilli]] and his son [[Fakhr al-Muhaqqiqin]]. Fourth, through the scholars of [[Jabal Amel]] residing in that region, or in Iraq, during the 10th(AH)/16th(AH) and 11th(AH)/17th(AH) centuries who later migrated to Iran.<ref name="Jafarian2">[http://www.imamreza.net/eng/imamreza.php?print=589 A Study of the Migration of Shi'i Works from Arab Regions to Iran at the Early Safavid Era]</ref> On the other hand [[Ismailis]] sent [[Dawah|Da'i (missioners)]] during [[Fatimid]] caliphate to Iran as well as other Muslim lands. When Ismailis divided into two sects, [[Nizari]]s established their base in Iran. [[Hassan-i Sabbah]] conquered fortresses and captured [[Alamut]] in 1090 AD. Nizaris used this fortress until a Mongol raid in 1256 AD. After the Mongol raid and fall of the Abbasids Sunni hierarchies suffered a lot. Not only did they loose the caliphate but also Sunni was not official madhab for a while. Furthermore many libraries and [[Madrasah]]s were destroyed and some of the Sunni scholars migrated to other Islamic lands like [[Anatolia]], [[India]] and [[Egypt]]. On the other hand Shia whose center wasn't in Iran at that time didn't suffered and for the first time it could invite other Muslims openly. Even several local Shia dynasties like [[Sarbadars]] were established during this time. [[Sufism]] played a major role in spread of Shiism in this time. [[Hossein Nasr]] has quoted: <blockquote>After the Mongol invasion Shiims and Sufism once again formed a close association in many ways. Some of the [[Ismailis]] whose power had broken by the Mongols, went underground and appeared later within Sufi orders or as new branches of already existing orders. In [[Twelvers|Twelve-Imam Shiism]] also from Seventh(AH)/thirteenths(AD) to the tenth(AH)/sixteenth(AD) century Sufism began to grow within official Shiite circles.<ref>Nasr, 1972 :115</ref></blockquote> Nasr insists on the role of [[Tariqah|Sufis orders]] on spread of Shiism. <blockquote>The extremist sects of the [[Hurufism|Hurufis]] and [[Shasha'a]] grew directly out of a background that is both Shiite and Sufi. More important in the long run than these sects were the Sufi orders which spread in Persia at this time and aided in the preparing the ground for the Shiite movement of Safavids. Two of these orders are of particular significance in this question of the relation of Shiism and Sufism:The [[Nimatullahi]] order and [[Nurbakhshi]] order.<ref>Nasr, 1972 :116</ref> </blockquote> ====Shiaism in Iran after Safawids==== [[Image:Naghshe Jahan Square Isfahan modified.jpg|thumbnail|250px|right|[[Imam Square]],Naghshe Jahan Square, the biggest historic square in the world, in [[Isfahan (city)|Isfahan]] was the symbolic center of the [[Safavid Empire]]]] [[Ismail I]] initiated a religious policy to recognize Shi'a Islam as the official religion of the [[Safavid Empire]], and the fact that modern Iran remains an officially Shi'ite state is a direct result of Ismail's actions. Unfortunately for Ismail, most of his subjects were Sunni. He thus had to enforce official Shi'ism violently, putting to death those who opposed him. Under this pressure, Safavid subjects either converted, or pretended to convert, but it is safe to say that the majority of the population was probably genuinely Shi'ite by the end of the Safavid period in the 18th century, and most Iranians today are Shi'ite, although small Sunni populations do exist in that country.<ref>[http://www.ucalgary.ca/applied_history/tutor/islam/empires/safavid/ Shah Ismail I, 1501-26]</ref> The Safavids made systematic efforts to establish Shiism as the religion of Iran. <blockquote>Immediately following the establishment of Safavid power the migration of scholars began and they were invited to Iran... By the side of the immigration of scholars, Shi'i works and writings were also brought to Iran from Arabic-speaking lands, and they performed an important role in the religious development of Iran... In fact, since the time of the leadership of Shaykh Mufid and Shaykh Tusi, Iraq had a central academic position for Shi'ism. This central position was transferred to Iran during the Safavid era for two-and-a-half centuries, after which it partly returned to Najaf. Until before the Safavid era Shi'i manuscripts were mainly written in Iraq, and with the establishment of the Safavid rule these manuscripts were transferred to Iran.<ref name="Jafarian2"/></blockquote> [[Image:Molla2.jpg|thumb|right|300px|[[Ulama|Shia scholars]] in the royal presence of [[Qajar dynasty]]. The painting style is markedly Qajari.]] This led to a wide gap between Iran and its Sunni neighbors until 20th century. During the early days of the [[Islamic Revolution]], [[Ayatollah Khomeini]] endeavored to bridge the gap between Shiites and Sunnis by forbidding criticizing the Caliphs who preceded [[Ali]] — an issue that causes much animosity between the two sects. Also, he declared it permissible for Shiites to pray behind Sunni imams.<ref>[http://www.islamonline.net/servlet/Satellite?c=Article_C&cid=1175008835987&pagename=Zone-English-Muslim_Affairs%2FMAELayout#9 Frequently Asked Questions on Iran]</ref> ==The birth of modern Iran== {{Unreferencedsection|date=June 2007}} Persia underwent a revival under the [[Safavids|Safavid dynasty]] (1502-1736), the most prominent figure of which was [[Abbas I of Safavid|Shah Abbas I]]. Some historians credit the Safavid dynasty for founding the modern nation-state of Iran. Iran's contemporary [[Shia]] character, and significant segments of Iran's current borders take their origin from this era (''e.g. [[Treaty of Zuhab]]''). ===Safavid Empire (1502-1736)=== {{Main articles|Safavid Empire|Afsharid dynasty|Zand dynasty|Qajar dynasty|Pahlavi dynasty}} [[Image:LocationSafavid.PNG|right|frame|200px|The Safavid Empire at its [[1512]] (beginning) borders.]] The Safavids were an [[Iranian]]<ref>Helen Chapin Metz. Iran, a Country study. 1989. Original from the University of Michigan. pg 313. Emory C. Bogle. Islam: Origin and Belief. University of Texas Press. 1989. pg 145. Stanford Jay Shaw. History of the Ottomon Empire. Cambridge University Press. 1977. pg 77 </ref> [[Shia]] dynasty of mixed [[Azerbaijani people|Azeri]]<ref name="fryeiranica">[http://www.iranica.com/newsite/articles/v13f3/v13f3004a.html Encyclopaedia Iranica. R. N. Frye. Peoples of Iran.]</ref> and [[Kurdish people|Kurdish]]<ref name="R.M.">[http://www.iranica.com/newsite/articles/v8f1/v8f1010.html R.M. Savory. Ebn Bazzaz. Encyclopedia Iranica]</ref> origins, which ruled [[Persia]] from [[1501]]/[[1502]] to [[1722]]. Safavids established the greatest [[Persian empire|Iranian empire]]<ref>Andrew J. Newman, Safavid Iran: Rebirth of a Persian Empire, I. B. Tauris (March 30, 2006)</ref> since the [[Islamic conquest of Persia]], and established the [[Twelvers|Ithnāˤashari school]] of [[Imamah (Shi'a twelver doctrine)|Shi'a Islam]]<ref name="savoryeiref"> R.M. Savory, ''Safavids'', [[Encyclopedia of Islam]], 2nd edition</ref> as the official [[religion]] of their empire. The Safavid ruling dynasty was founded by Ismāil, from now known as [[Shah Ismail I|Shāh Ismāil I.]]<ref name="ismailsafaviiranica">[http://www.iranica.com/newsite/articles/v8f6/v8f665.html Encyclopedia Iranica. ''ٍIsmail Safavi'']</ref> Practically worshipped by his [[Qizilbash|Qizilbāsh]] followers, Ismāil invaded Shirvan and avenged the death of his father. Afterwards, he went on a conquest campaign, capturing [[Tabriz]] in July 1501, where he enthroned himself the Shāh of Azerbaijan<ref>Richard Tapper. "Shahsevan in Safavid Persia", ''Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies'', University of London, Vol. 37, No. 3, 1974, p. 324</ref><ref>Lawrence Davidson, Arthur Goldschmid, "A Concise History of the Middle East", Westview Press, 2006, p. 153</ref><ref>[http://concise.britannica.com/ebc/article-9377424/Safavid-dynasty Britannica Concise. "Safavid Dynasty", Online Edition 2007]</ref> and minted coins in his name, proclaiming Shi’ism the official religion of his domain.<ref name="savoryeiref" /> Although initially the masters of Azerbaijan only, the Safavids had, in fact, won the struggle for power in Persia which had been going on for nearly a century between various dynasties and political forces. A year after his victory in Tabriz, Ismāil proclaimed most of Persia as his domain.<ref name="savoryeiref" /> He soon conquered and unified Iran under his rule. Soon after, the new Iranian Empire conquered most of the modern day Afghanistan and Iraq. [[Image:Shah Abbas I.jpg|thumb|''Shah Abbas I of Safavid at a banquet''. Detail from a celing fresco; Chehel Sotoun Palace; Isfahan.]] The greatest of the Safavid monarchs, [[Shah Abbas I the Great]] (1587&ndash;1629) came to power in 1587 aged 16. Abbas I first fought the Uzbeks, recapturing [[Herat]] and Mashhad in 1598. Then he turned against the Ottomans recapturing Baghdad, eastern Iraq and the Caucasian provinces by 1622. He also used his new force to dislodge the Portuguese from [[Bahrain]] (1602) and the English navy from [[Hormuz]] (1622), in the [[Persian Gulf]] (a vital link in Portuguese trade with India). He expanded commercial links with the [[English East India Company]] and the [[Dutch East India Company]]. Thus Abbas I was able to break the dependence on the Qizilbash for military might and therefore was able to centralize control. The Safavid dynasty soon became a major power in the world and started the promotion of tourism in Iran. Under their rule Persian Architecture flowered again and saw many new monuments. Except for Shah [[Abbas II of Persia|Abbas II]], the Safavid rulers after Abbas I were ineffectual. The end of his reign, [[1666]], marked the beginning of the end of the Safavid dynasty. Despite falling revenues and military threats, later shahs had lavish lifestyles. Shah Soltan Hosain (1694-1722) in particular was known for his love of wine and disinterest in governance.<ref>Mottahedeh, Roy, ''The Mantle of the Prophet : Religion and Politics in Iran'', One World, Oxford, 1985, 2000, p.204</ref> The country was repeatedly raided on its frontiers. Finally, [[Ghilzai]] [[Pashtun]] chieftain named [[Mirwais Khan Hotak|Mir Wais Khan]] began a rebellion in [[Kandahar]] and defeated the Safavid army. Later, in [[1722]] an Afghan army led by Mir Wais' son [[Mir Mahmud Hotaki|Mahmud]] marched across eastern Iran, besieged, and sacked Isfahan. Mahmud proclaimed himself 'Shah' of Persia. Meanwhile, Persia's imperial rivals, the Ottomans and the Russians, took advantage of the chaos in the country to seize territory for themselves.<ref>Michael Axworthy, biography of Nader, The Sword of Persia (I.B. Tauris, 2006) pp.17-56</ref> ===Civil wars and impermanent governments=== {{Main articles|Afsharid dynasty|Zand dynasty}} A faltering Safavid court eventually gave way to the conqueror [[Nadir Shah]] who restored order and implemented policies for safekeeping the territorial integrity of Iran. He was one of the last great conquerors of Asia and in a short period conquered Afghanistan and India and giving a huge boost to Iran's economy. The [[Afsharid dynasty|Afsharid]]s were then followed by the [[Zand dynasty]], founded by [[Karim Khan]]. [[Zand dynasty]] was a period a peace for Iranians specially under the rule of Karim Khan. ===Qajar dynasty (1795-1925) and colonial era=== {{Main articles|Qajar dynasty}} [[Image:Yek toman qajar.jpg|thumb|280px|right|Qajar era currency bill with depiction of [[Nasser al-Din Shah Qajar]].]] By the 17th century, European countries, including [[Great Britain]], [[Imperial Russia]], and [[France]], had already started establishing colonial footholds in the region. Iran as a result lost sovereignty over many of its provinces to these countries via the [[Treaty of Turkmenchay]], the [[Treaty of Gulistan]], and others. A new era in the History of Persia dawned with the [[Constitutional Revolution of Iran]] against the Shah in the late 19th and early 20th century. The Shah managed to remain in power, granting a limited constitution in 1906 (making the country a [[constitutional monarchy]]). The first Majlis (parliament) was convened on October 7, 1906. The discovery of [[Petroleum|oil]] in 1908 by the British in [[Khuzestan]] spawned intense renewed interest in Persia by the [[British Empire]] (''see [[William Knox D'Arcy]] and [[Anglo-Iranian Oil Company]], now [[BP]]''). Control of Persia remained contested between the [[United Kingdom]] and [[Russia]], in what became known as [[The Great Game]], and codified in the [[Anglo-Russian Convention of 1907]], which divided Persia into spheres of influence, regardless of her national sovereignty. [[Image:Map Iran 1900-en.png|200px|thumb|A Map of Iran under the Qajar dynasty in the 19th century]] Finally, the [[Constitutionalist movement of Gilan]] and the central power vacuum caused by the instability of the [[Qajar]] government resulted in the rise of [[Reza Shah Pahlavi]] and the [[Pahlavi dynasty]] in 1921. During [[World War I]] the country was occupied by British and Russian forces but was essentially neutral. In 1919, Britain attempted to establish a [[protectorate]] in Iran, aided by the Soviet Union's withdrawal in 1921. In that year a military coup established [[Reza Khan]], a Persian officer of the Persian Cossack Brigade, as dictator and then hereditary [[Shah]] of the new Pahlavi dynasty (1925). ==Pahlavi dynasty (1925-1979)== {{Unreferencedsection|date=June 2007}} {{Main articles|Pahlavi dynasty}} [[Image:Reza.jpg|left|thumb|[[Reza Shah Pahlavi]]]] Reza Shah Pahlavi ruled for almost 16 years, at the beginning mostly secretly aided by the British, installed the new Pahlavi dynasty, thwarted the British attempt at control, and pushed to have the country developed. Under his reign, Persia (Iran) began to modernize and to secularize politics, and the central government reasserted its authority over the tribes and provinces. ===World War II=== [[Image:28mordad1332.jpg|right|thumb|200px|Soldiers surround the Parliament building in [[Tehran]] on August 19, 1953.]] During [[World War II]], Iran was a vital oil-supply source and link in the Allied supply line for [[lend-lease]] supplies to the Soviet Union. The then-Shah's tacit pro-German sympathies led to British and Indian forces from [[Iraq]] and Soviet forces from the north [[Anglo-Soviet invasion of Iran|occupying Iran]] in August 1941. In September, the British forced Reza to abdicate in favour of his pro-British son [[Mohammad Reza Pahlavi of Iran|Mohammad Reza Shah Pahlavi]], who ruled until 1979. At the [[Tehran Conference of 1943]], the [[Tehran Declaration]] guaranteed the post-war independence and boundaries of Iran. However, when the war actually ended, Soviet troops stationed in northwestern Iran not only refused to withdraw but backed revolts that established short-lived, pro-Soviet separatist national states in the northern regions of Azerbaijan and [[Eastern Kurdistan|Kurdistan]], the [[Azerbaijan People's Government]] and the [[Republic of Kurdistan]] respectively, in late 1945, both effectively Soviet puppet regimes. Soviet troops did not withdraw from Iran proper until May 1946 after receiving a promise of oil concessions. The Soviet republics in the north were soon overthrown and the oil concessions were revoked. ===United States and the Shah=== [[Image:Mossadeq.jpg|thumb|left|upright|Former Iranian prime minister, Dr. [[Mohammad Mossadegh]], who nationalized the British-owned oil industry.]] Initially there were hopes that post-occupation Iran could become a [[constitutional monarchy]]. The new, young Shah [[Mohammad Reza Shah Pahlavi]] initially took a very hands-off role in government, and allowed [[parliament]] to hold a lot of power. Some elections were held in the first shaky years, although they remained mired in corruption. Parliament became chronically unstable, and from the 1947 to 1951 period Iran saw the rise and fall of six different prime ministers. In 1951 Prime Minister [[Mohammed Mosaddeq]] received the vote required from the parliament to nationalize the British-owned oil industry, in a situation known as the [[Abadan Crisis]]. Despite British pressure, including an economic blockade, the nationalization continued. Mossadegh was briefly removed from power in 1952 but was quickly re-appointed by the shah, due to an overwhelming majority in parliament supporting him, and he, in turn, forced the Shah into a brief exile in August 1953. A military coup headed by his former minister of the Interior and retired army general [[Fazlollah Zahedi]], with the active support of the intelligence services of the British (MI6) and US (CIA) governments - including mass propaganda leaflet dropping (slogans such as; "Up with Communism, Down with Ala" and "Down with Islam, up with Communism" – designed specifically to turn the population against Mossadegh, as well as the agents of CIA and MI6 (dressed as Mossadegh supporters) spurting machine guns into crowds{{Fact|date=March 2008}} (known as [[Operation Ajax]]), forced Mossadegh from office on [[August 19]]. Mossadegh was arrested and tried for treason by an un-official military tribunal, (Mossadegh was imprisoned and his foreign minister, Hossein Fatemi, executed) while Zahedi succeeded him as prime minister, and suppressed opposition to the Shah, specifically the National Front and Communist Tudeh Party. In return for the US support the Shah agreed, in 1954, to allow an international consortium of British (40% of shares), American (40%), French (6%), and Dutch (14%) companies to run the Iranian oil facilities for the next 25 years. The international consortium agreed to a fifty-fifty split of profits with Iran but would not allow Iran to audit their accounts to confirm the consortium was reporting profits properly, nor would they allow Iran to have members on their board of directors. There was a return to stability in the late 1950s and the 1960s. In 1957 martial law was ended after 16 years and Iran became closer to the West, joining the [[Baghdad Pact]] and receiving military and economic aid from the US. The Iranian government began a broad program of reforms to modernize the country, notably changing the quasi-feudal land system. [[Image:The Shah with Atherton, Sullivan, Vance, Carter and Brzezinski, 1977.jpg|left|thumb|250px|Shah Mohammad Reza Pahlavi meeting with [[Arthur Atherton]], [[William H. Sullivan]], [[Cyrus Vance]], President [[Jimmy Carter]], and [[Zbigniew Brzezinski]],[[1977]].]] However the reforms did not greatly improve economic conditions and the liberal pro-Western policies alienated certain [[Islam]]ic religious and political groups. From the mid-1960s the political situation was becoming increasingly unstable, with organisations such as [[Mujaheddin-e-Khalq]] (MEK) emerging. In 1961, Iran initiated a series of economic, social, and administrative reforms that became known as the Shah's White Revolution. The core of this program was land reform. Modernization and economic growth proceeded at an unprecedented rate, fueled by Iran's vast petroleum reserves, the third-largest in the world. The Premier Hassan Ali Mansur was assassinated in 1965 and the internal security service, [[SAVAK]], became more violently active. It is estimated that 13,000-13,500 {{Fact|date=February 2007}} people were killed by the SAVAK during this period of time, and thousands more were arrested and tortured. The Islamic clergy, headed by the Ayatollah [[Ruhollah Khomeini]] (who had been exiled in 1964), were becoming increasingly vociferous. International relations with [[Iraq]] fell into a steep decline, mainly due to a dispute over the [[Shatt al-Arab]] waterway which a 1937 agreement gave to Iraq. Following a number of clashes in April, 1969, Iran abrogated the 1937 accord and demanded a renegotiation. Iran greatly increased its defense budget and by the early 1970s was the region's strongest military power. In November, 1971 Iranian forces seized control of three islands at the mouth of the [[Persian Gulf]], in response Iraq expelling thousands of Iranian nationals. In mid-1973, the Shah returned the oil industry to national control. Following the [[Yom Kippur War|Arab-Israeli War of October 1973]], Iran did not join the Arab oil embargo against the West and Israel. Instead it used the situation to raise oil prices, using the money gained for modernization and to increase defense spending. In the early 1970s, the [[Mujaheddin-e-Khalq]] organisation assassinated Tehran-based US military personnel and US civilians involved in military contracts, seeking to weaken the regime and remove foreign influence. The same Mujahedin Kalq later in the 8 years war between Sadam Husein and Iran helped Sadam to kill Iranian soldiers (consequently many Iranians regard the Mujahedin Kalq as traitors and terrorists). A border dispute between Iraq and Iran was resolved with the signing of the [[Algiers Agreement (1975)|Algiers Accord]] on [[March 6]], [[1975]]. ====Prelude to the Islamic Revolution==== [[Image:AliShariati.jpg|right|thumb|Dr. [[Ali Shariati]] (1933-1977), One of the prominent ideologues of Islamic revolution]] Several events in the 1970s set the stage for the 1979 revolution: In October 1971, the [[2,500 year celebration of Iran's monarchy|2,500th anniversary of the founding of the Persian Empire]] was held at the site of [[Persepolis]]. Only foreign Diplomats and royalties were invited to the three-day party whose extravagances included over one ton of [[caviar]], this party was for commercial purposes and to show the world about the first Empire that world have seen The Persian Empire Founder Cyrus = Koru the Great, Cost of the celebretation was officially $40 million but estimated to be more in the range of $100–120 million.<ref>Hiro, Dilip. Iran Under the Ayatollahs. London: Routledge & Kegan Paul. 1985. p. 57.</ref> Meanwhile, the provinces of Baluchistan and Sistan, and even Fars where the celebrations were held, were suffering from drought. "As the foreigners reveled on drink forbidden by Islam, Iranians were not only excluded from the festivities, but some were starving."<ref>Wright, ''Last'' (2000), p. 220.</ref> By late 1974 the oil boom had begun to produce not "the Great Civilization" promised by the Shah, but an "alarming" increase in inflation and waste and an "accelerating gap" between the rich and poor, the city and the country.<ref>Graham, ''Iran'' (1980) p. 94.</ref> Nationalistic Iranians were angered by the tens of thousand of skilled foreign workers who came to Iran, many of them to help operate the already unpopular and expensive American high-tech military equipment that the Shah had spent hundreds of millions of dollars on. The next year the ''[[Rastakhiz]]'' party was created. It became not only the only party Iranians could belong to, but one the "whole adult population" was required to belong and pay dues to.<ref>Moin, ''Khomeini'' (2000), p. 174.</ref> Attempts by this party to take a populist stand with "anti-profiteering" campaigns fining and jailing merchants, proved not only economically harmful but also politically counterproductive. Inflation was replaced by a black market and declining business activity. Merchants were angered and alienated.<ref>Graham, ''Iran'' (1980), p. 96.</ref> In 1976, the Shah's government angered pious Iranian Muslims by changing the first year of the Iranian solar calendar from the Islamic ''hijri'' to the ascension to the throne by [[Cyrus the Great]]. "Iran jumped overnight from the Muslim year 1355 to the royalist year 2535 this Calender was the real calender of Iran from its Zoroastrian roots before tha Arabick islamik invasion of Sassanian Persian empire Ho was lead by Umar ibn katib in the major war Of Rostame Farokhzad in Battle of al-Qādisiyyah ."<ref>Abrahamian, ''Iran'' (1982), p. 444.</ref> The same year the Shah declared economic austerity measures to dampen inflation and waste. The resulting unemployment disproportionately affected the thousands of recent poor and unskilled migrants to the cities. Culturally and religiously conservative and already disposed to view the Shah's secularism and Westernization as "alien and wicked",<ref>Moin, ''Khomeini'' (2000), p. 163.</ref> many of these same people went on to form the core of revolution's demonstrators and "martyrs".<ref>Graham, ''Iran'' (1980), p. 226.</ref> In 1977 a new American President, [[Jimmy Carter]], was inaugurated. In hopes of making post-Vietnam American power and foreign policy more benevolent, he created a special Office of Human Rights which sent the Shah a "polite reminder" of the importance of political rights and freedom. The Shah responded by granting amnesty to 357 political prisoners in February, and allowing Red Cross to visit prisons, beginning what is said to be 'a trend of liberalization by the Shah'. Through the late spring, summer and autumn liberal opposition formed organizations and issued open letters denouncing the regime.<ref>Abrahamian, ''Iran'' (1982), pp. 501–3.</ref> Later that year a dissent group (the Writers' Association) gathered without the customary police break-up and arrests, starting a new era of political action by the Shah's opponents.<ref>Moin, ''Khomeini'' (2000), pp. 183–4.</ref> That year also saw the death of the very popular and influential modernist Islamist leader [[Ali Shariati]], allegedly at the hands of SAVAK, removing a potential revolutionary rival to Khomeini. Finally, in October Khomeini's son Mostafa died. Though the cause appeared to be a heart attack, anti-Shah groups blamed SAVAK poisoning and proclaimed him a 'martyr.' A subsequent memorial service for Mostafa in Tehran put Khomeini back in the spotlight and began the process of building Khomeini into the leading opponent of the Shah.<ref>Moin, ''Khomeini'' (2000), pp. 184–5.</ref><ref name = "Taheri 1985 182-3">Taheri, ''Spirit'' (1985), pp. 182–3.</ref> ==Islamic Revolution== {{main|Iranian Revolution}} [[Image:Imam Khomeini in Mehrabad.jpg|thumb|left|250px|Arrival of [[Ayatollah]] [[Khomeini]] on [[1 February]], [[1979]] from France.]] The '''Iranian Revolution''' also known as the '''Islamic Revolution'''<ref name = "Chamber">[http://www.iranchamber.com/history/islamic_revolution/islamic_revolution.php Islamic Revolution], Iran Chamber.</ref> was the [[revolution]] that transformed [[Iran]] from a [[Iranian monarchy|monarchy]] under [[Shah]] [[Mohammad Reza Pahlavi]], to an [[Islamic republic]] under [[Ayatollah]] [[Ruhollah Khomeini]], the leader of the revolution and founder of the Islamic Republic.<ref name = "Britannica">[http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-32981 Encyclopædia Britannica].</ref> Its time span can be said to have begun in January 1978 with the first major demonstrations,<ref>[http://www.fsmitha.com/h2/ch29ir.html The Iranian Revolution].</ref> and concluded with the approval of the new [[theocratic]] Constitution — whereby Ayatollah Khomeini became [[Supreme Leader]] of the country — in December 1979. In between, [[Mohammad Reza Pahlavi]] left the country for exile in January 1979 after strikes and demonstrations paralyzed the country, and on February 1, 1979 Ayatollah Khomeini returned to Tehran to a greeting of several million Iranians.<ref name = "Britannica Khomeini">[http://www.britanniaca.com/eb/article-9045329 Ruhollah Khomeini], Encyclopedia Britannica.</ref> The final collapse of the [[Pahlavi dynasty]] occurred shortly after on [[February 11]] when Iran's military declared itself "neutral" after guerrillas and rebel troops overwhelmed troops loyal to the Shah in armed street fighting. Iran officially became an Islamic Republic on [[April 1]], [[1979]] when Iranians overwhelmingly approved a national referendum to make it so.<ref>[http://www.britannica.com/ebi/article-202892 Iran Islamic Republic], Encyclopedia Britannica.</ref> The ideology of revolutionary government was populist, nationalist and most of all Shi'a Islamic. Its unique constitution is based on the concept of ''[[Hokumat-e Islami : Velayat-e faqih (book by Khomeini)|velayat-e faqih]]'' the idea advanced by Khomeini that Muslims —- in fact everyone —- requires "guardianship," in the form of rule or supervision by the leading [[Faqih|Islamic jurist]] or jurists.<ref>Dabashi, ''Theology of Discontent'' (1993), p.419, 443</ref> Khomeini served as this ruling jurist, or [[Supreme Leader of Iran|supreme leader]], until his death in 1989. Iran's rapidly modernizing, capitalist economy was replaced by populist and Islamic economic and cultural policies. Much industry was [[nationalized]], laws and schools Islamicized, and Western influences banned. Many westernized Iranians emigrated to Europe and North America. As Islamist power was consolidated there were clashes with former non-Islamist and non-theocratic allies among revolutionary groups, and parties for several years in various provinces but were eventually suppressed. ==The Islamic Republic== {{main|History of the Islamic Republic of Iran}} {{see|Iran hostage crisis|United States-Iran relations|Iran-Israel relations|Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty}} <!-- Commented out because image was deleted: [[image:Jang.jpg|right|thumb|280px|The eight-year [[Iran-Iraq war]] resulted in [[USD]]$350 billion in damage for Iran alone.{{unverifiedimage}}]] --> ===Ayatollah Khomeini era=== Khomeini served as leader of the revolution or as Supreme Leader of Iran from 1979 to his death on June 3, 1989. An early event in the history of the Islamic republic that had a long term impact was the [[Iran hostage crisis]]. Following the admitting of the former Shah of Iran into the United States for cancer treatment, on [[November 4]] [[1979]], Iranian students [[Iran hostage crisis|seized US embassy personnel]], labeling the embassy a "den of spies."<ref name="carterpbs">[http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/amex/carter/sfeature/sf_hostage.html PBS, American Experience, Jimmy Carter, "444 Days: America Reacts"], retrieved 1 Oct 2007</ref> While in the US this was considered a violation of the long-standing principle of international law that diplomats are immune from arrest ([[diplomatic immunity]]), the student militants accused embassy personnel of being CIA agents plotting to overthrow the revolutionary government, as the CIA had done to [[Mohammad Mossadegh]] in 1953. [[Khomeini]], who had not initiated or authorized the embassy takeover, nonetheless supported it after hearing of its success. The students demanded the handover of the Shah in exchange for the hostages, and following the Shah's death in the summer of 1980, that the hostages be put on trial for espionage. Fifty-two hostages were held for 444 days until January 1981 when a [[Algiers declaration|settlement]] was agreed upon.<ref>Guests of the Ayatollah: The Iran Hostage Crisis: The First Battle in America's War with Militant Islam, Mark Bowden, p. 127, 200</ref> In Iran, the crisis is thought to have strengthened the prestige of the [[Ayatollah Khomeini]] and consolidated the hold of anti-Americanism and Iranian radicals who supported the hostage taking. Relations between Iran and the [[United States]] became deeply antagonistic during and after the crisis with American legal action, or sanctions, economically separated Iran from America.<ref>[http://www.mafhoum.com/press3/108E16.htm History Of US Sanctions Against Iran]Middle East Economic Survey, 26-August-2002</ref> [[Image:Saddam rumsfeld.jpg|thumb|left|[[Donald Rumsfeld]] meets [[Saddam Hussein]] on [[19 December]] - [[20 December]] [[1983]]. Rumsfeld visited again on [[24 March]] [[1984]], the day the UN reported that Iraq had used [[mustard gas]] and [[Tabun (nerve agent)|tabun]] nerve agent against Iranian troops. The [[NY Times]] reported from Baghdad on [[29 March]] [[1984]], that "American diplomats pronounce themselves satisfied with Iraq and the U.S., and suggest that normal diplomatic ties have been established in all but name."<ref>[[National Security Archive]]: http://www.gwu.edu/~nsarchiv/NSAEBB/NSAEBB82</ref>}]] During the crisis, [[Iraqi]] leader [[Saddam Hussein]] attempted to take advantage of the disorder of the Revolution, the weakness of the Iranian military and the revolution's antagonism with Western governments. The once-strong Iranian military had been disbanded during the revolution, and with the Shah ousted, Hussein had ambitions to position himself as the new strong man of the Middle East. He also sought to expand Iraq's access to the [[Persian Gulf]] by acquiring territories that Iraq had claimed earlier from Iran during the Shah's rule. Of chief importance to Iraq was [[Khuzestan Province|Khuzestan]] which not only boasted a substantial [[Arab]] population, but rich oil fields as well. On the unilateral behalf of the [[United Arab Emirates]], the islands of [[Abu Musa]] and the [[Greater and Lesser Tunbs]] became objectives as well. With these ambitions in mind, Hussein planned a full-scale assault on Iran, boasting that his forces could reach the capital within three days. On [[September 22]], [[1980]] the Iraqi army invaded Iran at Khuzestan, precipitating the [[Iran-Iraq War]]. The attack took revolutionary Iran completely by surprise. [[Image:Chemical weapon1.jpg|thumbnail|right|200px|Iranian soldier with gas mask in the battlefield]] Although Saddam Hussein's forces made several early advances, by 1982, Iranian forces had pushed the Iraqi army back into Iraq. Khomeini sought to export his Islamic revolution westward into Iraq, especially on the majority Shi'a Arabs living in the country. The war then continued for six more years until 1988, when Khomeini, in his words, "drank the cup of poison" and accepted a truce mediated by the United Nations. Tens of thousands of Iranian [[civilians]] and [[military]] personnel were killed when Iraq used [[chemical weapons]] in its warfare. [[Arms sales to Iraq|Iraq was financially backed]] by [[Egypt]], the [[Arab]] countries of the [[Persian Gulf]], the [[Soviet Union]] and the [[Warsaw Pact]] states, the [[United States]] (beginning in 1983), [[France]], the [[United Kingdom]], [[Germany]], [[Brazil]], and the [[People's Republic of China]] (which also sold weapons to Iran). There were more than 100,000 Iranian victims<ref name="r1">Center for Documents of The Imposed War, Tehran. (مرکز مطالعات و تحقیقات جنگ)</ref> of Iraq's chemical weapons during the eight-year war. The total Iranian casualties of the war were estimated to be between 500,000 and 1,000,000. Almost all relevant international agencies have confirmed that Saddam engaged in chemical warfare to blunt Iranian [[human wave attack]]s; these agencies unanimously confirmed that Iran never used chemical weapons during the war.<ref>[http://www.fas.org/news/iran/1997/970205-480132.htm Iran, 'Public Enemy Number One'<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref><!-- --><ref>[http://www.fas.org/cw/intro.htm Federation of American Scientists :: Introduction to Chemical Weapons<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref><!-- --><ref>[http://www.antiwar.com/glantz/?articleid=2804 Iraqi General: US Helped Us as We Used Chemical Weapons - by Aaron Glantz<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref><!-- --><ref>[http://www.nti.org/e_research/profiles/Iran/Chemical/2340_2965.html NTI Chemical profile of Iran]</ref> ===Ayatollah Khamenei era=== [[Image:Khamenei1.jpg|thumbnail|right|Khamenei standing beside the tomb of General [[Ali Sayyad Shirazi]], Chief of [[Military of Iran|the Armed Forces of Iran]] during the Iran-Iraq war was assassinated in 1999 by the [[People's Mujahedin of Iran|MEK]]]] Following Khomeini's death on [[June 3]], 1989, the [[Assembly of Experts]] &mdash; an elected body of senior clerics &mdash; chose the outgoing president of the republic, [[Ayatollah Ali Khamenei]], to be his successor as national religious leader in what proved to be a smooth transition. During the [[Gulf War|Persian Gulf War]] in 1991 the country remained [[neutral country|neutral]], restricting its action to the condemnation of the U.S. and allowing fleeing Iraqi aircraft and refugees into the country. [[Image:Hashemi Rafsanjani.jpg|thumbnail|left|150px|[[Akbar Hashemi Rafsanjani]], pragmatic conservative [[President of Iran]] from 1989 to 1997. Now he is the chairman of the [[Assembly of Experts]] and of the [[Expediency Council]] of Iran]] President [[Rafsanjani]] was re-elected in 1993 with a smaller majority; some Western observers attributed the reduced voter turnout to disenchantment with the deteriorating economy. Rafsanjani was succeeded in 1997 by the moderate [[Mohammad Khatami]]. His presidency was soon marked by tensions between the reform-minded government and an increasingly conservative and vocal clergy. This rift reached a climax in July 1999 with massive anti-government protests erupted in the streets of [[Tehran]]. The disturbances lasted over a week before police and pro-government vigilantes dispersed the crowds. Khatami was re-elected in June 2001 but his efforts were repeatedly blocked by the religious [[Guardian Council]]. Conservative elements within Iran's government moved to undermine the reformist movement, banning liberal newspapers and disqualifying candidates for parliamentary elections. This clampdown on dissent, combined with the failure of Khatami to reform the government, led to growing political apathy among Iran's youth. [[Image:Mohammad Khatami.jpg|thumbnail|right|150px|[[Mohammad Khatami]], [[Reforms of Mohammad Khatami|reformist]] [[President of Iran]] from [[1997]] to [[2005]].]] In June 2003, anti-government protests by several thousand students took place in Tehran.<ref>[http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/middle_east/2980102.stm Iranians protest against clerics]</ref><ref>[http://iranvajahan.net/german/uprising.html Uprising in Iran]</ref> Several [[human right]]s protests also occurred in 2006. In [[Iranian presidential election, 2005]] [[Mahmoud Ahmadinejad]],the mayor of Tehran, became the sixth president of Iran, after winning 62 percent of the vote in the [[runoff election|run-off poll]], nearly twice that of former president [[Akbar Hashemi Rafsanjani]].<ref> {{cite web | url = http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/middle_east/4740441.stm | title = Iran hardliner becomes president | accessdate = 2006-12-06 | date = [[August 3]], [[2005]] | publisher = [[BBC]] }} </ref> During the authorization ceremony he kissed Khamenei's hand in demonstration of his loyalty to him.<ref> {{cite web | url = http://www.iranvajahan.net/cgi-bin/news.pl?l=en&y=2006&m=09&d=09&a=1 | title = Behind Ahmadinejad, a Powerful Cleric | accessdate = 2006-12-06 | date = [[September 9]], [[2006]] | publisher = [[New York Times]] }} </ref><ref>[http://tofoiran.packdeal.com/clips/DrIman/20060906-DrIman-CNN-225.asx]</ref> [[Image:Mahmoud Ahmadinejad.jpg|thumbnail|left|150px|[[Mahmoud Ahmadinejad]], current [[President of Iran]]]] [[Chatham House]] think-tank told in August 2006 that Iran views Iraq as its own backyard and has now superseded the US as the most influential power there; this affords it a key role in Iraq's future. An unlikely conclusion considering that the US is currently the occupying power in Iraq. It also said that Tehran had an unparalleled ability to affect stability and security across most of the country. Analysts have pointed out in September 2006 that Iran's increasing influence in post-war Iraq since the empowerment of its [[Shi'a Islam|Shi'a]] majority. This influence, analysts say, is particularly strong in the mainly Shia south, where a top Shia leader in the week of [[September 3]] [[2006]] renewed demands for an autonomous Shia region.<ref>{{cite news|http://english.aljazeera.net/NR/exeres/D890900D-A483-4C19-86C8-41F35135090D.htm|title=Iraq prime minister to visit Iran|publisher=[[Al Jazeera]]|date=September 9 [[2006]]}}</ref> During 2005 and 2006, there were claims that [[United States-Iran relations#Claims of threats of a military attack on Iran by the US|the United States]] and [[Iran-Israel relations#Perceptions of Israeli threats to attack Iran during 2003-2006|Israel]] were planning to attack [[Iran]], including the threat of attack [[United States-Iran relations#Claims of threats of a military attack on Iran by the US|with nuclear weapons by the United States]], for many different claimed reasons, including [[nuclear program of Iran|Iran's civilian nuclear energy program]] which the United States and some other states fear could lead to [[Iran and weapons of mass destruction#Nuclear weapons|a nuclear weapons program]], [[United States-Iran relations#The role of crude oil and other strategic reasons in US-Iran tensions|crude oil and other strategic reasons]] (including the [[Iranian Oil Bourse]]), [[United States-Iran relations#The role of electoral reasons in the USA in US-Iran tensions|electoral reasons in the USA]] and in [[United States-Iran relations#The role of electoral reasons in Iran in US-Iran tensions|Iran]]. [[People's Republic of China|P.R. China]] and [[Russia]] oppose military action of any sort and oppose [[economic sanctions]]. [[Ayatollah]] [[Ali Khamenei]] issued a [[fatwa]] forbidding the production, stockpiling and use of [[nuclear weapons]]. The fatwa was cited in an official statement by the Iranian government at an August 2005 meeting of the [[International Atomic Energy Agency]] (IAEA) in [[Vienna]].<ref> [http://www.ww4report.com/node/929 Iran issues anti-nuke fatwa]</ref><ref>[http://www.mathaba.net/news/?x=302258 Iran, holder of peaceful nuclear fuel cycle technology]</ref> {{History Timeline of Iran}} ==Notes== {{Reflist|2}} ==References== ;Books and journals <div class="references-small"> * {{cite book | last=Nasr | first=Hossein | title=Sufi Essays | publisher=Suny press | year=1972 | id=ISBN 978-0-87395-389-4}} *{{loc}} ==Further reading== * ''Iran Between Two Revolutions'', Ervand Abrahamian, 1982, ISBN 0-691-10134-5 * ''Persian Historiography and Geography: Bertold Spuler on Major Works Produced in Iran, the Caucasus, Central Asia, India and Early Ottoman Turkey'', M. Ismail Marcinkowski, 2003, ISBN 9971-77-488-7 * ''Journeys in Persia and Kurdistan. Vol. I.'', Isabella Bird, 1988, Reprint: Virago Press, London * ''All the Shah's Men: An American Coup and the Roots of Middle East Terror'', Stephen Kinzer, 2003, ISBN 0-471-26517-9 * [[Ryszard Kapuściński|Kapuściński, Ryszard]] (1982). ''[[Shah of Shahs]]''. [[Vintage (publisher)|Vinage]]. ISBN 0-679-73801-0 * [http://news.google.com/news?hl=en&ned=us&q=Iran&btnG=Search+News Google News: Iran] * Elliot, Sir H. M., Edited by Dowson, John. ''[[The History of India, as Told by Its Own Historians. The Muhammadan Period]]''; published by London Trubner Company 1867–1877. (Online Copy: [http://persian.packhum.org/persian/index.jsp?serv=pf&file=80201010&ct=0 The History of India, as Told by Its Own Historians. The Muhammadan Period; by Sir H. M. Elliot; Edited by John Dowson; London Trubner Company 1867–1877] - This online Copy has been posted by: [http://persian.packhum.org/persian/index.jsp The Packard Humanities Institute; Persian Texts in Translation; Also find other historical books: Author List and Title List]) ==History related articles on Iran== ===Pre-Islam=== * [[Palaeolithic Era in Iran]] * [[Jiroft Civilization]] * [[Elam|Elamite Empire]] * [[Aratta]] * [[Aratti theory]] * [[Aryan]] * [[Andronovo Culture]] * [[Indo-Iranians]] * [[Iran naming dispute]] * [[List of kings of Persia]] * [[Parthia]] * [[Persian Empire]] ===Post-Islam=== * [[Islamicization in Iran]] * [[Islamic Conquest of Iran]] * [[Barmakids]] * [[Persian Empire]] * [[Anglo-Russian Convention of 1907]] * [[Treaty of Gulistan]] * [[Treaty of Akhal]] * [[The Great Game]] * [[Treaty of Turkmenchay]] ===Pahlavi and contemporary=== * [[Constitutionalist movement of Gilan]] * [[List of Prime Ministers of Iran]] * [[Anglo-Soviet invasion of Iran]] * [[Persian Constitutional Revolution]] * [[Persian Corridor]] * [[White Revolution]] * [[Human rights in Iran]] * [[Iran-Iraq War]] * [[U.S. support for Iraq during the Iran-Iraq war]] * [[U.S. support for Iran during the Iran-Iraq war]] * [[1988 Massacre of Iranian Prisoners]] * [[Ahvaz Bombings]] ===General=== * [[Science and technology in Iran|History of science in Persia]] * [[Military history of Iran]] * [[List of Iranian National Heroes]] * [[Prime Minister of Iran]] * [[Persianization]] * [[Persian mythology]] * [[Iranian continent]] * [[Iranian Kurdistan]] * [[Iranian peoples]] * [[Iranology]] * [[Anti-Persianism]] * [[Anti-Iranianism]] * [[Islamic Cultural Revolution]] * [[Chicago's Persian heritage crisis|University of Chicago's Persian heritage crisis]] * [[Islam in Iran]] * [[Islamicization in Iran]] * [[Turko-Persian tradition]] ==External links== * [http://www.iranica.com/newsite/articles/v13f2/v13f2024.html Iran] an article by [[Encyclopedia Iranica]] * [http://p2.www.britannica.com/oscar/print?articleId=106324&fullArticle=true&tocId=9106324 Iran] an article by Encyclopedia Britannica online by Janet Afary * [http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9106325/ancient-Iran Ancient Iran] an article by Encyclopedia Britannica online by Adrian David Hugh Bivar and Mark J. Dresden * [http://www.iranchamber.com/history/historic_periods.php Iran chamber] * [http://www.parstimes.com/history/VL/middle_east/iran.html WWW-VL History Index: IRAN] * [http://www.irpedia.com/iran/history/ A brief history of Iran] * [http://meria.idc.ac.il/journal/1998/issue3/jv2n3a1.html IRAN: UNDERSTANDING THE ENIGMA: A HISTORIANS' VIEW] by [[Nikki Keddie]] {{History of Asia}} [[Category:History of Iran| ]] [[Category:National histories|Iran]] {{link FA|fr}} [[ar:تاريخ إيران]] [[cs:Dějiny Íránu]] [[de:Geschichte des Iran]] [[es:Historia de Irán]] [[eu:Irango historia]] [[fa:تاریخ ایران]] [[fr:Histoire de l'Iran]] [[ko:이란의 역사]] [[hi:ईरान का इतिहास]] [[id:Sejarah Iran]] [[he:היסטוריה של איראן]] [[ms:Sejarah Iran]] [[nl:Geschiedenis van Iran]] [[ja:イランの歴史]] [[no:Irans historie]] [[pt:História do Irão]] [[ru:История Ирана]] [[fi:Iranin historia]] [[sv:Irans historia]] [[vi:Lịch sử Iran]] [[tg:Таърихи Эрон]] [[tr:İran Tarihi]] [[uk:Історія Ірану]] [[zh:波斯历史]]