History of North America 51370 225647568 2008-07-14T18:46:52Z RGTraynor 270405 Replacing per MOS, Replaced: January of → January using [[Project:AutoWikiBrowser|AWB]] {{nointro|date=June 2008}} ==Pre-European settlement== Scientists have [[Models of migration to the New World|several theories as to the origins]] of the [[Paleo-Indians|early human population of the North America]]. The [[Indigenous peoples of the Americas|indigenous peoples of North America]] themselves have many [[creation myth]]s, by which they assert that they have been present on the land since its creation. [[Pre-Columbian|Before contact with Europeans]] the natives of North America were divided into many different [[polities]], from small [[Band society|bands]] of a few families to large [[empires]]. They lived in several "[[Classification of indigenous peoples of the Americas|culture areas]]", which roughly correspond to [[Geography of North America|geographic and biological zones]] and give a good indication of the main [[lifeway]] or occupation of the people who lived there (e.g. the [[Bison]] [[hunter-gatherer|hunters]] of the [[Plains Indian|Great Plains]], or the [[farmers]] of [[Mesoamerica]]). Native groups can also be classified by their [[Indigenous languages of the Americas|language family]] (e.g. [[Athabaskan languages|Athapascan]] or [[Uto-Aztecan languages|Uto-Aztecan]]). It is important to note that peoples with similar languages did not always share the same [[material culture]], nor were they always [[allies]]. Scientists believe that the [[Inuit]] people of the high [[Arctic]] came to North America much later than other native groups, as evidenced by the disappearance of [[Dorset culture]] artifacts from the [[archaeological record]], and their replacement by the [[Thule people]]. During the thousands of years of native inhabitation on the continent, cultures changed and shifted. Archaeologists often name different cultural groups they discover after the site where they are first found. One of the oldest cultures yet found is the [[Clovis culture]] of modern [[New Mexico]]. A more recent example is the group of related cultures called the [[Mound builder (people)|Mound builders]] (e.g. the [[Fort Walton Culture]]), found in the [[Mississippi river]] valley. They flourished from 3000 BCE to the 1500s CE. [[Image:Palenque Ruins.jpg|thumb|200px|left|The ruins of [[Palenque]].]]The more southern cultural groups of North America were responsible for the [[domestication]] of many common [[Crop (agriculture)|crop]]s now used around the world, such as [[tomato]]es and [[Squash (plant)|squash]]. Perhaps most importantly they domesticated one of the world's major staples, [[maize]] (corn). As a result of the development of agriculture in the south, many important cultural advances were made there. For example, the [[Maya civilization]] developed a [[Maya script|writing system]], built [[Mesoamerican pyramids|huge pyramids]], had a [[Maya calendar|complex calendar]], and developed the concept of [[0 (number)|zero]] 500 years before anyone in the [[Old World]]. The Mayan culture was still present when the [[Conquistadors|Spanish]] arrived in [[Central America]], but political dominance in the area had shifted to the [[Aztec Empire]] further north. Upon the arrival of the Europeans in the "New World", native peoples found their culture changed drastically. As such, their affiliation with political and cultural groups changed as well, several linguistic groups went [[Language death|extinct]], and others changed quite quickly. The name and cultures that Europeans recorded for the natives were not necessarily the same as the ones they had used a few generations before, or the ones in use today. == Arrival of Europeans == {{main|European colonization of the Americas}} ===Early discoveries=== [[Image:North america 16.jpg|right|thumb|200px|Map of North America (circa 16th century).]] There was limited [[First contact (anthropology)|contact]] between North American peoples and the outside world [[Pre-Columbian trans-oceanic contact|before 1492]]. Several theoretical contacts have been proposed, but the earliest physical evidence comes to us from the [[Norsemen|Norse]] or [[Vikings]]. Norse captain [[Leif Ericson]] is believed to have reached the [[Island of Newfoundland]] circa 1000 CE. They named their new discovery [[Vinland]]. The only Norse site yet discovered in [[North America]] is at [[L'Anse aux Meadows]], [[Newfoundland and Labrador]]. [[Norse colonization of the Americas|The Norse colonies]] were later abandoned. The Viking voyages did not become common knowledge in the Old World, and Europeans remained ignorant of the existence of [[the Americas]], until 1492. As part of a general [[age of discovery]] Italian sailor [[Christopher Columbus]] proposed a voyage west from Europe to find a shorter route to Asia. He eventually received the backing of [[Isabella I of Castile|Isabella I]] and [[Ferdinand II of Aragon|Ferdinand II]], Queen and King of newly united [[Spain]]. In 1492 Columbus reached land in [[the Bahamas]]. Almost 500 years after the Norse, [[John Cabot]] explored the east coast of what would become [[Canada]] in 1497. [[Giovanni da Verrazzano]] explored the [[East Coast of the United States|East Coast]] of America from Florida to presumably Newfoundland in 1524. [[Jacques Cartier]] made a series of voyages on behalf of the French crown in 1534 and penetrated the [[St. Lawrence River]]. ===Successful colonization=== {{euromericas}} Initially, European activity consisted mostly of [[trade]] and [[exploration]]. Eventually Europeans began to [[List of North American cities by year of foundation|establish settlements]]. The three principal colonial powers were [[Spanish colonization of the Americas|Spain]], [[British colonization of the Americas|England]], and [[French colonization of the Americas|France]], although eventually even small powers like [[Dutch colonization of the Americas|the Netherlands]] and [[Swedish colonization of the Americas|Sweden]] received minor holdings on the continent. Settlement by the Spanish started the [[European colonization of the Americas]]..<ref>Kane 1999, pp. 81-103</ref><ref>Ward 1997, pp.97-132</ref> They gained control of most of the largest islands in the [[Caribbean Sea|Caribbean]] and [[Spanish conquest of Mexico|conquered the Aztecs]], gaining control of present-day [[Mexico]] and [[Central America]]. This was the beginning of the [[Spanish Empire]] in the New World. The first successful Spanish settlement in continental North America was [[Veracruz, Veracruz|Veracruz]] in 1519, followed by many other settlements in colonial [[New Spain]] and [[Spanish Florida]]. The first successful English settlements were at [[Jamestown, Virginia|Jamestown]] (1607) (along with its satellite, [[Bermuda]] in 1609) and [[Plymouth Colony|Plymouth]] (1620), in what are today [[Virginia]] and [[Massachusetts]] respectively. The first French settlements were [[Habitation at Port-Royal|Port Royal]] (1604) and [[Quebec City]] (1608) in what is now [[Nova Scotia]] and [[Quebec]]. The [[Fur Trade]] soon became the primary business on the continent and as a result transformed the [[Native Americans in the United States|Native Americans]] lifestyle. Further to the south, [[Slavery in Colonial America|plantation slavery]] became the main industry of the [[West Indies]], and this gave rise to the beginning of the [[Atlantic slave trade]]. == Colonial Era == [[Image:Non-Native American Nations Control over N America 1750-2008.gif|thumb|Non-Native American Nations Control over N America 1750-2008]] {{main|Colonial history of the United States of America|New France|Thirteen Colonies|French and Indian Wars|New Spain}} By 1663 the [[French crown]] had taken over control of [[New France]] from the fur-trading companies, and the English [[Charter colony|charter colonies]] gave way to more metropolitan control. This ushered in a new era of more formalized colonialism in North America. Rivalry between the European powers created a series of wars on the North American landmass that would have great impact on the development of the colonies. Territory often changed hands multiple times. Peace was not achieved until French forces in North America were vanquished at the [[Battle of the Plains of Abraham]] at [[Quebec City]], and France ceded most of her claims outside of the [[Caribbean]]. Viceroyalty of New Spain was the name of the [[viceroy]]-ruled territories of the [[Spanish Empire]] in [[Asia]], [[North America]] and its peripheries from 1535 to 1821. ==Age of Revolutions== {{main|American Revolution|Industrial Revolution|History of the United States (1776–1789)|Mexican War of Independence}} The coming of the American Revolution had a great impact across the continent. Most importantly it directly led to the creation of the [[United States of America]]. However, the associated [[American Revolutionary War]] was an important war that touched all corners of the region. The flight of the [[United Empire Loyalists]] led to the creation of [[English Canada]] as a separate community. Meanwhile, [[Spain]]'s hold on Mexico was weakening. Independence was declared in 1810 by [[Miguel Hidalgo]], starting the ''Mexican War of Independence''. In 1813, [[José María Morelos]] and the [[Congress of Anáhuac]] signed the [[Solemn Act of the Declaration of Independence of Northern America]], the first legal document where the separation of the New Spain with respect to Spain is proclaimed. Spain finally recognized Mexico's independence in 1821. ==Expansion era== {{main|History of the United States (1789–1849)|Canada under British Imperial control (1764-1867)|Mexican–American War}} From the time of independence of the United States, that country expanded rapidly to the west, [[Louisiana Purchase|acquiring the massive Louisiana territory]] in 1803. An attempt at northern expansion was blocked by Britain during the [[War of 1812]]. At the same time, British settlement in Canada increased. US expansion was complicated by the division between "free" and "slave" states, which led to the [[Missouri Compromise]] 1820. Likewise, Canada faced a division between [[French Canadian|French]] and [[English Canadian|English]] communities that led to the outbreak of [[Rebellions of 1837|civil strife in 1837]]. Mexico faced constant political tensions between liberals and conservatives, as well as the rebellion of the English-speaking region of Tejas, which declared itself the [[Republic of Texas]] 1836. In 1845 Texas joined the United States, which would later lead to the [[Mexican–American War]]. As a result of conflict with Mexico, the United States made further territorial gains in [[History of California|California]] and the Southwest. ==Conflict and Confederation== {{main|History of the United States (1849–1865)|American Civil War|Canadian Confederation|French intervention in Mexico}} The secession of the [[Confederate States]] and the resulting civil war rocked American society. It eventually led to the end of slavery in the United States, the destruction of most of the South, and tremendous loss of life. From the conflict the United States emerged as a powerful industrialized nation. Partly as a response to the threat of American power, four of the Canadian colonies agreed to federate in 1867, creating the [[Dominion]] of Canada. The new nation was not fully sovereign, but enjoyed considerable independence from Britain. With the addition of [[United Colonies of Vancouver Island and British Columbia|British Columbia]] Canada would expand to the Pacific by 1871 and establish a trans-continental railway, the Canadian Pacific, by 1885. In Mexico conflicts like the [[Reform War]] left the state weak, and open to foreign influence. This led to the [[Second French Empire]] to invade Mexico and the establishment of a short-lived [[Mexican Empire|Second Mexican Empire]]. ==Late 19th century== {{main|History of the United States (1865–1918)|Reconstruction era of the United States|Post-Confederation Canada (1867-1914)|Porfiriato}} In both Canada and the United States the second half of the 19th century witness massive inflows of immigration to settle the West. These lands were not uninhabited however: in the United States the government fought numerous [[Indian Wars]] against the native inhabitants. In Canada, relations were more peaceful, as a result of the [[Numbered Treaties]], but [[Riel Rebellion|two rebellions]] broke out in 1870 and 1885 on the prairies. The British colony of [[Dominion of Newfoundland|Newfoundland became a dominion]] in 1907. In Mexico, the entire era was dominated by the dictatorship of '''Porfirio Díaz'''. ==World Wars era== {{main|Canada in the World Wars and Interwar Years|Mexican Revolution|History of the United States (1918–1945)}} ===The Great War=== {{main|World War I|Military history of Canada during World War I}} As a part of the [[British Empire]] Canada immediately was at war in 1914. Canada bore the brunt of several major battles during the early stages of the war including the use of [[Poison gas in World War I|poison gas]] attacks at [[Second Battle of Ypres|Ypres]]. Losses became grave, and the government eventually brought in [[conscription]], despite the fact this was against the wishes of the majority of [[French Canadians]]. In the ensuing [[Conscription Crisis of 1917]], riots broke out on the streets of [[Montreal]]. In neighboring Newfoundland, the new dominion suffered a devastating loss on July 1, 1916, the [[First day on the Somme]]. The United States stayed apart from the conflict until 1917, joining the Entente powers. The United States was then able to play a crucial role at the [[Paris Peace Conference, 1919|Paris Peace Conference of 1919]] that shaped [[interwar]] Europe. Mexico was not part of the war as the country was embroiled in the Mexican Revolution at the time. ===Interwar years=== {{main|Roaring Twenties|Great Depression|Cristero War}} The 1920s brought an age of great prosperity in the United States, and to a lesser degree Canada. But the [[Wall Street Crash of 1929]] combined with [[dust bowl|drought]] ushered in a period of economic hardship in the United States and [[Great Depression in Canada|Canada]]. From 1936 to 1949, this was a popular uprising against the anti-Catholic Mexican government of the time, set off specifically by the anti-clerical provisions of the [[Mexican Constitution of 1917]]. ===The Second World War=== {{main|World War II|Military history of Canada during the Second World War|Military history of the United States during World War II|United States home front during World War II|Potrero del Llano|Faja de Oro|Escuadrón 201}} Once again Canada found herself at war before her neighbours, however even Canadian contributions were slight before the Japanese [[attack on Pearl Harbor]]. The entry of the United States into the war helped to tip the balance in favour of the [[Allies of World War II|allies]]. Two Mexican tankers, transporting oil to the United States, were attacked and sunk by the Germans in the [[Gulf of Mexico]] waters, in 1942. The incident happened in spite of Mexico's neutrality at that time. This led Mexico to declare war to the Axis nations and entered the conflict. The destruction of Europe wrought by the war vaulted all North American countries to more important roles in world affairs. The United States especially emerged as a "[[superpower]]". ===Post-War=== {{main|History of the United States (1945–1964)|History of Canada (1945-1960)|1950s|1960s|Cold War|African-American Civil Rights Movement (1955-1968)}} The early Cold War era saw the United States as the most powerful nation in a Western coalition of which Mexico and Canada were also a part. At home, the United States witnessed convulsive change especially in the area of [[race relations]]. In Canada this was mirrored by the [[Quiet Revolution]] and the emergence of [[Quebec nationalism]]. Mexico experienced an era of huge economic growth after World War II, a heavy industrialization process and a growth of its middle class, a period known in Mexican history as the ''"El Milagro Mexicano"'' (Mexican miracle). The Caribbean saw the beginnings of [[decolonization]], while on the largest island the [[Cuban Revolution]] introduced Cold War rivalries into Latin America. ===Vietnam and ''stagflation''=== {{main|History of the United States (1964–1980)|History of Canada (1960-1981)|1960s|1970s}} During this time the United States become involved in the [[Vietnam War]] as part of the global Cold War. This war would latter prove to be highly divisive in American society, and American troops were withdrawn. Canada during this era was dominated by the leadership of [[Pierre Elliot Trudeau]]. Eventually in 1982 at the end of his tenure, Canada received a new constitution. Both the United States and Canada experienced [[stagflation]], which eventually led to a revival in small-government politics.{{Fact|date=April 2007}} ===The 1980s=== {{main|1980s|History of the United States (1980–1988)|History of Canada (1982-1992)}} Canada's [[Brian Mulroney]] not only ran on a similar platform but also favored closer trade ties with the United States. This led to the [[Canada-United States Free Trade Agreement]] in January 1989. Mexican presidents [[Miguel de la Madrid]], in the early 80s and [[Carlos Salinas de Gortari]] in the late 80s, started implementing liberal economic strategies that were seen as a good move. However, Mexico experienced a strong economic recession in 1982 and the Mexican peso suffered a devaluation. Presidential elections held in 1988 were forecast to be very competitive and they were. Leftist candidate [[Cuauhtémoc Cárdenas]], son of [[Lázaro Cárdenas]] one of the most beloved Mexican presidents, created a successful campaign and was reported as the leader in several opinion polls. On [[July 6]], [[1988]], the day of the elections, a system shutdown of the [[IBM|IBM AS/400]] that the government was using to count the votes occurred, presumably by accident. The government simply stated that ''"se cayó el sistema"'' ("the system crashed"), to refer to the incident. When the system was finally restored, the PRI candidate Carlos Salinas was declared the official winner. It was the first time that a non-PRI candidate was so close to win the presidency. In the United States president [[Ronald Reagan]] attempted to move the United States back towards a hard anti-communist line in foreign affairs, in what his supporters saw as an attempt to assert moral leadership (compared to the Soviet Union) in the world community. Domestically, Reagan attempted to bring in a package of [[privatization]] and [[regulation]] to stimulate the economy. ===Recent history=== {{main|1990s|21st century|History of the United States (since 1988)|History of Canada (1992-Present)}} The End of the Cold War and the beginning of the era of sustained economic expansion coincided during the 1990s. On January 1, 1994 Canada, Mexico and the United States signed the [[North American Free Trade Agreement]], creating the world's largest free trade area. In 2000, [[Vicente Fox]] became the first non-[[PRI]] candidate to win the Mexican presidency in over 70 years. The optimism of the 1990s was shattered by the [[9/11]] attacks of 2001 on the United States, which prompted military intervention in [[Afghanistan]], which also involved Canada. Canada did not support the United State’s later move to [[Iraq War|invade Iraq]], however. ==See also== * [[History of the Americas]] * [[History of western civilization]] ===By nation=== {{North_America_in_topic|History of}} ===By region=== * [[History of the west coast of North America]] * [[History of Central America]] * [[History of the Caribbean]] * [[History of Latin America]] * [[History of the Southern United States]] * [[American Old West]] * [[History of New England]] * [[:Category:History of the United States by state|History of the US States]] * [[:Category:Histories of cities in the United States|Histories of cities in the United States]] * [[:Category:History of Canada by location|Local history in Canada]] * [[:Category:Histories of cities in Mexico|History of cities in Mexico]] {{History by continent}} ==Notes== {{reflist}} ==References== *Bennett, Norma V. (1997), ''Pioneer Legacy'', ISBN 0-9683026-0-2 *Kane , Katie ''[http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0882-4371%28199921%2942%3C81%3ANMLDSC%3E2.0.CO%3B2-%23&size=LARGE Nits Make Lice: Drogheda, Sand Creek, and the Poetics of Colonial Extermination]'' ''Cultural Critique'', No. 42 (Spring, 1999), pp. 81-103 doi:10.2307/1354592 *Churchill, Ward ''A Little Matter of Genocide'' 1997 City Lights Books ISBN 0872863239 {{History of North America}} [[Category:History of North America| ]] [[ar:تاريخ أمريكا الشمالية]] [[bn:উত্তর আমেরিকার ইতিহাস]] [[cy:Hanes Gogledd America]] [[de:Geschichte Nordamerikas]] [[es:Historia de América del Norte]] [[ko:북아메리카의 역사]] [[hr:Povijest Sjeverne Amerike]] [[hu:Észak-Amerika történelme]] [[nl:Geschiedenis van Noord-Amerika]] [[ja:北アメリカ史]] [[pl:Historia Ameryki Północnej]] [[simple:History of North America]] [[sv:Nordamerikas historia]]