History of Romania 25636 225867253 2008-07-15T19:45:02Z Helmold 2094877 Undoing vandalism {{historomania}} {{seealso|Timeline of Romanian history|Military history of Romania}} This article provides only a brief outline of each period of the '''History of Romania'''; details are presented in separate articles (see the links in the box and below). ==Prehistory== {{main|Prehistoric Romania}} The territory of [[Romania]] has been inhabited by different groups of people since [[prehistory]]. One of the [[fossil]]s found—a male, adult jawbone—has been dated to be between 34,000 and 36,000 years old, which would make it one of the oldest fossils found to date of modern humans in Europe.<ref name="amos">Jonathan Amos, [http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/nature/3129654.stm "Human fossils set European record"], ''[[BBC News]]'', [[22 September]], [[2003]]</ref> A skull found in ''[[Peştera cu Oase]]'' (The Cave with Bones) in 2004-5 bears features of both modern humans and [[Neanderthal]]s. According to a paper by [[Erik Trinkaus]] and others, published in the [[Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences]] in January 2007, this finding suggests that the two groups interbred thousands of years ago. [[Radiocarbon dating]] indicates that the skull is between 35,000 and 40,000 years old, making it the oldest modern human fossil ever found in [[Europe]].<ref name="amos"/><ref>http://www7.nationalgeographic.com/ngm/0603/feature2/images/mp_download.2.pdf</ref><ref>Tony Fitzpatrick, [http://record.wustl.edu/news/page/normal/2370.html "A jaw-some discovery: Earliest modern human fossils in Europe found in bear cave"], ''Record'', [[Washington University in St. Louis]], vol. 28, no. 8, [[October 3]], [[2003]]</ref> ==Dacia== {{main|Dacia|Roman Dacia}} The territory of today's Romania was inhabited since at least [[513 BC]] by the [[Getae|Getae or Dacians]], a [[Thracian]] tribe. Under the leadership of [[Burebista]] (82-44 BC), the Dacians became a powerful state which threatened even the regional interests of the Romans. [[Julius Caesar]] intended to start a campaign against the Dacians, but was assassinated in [[44 BC]]. A few months later, Burebista shared the same fate, assassinated by his own noblemen. His powerful state was divided in four and did not become unified again until [[95]], under the reign of the Dacian king [[Decebalus]]. The Dacian state sustained a series of conflicts with the expanding [[Roman Empire]], and was finally conquered in AD [[106]] by the [[Roman emperor]] [[Trajan]], who defeated Decebalus. Faced by successive invasions of the [[Goths]] and [[Carpians|Carpi]], the Roman administration withdrew in [[271]]. Roman conquest of Dacia stands at the base of the [[origin of Romanians]]. ==Dark Ages== {{Main article|Romania in the Dark Ages}} Different people from other kingdoms (or empires) lived with the Romanians, such as the [[Goths|Gothic]] Empire ([[Oium]]) from 271 until 378, the [[Huns|Hunnish Empire]] until 435, the [[Eurasian Avars|Avar Empire]] and [[Slavs]] during the 6th century. Much of Romania fell under the [[First Bulgarian Empire]] during the 9th through 11th centuries. Subsequently [[Magyars]], [[Pechenegs]], [[Cumans]] and [[Tatars]] also raided and settled in the lands to various extents. ==Middle Ages== {{Main article|Romania in the Middle Ages}} By the 11th century, the area of today's Transylvania became a largely autonomous part of the [[Kingdom of Hungary]]. [[Hungarian rulers|Kings of Hungary]] invited the [[Saxons]] to settle in Transylvania. Also living in Transylvania were the Székely (székely magyar). They were an ancient Magyar tribe which arrived after the avars (they had the same language). Many small local states with varying degrees of independence developed, but only in the 14th century the larger principalities of [[Moldavia]] and [[Wallachia]] emerged to fight a threat in the form of the [[Ottoman Turks]], who conquered [[Constantinople]] in 1453. In 1475, [[Stephen III of Moldavia|Stephen III ("the Great")]] of Moldavia scored a decisive victory against the [[Ottoman Empire]] at the [[Battle of Vaslui]]. ==Early modern period== [[Image:Stema Mihai Viteazul.jpg|thumb|right|Seal of Michael the Brave after the union of the three Romanian principalities]] [[Image:Mihai 1600.png|thumb|right|The three Principalities united under Michael's authority]] {{Main article|Early Modern Romania}} By 1541, the entire [[Balkan peninsula]] and most of [[Hungary]] became Ottoman provinces. In contrast, Moldavia, Wallachia, and [[Transylvania]], came under Ottoman [[suzerainty]], but conserved fully internal autonomy and, until the 18th century, some external independence. During this period the Romanian lands were characterised by the slow disappearance of the [[feudalism|feudal]] system, the distinguishment of some rulers like [[Vasile Lupu]] and [[Dimitrie Cantemir]] in Moldavia, [[Matei Basarab]] and [[Constantin Brâncoveanu]] in Wallachia, [[Gabriel Bethlen]] in [[Principality of Transylvania|Transylvania]], the [[Phanariot|Phanariot Epoch]], and the appearance of the [[Russian Empire]] as a political and military influence. [[John II Sigismund Zápolya|John II]], the last non-Habsburg [[king of Hungary]], moved his royal court to [[Alba Iulia]] in Transylvania, and after his abdication as king of Hungary, became the first [[Prince of Transylvania]]. His Edict of [[Turda]] was the first decree of [[freedom of religion|religious freedom]] in the modern history of Europe (1568). In the subsequent period, Transylvania was ruled by mostly [[Calvinism|Calvinist]] Hungarian princes (until the end of the 17th century), and [[Protestantism]] flourished in the region. [[Image:Europe map 1648.PNG|thumb|left|250px|Map of Europe in 1648 showing the three independent principalities]] In 1600, the principalities of Wallachia, Moldova and Transylvania were simultaneously headed by the Wallachian prince [[Mihai Viteazul|Michael the Brave]] (''Mihai Viteazul''), [[Ban (title)|Ban]] of [[Oltenia]], but the chance for a unity dissolved after Mihai was killed, only one year later, by the soldiers of an [[Habsburg Monarchy|Austrian]] army general [[Giorgio Basta]]. Mihai Viteazul, who was prince of Transylvania for less than one year, intended for the first time to unite the three principalities and to lay down foundations of a single state in a territory comparable to today's Romania. The [[Principality of Transylvania]] experienced a golden age under the [[Absolutism (European history)|absolutist]] rule of [[Gabriel Bethlen]] (1613-1629). In 1699, Transylvania became a territory of the [[Habsburg Monarchy|Habsburgs']] Austrian empire, following the Austrian victory over the Turks. The Austrians, in their turn, rapidly expanded their empire: in 1718 an important part of Wallachia, called [[Oltenia]], was incorporated to the Austrian monarchy and was only returned in 1739. In 1775, the Austrian empire occupied the north-western part of Moldavia, later called [[Bukovina]], while the eastern half of the principality (called [[Bessarabia]]) was occupied in 1812 by [[Russia]]. ==National awakening== {{main|National awakening of Romania}} [[Image:Alexander Ioan Cuza.jpg|thumb|200px|left|'''Alexandru Ioan Cuza''', first domnitor of [[România|Romania]]]] As in most European countries, [[Revolutions of 1848|1848 brought revolution]] to Moldavia, Wallachia, and Transylvania, announced by [[Tudor Vladimirescu]] and his [[Pandurs]] in the [[Wallachian uprising of 1821]]. The goals of the revolutionaries - complete independence for Moldavia and Wallachia, and national emancipation in Transylvania - remained unfulfilled, but were the basis of the subsequent evolutions. Also, the uprising helped the population of the three principalities recognise their unity of language and interests. Heavily taxed and badly administered under the Ottoman Empire, in 1859, people in both Moldavia and Wallachia elected the same "[[Domnitor]]" (ruler) - [[Alexander John Cuza|Alexandru Ioan Cuza]] - as prince ==Kingdom of Romania== ===The Old Kingdom=== In 1866, the German prince [[Carol I of Romania|Carol I]] (Charles or Karl) of [[Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen]] was appointed as [[Domnitor]]—Prince—of the Principality of Romania. In 1877, Romania declared independence from the Ottoman Empire and, following a Russian-Romanian-Turkish war, its independence was recognized by the [[Treaty of Berlin, 1878]], making it the first independent national state in the eastern half of Europe. Following the war Romania acquired [[Dobruja]] in its southeast, but it was forced to cede southern Bessarabia to Russia. Carol I was proclaimed the first [[King of Romania]] on [[March 26]], [[1881]]. The new state, squeezed between the great powers of the Ottoman, [[Austro-Hungarian Empire|Austro-Hungarian]], and [[Russian Empire|Russian]] empires, looked to the West, particularly [[France]], for its cultural, educational, military and administrative models. In 1916 Romania entered [[World War I]] on the [[Allies of World War I|Entente]] side, after the Entente agreed to recognize Romanian rights over Transylvania, which at that time was part of Austria-Hungary. {{main|Romanian Campaign (World War I)}} Romania was defeated, its capital, [[Bucharest]], and two-thirds of the country occupied by the [[Central Powers]]. In May 1918, Romania was in no position to continue the war, and negotiated a peace treaty with [[German Empire|Germany]] (see [[Treaty of Bucharest, 1918]]). In October 1918, Romania joined the war again. By the end of the war, the Austro-Hungarian and Russian empires had disintegrated; governing bodies created by the Romanians of Transylvania, Bessarabia and Bukovina chose union with the [[Kingdom of Romania]], resulting in [[Greater Romania]]. === Greater Romania (România Mare) === [[Image:Romania MASSR 1920.png|thumb|300px|Great Romania (1920 - 1940)]] {{main|Greater Romania}} The Romanian expression ''România Mare'' (literal translation "Great Romania", but more commonly rendered "Greater Romania") generally refers to the Romanian state in the years between the [[World War I|First]] and [[World War I|Second World War]]s and, by extension, to the territory Romania covered at the time (see the map). Romania achieved at that time its greatest territorial extent, managing to unite old historic Hungarian-székely lands (Partium, Erdély(Transylvania))(which were also inhabited by a majority of Romanians). They gave these parts as a gift from the French for their "loyalty". Historically, Greater Romania—''România Mare''—represented one of the ideals of Romanian [[nationalism]]. Greater Romania is still seen by many as a "paradise lost", often by comparison with the "stunted" [[Communist Romania]]. To exploit the nationalistic connotation of the term, a [[Greater Romania Party|nationalist political party]] uses it as its name. In 1918, at the end of [[World War I]], Transylvania and Bessarabia united with the [[Romanian Old Kingdom]]. The Deputies of the Romanians from Transylvania voted to unite their region by the ''Proclamation of Union'' of [[Alba Iulia]]. Bessarabia, having declared its independence from Russia in 1917 by the Conference of the Country ([[Sfatul Ţării]]), called in Romanian troops to protect the province from the [[Bolshevik]]s who were spreading the [[Russian Revolution of 1917|Russian Revolution]]. The union of the regions of Transylvania, [[Maramureş]], [[Crişana]] and [[Banat]] with the Old Kingdom of Romania was ratified in 1920 by the [[Treaty of Trianon]], which recognised the sovereignty of Romania over these regions and settled the border between the independent Republic of Hungary and the Kingdom of Romania. The union of [[Bucovina]] and Bessarabia with Romania was ratified in 1920 by the [[Treaty of Versailles]]. Romania had also recently acquired the [[Southern Dobruja]] territory called "The Quadrilateral" from [[Bulgaria]] as a result of its participation in the [[Second Balkan War]] in 1913. [[Image:Greater Romania histprov.svg|thumb|left|300px|Administrative map of Greater Romania in 1930. the colors represent the historical regions (no administrative value)]] The Union of 1918 united most regions with clear Romanian majorities into the boundaries of a single state. However, it also led to the inclusion of various sizable minorities, including [[Magyars]] (ethnic Hungarians), [[German people|Germans]], [[Jew]]s, [[Ukrainian people|Ukrainians]], [[Bulgarians]], etc., for a total of about 28% of the population (Magyars mostly in Transylvania; Germans in Transylvania, Bukovina, and Banat; Ukrainians in part of Bessarabia and Bukovina, Bulgarians in Dobrudja). Recognized by the [[1923 Constitution of Romania|Romanian Constitution of 1923]] and supported by various laws (education, electoral, etc.), national minorities were represented in [[Romanian Parliament|Parliament]], and several of them created national parties (the Magyars in 1922, the Germans in 1929, the Jews in 1931), although a unique standing of minorities with autonomy on a wide basis, provided for at the assembly of Transylvanian Romanians on [[1 December]] 1918 were not fulfilled. Two periods can be identified in Romania between the two World Wars. From 1918 to 1938, Romania was a [[liberalism|liberal]] [[constitutional monarchy]], but one facing the rise of the nationalist, [[anti-semitism|anti-semitic]] parties, particularly [[Iron Guard]], which won about 15% of the votes in the general elections of 1937. From 1938 to 1944, Romania was a dictatorship. The first dictator was [[Carol II of Romania|King Carol II]], who abolished the parliamentary regime and ruled with his ''camarilla.'' In 1939, Germany and the [[Soviet Union]] signed the [[Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact]], which stipulated, amongst other things, the Soviet "interest" in Bessarabia. Following the severe territorial losses of 1940 (''see next section''), Carol was forced to abdicate, replaced as king by his son [[Mihai of Romania|Mihai]], but the power was taken by the military dictator [[Ion Antonescu]] (initially in conjunction with the Iron Guard). In August 1944, Antonescu was arrested by Mihai. == World War II == {{main|Romania during World War II|Bombing of Romania in World War II}} In 1940, Romania lost territory in both east and west: In June 1940, after receiving an ultimatum from the [[Soviet Union]], Romania ceded [[Bessarabia]] and northern [[Bukovina]]<ref>Istvan Deak, ''Essays on Hitler's Europe'', University of Nebraska Press, 2001, ISBN 0803266308, p. 131</ref><ref>Moshe Y. Sachs, ''Worldmark Encyclopedia of the Nations'', John Wiley & Sons, 1988, ISBN 0471624063, p. 231</ref><ref>William Julian Lewis , ''The Warsaw Pact: Arms, Doctrine, and Strategy'', Institute for Foreign Policy Analysis, 1982, p.209</ref><ref>Karel C Wellens, Eric Suy, ''International Law: Essays in Honour of Eric Suy'', Martinus Nijhoff Publishers, 1998, ISBN 9041105824, p. 79</ref> (''see [[Soviet occupation of Bessarabia]]''). Two thirds of Bessarabia were combined with a small part of the USSR to form the [[Moldavian SSR]]. Northern Bukovina and [[Budjak]] were apportioned to the [[Ukrainian SSR]]. In August 1940, [[Northern Transylvania]] was awarded to Hungary by [[Germany]] and [[Italy]] through the [[Second Vienna Award]]. [[Southern Dobruja]] was also lost to Bulgaria shortly after Carol's abdication. Because Carol II lost so much territory through failed diplomacy, the army supported seizure of power by General [[Ion Antonescu]]. For four months (the period of the [[National Legionary State]]), he had to share power with the Iron Guard, but the latter [[Legionnaires' Rebellion and Bucharest Pogrom|overplayed their hand in January 1941]] and were suppressed. Romania entered [[World War II]] under the command of the German [[Wehrmacht]] in June 1941, declaring war to the Soviet Union in order to recover Bessarabia and northern Bukovina. Romania was awarded the territory between [[Dniester]] and the [[Southern Bug]] by Germany to administer it under the name ''[[Transnistria (World War II)|Transnistria]].'' According to an [[Wiesel Commission|international commission report]] released by the Romanian government in 2004, Antonescu's Fascist government of Romania is responsible for the murder in various forms (including [[Deportation of Romanian Jews to Transnistria|deportations to concentration camps]] and executions by the [[Romanian Army]] and [[Romanian Gendarmerie|Gendarmerie]] and the German [[Einsatzgruppen]]), between 280,000 to 380,000 Jews in Romania and in the war zone of [[Bessarabia]], [[Bukovina]] and Transnistria.<ref>Ilie Fugaru, [http://washingtontimes.com/upi-breaking/20041111-023944-6848r.htm Romania clears doubts about Holocaust past], [[United Press International|UPI]], [[November 11]], [[2004]]</ref><ref name="Commission"> {{cite web | author = [[Wiesel Commission|International Commission on the Holocaust in Romania]] | title = Executive Summary: Historical Findings and Recommendations | work = Final Report of the International Commission on the Holocaust in Romania | publisher = Yad Vashem (The Holocaust Martyrs' and Heroes' Remembrance Authority) | language = English | date = [[November 11]], [[2004]] | url = http://yad-vashem.org.il/about_yad/what_new/data_whats_new/pdf/english/EXECUTIVE_SUMMARY.pdf | format = PDF | doi = | accessdate = 2006-07-25 }} </ref> In August 1944, a coup led by King Mihai, with support from opposition politicians and the army, deposed the Antonescu dictatorship and put Romania's armies under [[Red Army]] command. Romania suffered additional heavy casualties fighting the [[Nazism|Nazi]] Army in Hungary and [[Czechoslovakia]]. The [[Paris Peace Treaties, 1947|Paris Peace Treaty]] at the end of World War II rendered the Vienna Awards void: [[Northern Transylvania]] returned to Romania—having, for several years, an autonomous status that was eventually abolished—but Bessarabia, northern Bukovina and southern Dobruja were not recovered. The Moldavian SSR became independent of the Soviet Union only with [[Belavezha Accords|the latter's 1991 demise]], becoming the [[Republic of Moldova]]. [[Image:Romania territory during 20th century.gif|thumb|right|300x|Romanian territory during the 20th century: purple indicates the Old Kingdom before 1913, orange indicates Greater Romania areas that joined or were annexed after the [[Second Balkan War]] and [[World War I]] but were lost after [[World War II]], and rose indicates areas that joined Romania after World War I and remained so after World War II.]] ==Communist period== {{main|Communist Romania}} [[Soviet occupation of Romania|Soviet occupation]] following World War II led to the formation of a [[communism|communist]] People's Republic in 1947, and the abdication of King Michael, who went into exile. The leader of Romania from 1948 to his death in 1965 was [[Gheorghe Gheorghiu-Dej]], the [[First Secretary]] of the [[Romanian Workers' Party]]. In the early 1960s, Romania's communist government began to assert some independence from the Soviet Union. [[Nicolae Ceauşescu]] became General Secretary in 1965, and head of state in 1967. Ceauşescu's denunciation of the [[Prague Spring|1968 Soviet invasion of Czechoslovakia]] and a brief relaxation in internal repression helped give him a positive image both at home and in the West. Seduced by Ceauşescu's "independent" foreign policy, Western leaders were slow to turn against a regime that, by the late 1970s, had become increasingly harsh, arbitrary, and capricious. Rapid economic growth fueled by foreign credits gradually gave way to wrenching austerity and severe political repression, which became increasingly draconian through the 1980s. The [[Romanian Revolution of 1989]] resulted in more than 1,000 deaths in [[Timişoara]] and [[Bucharest]], and brought about the fall of Ceauşescu and the end of the Communist regime in Romania. After a weeklong state of unrest in Timişoara, a mass rally summoned in Bucharest in support of Ceauşescu on [[December 21]], [[1989]] turned hostile. The Ceauşescu couple, fleeing Bucharest by helicopter, ended up in the custody of the army. After being tried and convicted by a [[kangaroo court]] for [[genocide]] and other crimes, they were executed on [[December 25]], [[1989]]. The events of this revolution remain to this day a matter of debate, with many conflicting theories as to the motivations and even actions of some of the main players. [[Ion Iliescu]], a former Communist Party official marginalized by Ceauşescu, attained national recognition as the leader of an impromptu governing coalition, the [[National Salvation Front]] (FSN) that proclaimed the restoration of democracy and civil liberties on [[December 22]], [[1989]]. The Communist Party was initially outlawed by Ion Iliescu, but he soon revoked that decision; as a consequence, Communism is not outlawed in Romania today. However, Ceauşescu's most unpopular measures, such as bans on [[abortion]] and [[contraception]], were among the first laws to be changed after the Revolution, and their legality has not been questioned since then. ==After the 1989 revolution== {{main|Romania since 1989}} Presidential and parliamentary elections were held on [[May 20]], [[1990]]. Running against representatives of the re-established pre-war [[National Peasants' Party]] and [[National Liberal Party (Romania)|National Liberal Party]], and taking advantage of FSN's tight control of the national radio and television, Iliescu won 85% of the vote. The FSN secured two-thirds of the seats in Parliament. A university professor with strong family roots in the Communist Party, [[Petre Roman]], was named prime minister of the new government, which consisted mainly of former communist officials. The government initiated modest [[free market]] reforms. Because the majority of ministers in the Petre Roman government were ex-communists, anti-communist protesters initiated [[Golaniad|a round-the-clock anti-government demonstration]] in [[University Square, Bucharest|University Square]], Bucharest in April 1990. Two months later, these protesters, whom the government referred to as "hooligans", were brutally dispersed by the miners from [[Jiu Valley]], called in by President Iliescu; this event became known as the [[mineriad]]. The miners also attacked the headquarters and private residences of opposition leaders. Petre Roman's government fell in late September 1991, when the miners returned to Bucharest to demand higher salaries. A technocrat, [[Theodor Stolojan]], was appointed to head an interim government until new elections could be held. In December 1991, a new constitution was drafted and subsequently adopted, after a popular referendum, which, however, attracted criticism from international observers who accused the government of manipulating the population and even of outright fraud. (The constitution was most recently revised by a national referendum on October 18-19, 2003, again plagued by fraud accusations made by internal and international observers.) The new constitution, which took effect [[October 29]], [[2003]], follows the structure of the Constitution of 1991, but makes significant revisions, among which the most significant are extension of the presidential mandate from four years to five, and the guaranteed protection of private property. March 1992 marked the split of the FSN into two groups: the [[Democratic National Front]] (FDSN), led by Ion Iliescu and the [[Democratic Party (Romania)|Democratic Party]] (PD), led by Petre Roman. Iliescu won the presidential elections in September 1992 by a clear margin, and his FDSN won the general elections held at the same time. With parliamentary support from the nationalist PUNR (National Unity Party of Romanians), PRM ([[Great Romania Party]]), and the ex-communist PSM (Socialist Workers' Party), a new government was formed in November 1992 under Prime Minister [[Nicolae Văcăroiu]], an economist and former Communist Party official. The FDSN changed its name to [[Party of Social Democracy in Romania]] (PDSR) in July 1993. [[Emil Constantinescu]] of the [[Romanian Democratic Convention|Democratic Convention]] (CDR) emerged as the winner of the second round of the 1996 presidential elections and replaced Iliescu as chief of state. The PDSR won the largest number of seats in Parliament, but was unable to form a viable coalition. Constituent parties of the CDR joined the Democratic Party (PD), the [[National Liberal Party (Romania)|National Liberal Party]] (PNL) and the [[Hungarian Democratic Union of Romania]] (UDMR) to form a centrist coalition government, holding 60% of the seats in Parliament. This coalition of sorts frequently struggled for survival, as decisions were often delayed by long periods of negotiations among the involved parties. Nevertheless, this coalition was able to implement several critical reforms. The new coalition government, under prime minister [[Victor Ciorbea]] remained in office until March 1998, when [[Radu Vasile]] (PNŢCD) took over as prime minister. The former governor of the National Bank, [[Mugur Isărescu]], eventually replaced [[Radu Vasile]] as head of the government. The [[Romanian elections, 2000|2000 elections]], brought Iliescu's PDSR back to power. The party, now renamed the [[Social Democratic Party (Romania)|Social Democratic Party]] (PSD), was led largely by former Communist officials. Iliescu won a third term as the country's president. [[Adrian Năstase]] became the prime minister of the newly formed government. His rule was shaken by recurring allegations of corruption. Presidential and parliamentary elections took place again on [[November 28]], [[2004]]. No political party was able to secure a viable parliamentary majority, amidst accusations from international observers and opposition parties alike that the PSD had committed large-scale electoral fraud. There was no winner in the first round of the presidential elections. The joint PNL-PD candidate, [[Traian Băsescu]], won the second round on [[December 12]], [[2004]] with 51% of the vote and thus became the third post-revolutionary president of Romania. The PNL leader, [[Călin Popescu Tăriceanu]] was assigned the difficult task of building a coalition government without including the PSD. In December 2004, the new coalition government (PD, PNL, PUR [[Romanian Humanist Party]] - which eventually changed its name to [[Romanian Conservative Party]] and UDMR), was sworn in under Prime Minister Tăriceanu. ===21st century=== Romania joined the [[NATO|North Atlantic Treaty Organizaion]] in 2004, and the [[European Union]], alongside [[Bulgaria]], on [[January 1]], [[2007]]. In April 2008, Bucharest hosted the [[2008 Bucharest summit|NATO summit]]. ==Romanian rulers== *[[List of Wallachian rulers]] (up to 1859) *[[List of Moldavian rulers]] (up to 1859) *[[List of Transylvanian rulers]] (up to 1867) *[[Kings of Romania]] (1881 - 1947) *[[Presidents of Romania]] (since 1947) *[[Prime ministers of Romania]] (since 1862) ==See also== {{wikisourcepar|The Principalities of the Danube}} * [[Military history of Romania]] * [[History of the Balkans]] * [[History of Europe]] {{Romanian topics}} {{History of Europe}} == External links == * [http://domino.kappa.ro/guvern/istoria-e.html Illustrated History of Romanians] * [http://www.worldstatesmen.org/Romania.htm World Statesmen: Romania], including a timeline; a comprehensive history of the Romanian flag; a listing of princes, monarchs, prime ministers; etc. ==References== {{reflist}} [[Category:Prehistoric Romania]] [[Category:National histories|Romania]] [[bg:История на Румъния]] [[de:Geschichte Rumäniens]] [[es:Historia de Rumania]] [[eu:Errumaniako historia]] [[fr:Histoire des Roumains]] [[gl:Historia da Romanía]] [[hr:Povijest Rumunjske]] [[it:Storia della Romania]] [[he:היסטוריה של רומניה]] [[la:Historia Romaniae]] [[lt:Rumunijos istorija]] [[nl:Geschiedenis van Roemenië]] [[ja:ルーマニアの歴史]] [[pl:Historia Rumunii]] [[pt:História da Romênia]] [[ro:Istoria României]] [[ru:История Румынии]] [[sv:Rumäniens historia]] [[uk:Історія Румунії]] [[zh:罗马尼亚历史]]