History of Russians in Estonia 3044195 222444653 2008-06-29T11:13:23Z Russavia 253448 general clean up, typos fixed: never the less → nevertheless using [[Project:AutoWikiBrowser|AWB]] The beginning of continuous [[Russians|Russian settlement]] in what is now [[Estonia]] dates back to the late 17th century when several thousand Russian [[Old Believers]], escaping religious persecution in [[Russia]], settled in areas then controlled by [[Sweden]] near the western coast of [[Lake Peipus]]. The history of intermittent presence of [[Early East Slavs]], or "proto-Russians", in Estonia is longer by several centuries. ===First contacts and settlements=== As early as the 6th century AD, an [[East Slavic]] tribe, the [[Krivichs]], had settled in what is now eastern [[Latvia]], an area which over the following centuries was in close contact with adjacent areas of south-eastern Estonia, both in terms of mutual military raids, as well as trade and migration. <ref> Kahk J., Palamets H., Vahtre S. "Estee NVS Ajaloost Lisamaterjali VII-VIII Klassi NVS Liidu Ajaloo Kursuse Juurde 7. Trukk" Tallin: "Valgus", 1974 </ref>. Prince [[Yaroslav the Wise]] of [[Kievan Rus]] successfully raided [[Tartu]] in [[1030]], burning down the Estonian stronghold<ref name="vtartu">[http://www.visittartu.com/11387 A short overview of the history of Tartu]</ref>. The Russian foothold Yuryev built on its ashes survived until [[1061]], when [[Kievan Rus]] were driven out by Estonians, making most Early East Slavic settlements at the time in Estonia intermittent only and not continuous<ref>[http://books.google.com/books?id=XKWRct15XfkC&pg=PA420&ots=Qq2bYV4jQc&dq=tartu+yaroslav+1061&sig=7kcb1DXwYHNPhjiWihbqOxKeQ3o Miljan, Toivo. Historical Dictionary of Estonia]</ref>. Outside of south-east Estonia archeologists unearthed a mediaeval Russian settlement in [[Kuremäe]] ([[Ida-Viru County]]). Russian Orthodox community in the area built a church in the 16th century and later [[Pühtitsa Convent]] was created on its site.<ref> http://www.orthodox.ee/indexeng.php?d=parishes/convent Pühtitsa [Pyhtitsa] Dormition Convent </ref> Russian cultural influence had its mark on Estonian language, with a number of words such as "turg" (trade)<!--, "raamat" - highly unlikely -- compare Finnish "raamattu"(record)--> and "rist" (cross) adopted from [[East Slavic language|East Slavic]]<ref> Kahk J., Palamets H., Vahtre S. "Estee NVS Ajaloost Lisamaterjali VII-VIII Klassi NVS Liidu Ajaloo Kursuse Juurde 7. Trukk" Tallin: "Valgus", 1974 </ref>. The [[Estonian Crusade]] started in the Baltics by the [[Teutonic knights]] was resisted by all the natives of the region [[Slavs]] as well as [[Estonians]].<ref> Kahk J., Palamets H., Vahtre S. "Estee NVS Ajaloost Lisamaterjali VII-VIII Klassi NVS Liidu Ajaloo Kursuse Juurde 7. Trukk" Tallin: "Valgus", 1974 </ref>. In [[1217]] allied Russian-Estonian army defended fort [[Otepää]] from German knights. Russian prince [[Vyachko]] died in [[1224]] with all his [[druzhina]] defending fortress Tharbatu (modern [[Tartu]]) together with his Estonian allies against [[Livonian Order]] led by [[Albert of Riga]]. Russians were gradually driven out of Estonia<ref> [http://www.xenophon-mil.org/rushistory/rulers/chron13cen.htm Chronology of 13th century] </ref>. The conquest of what is now Estonia and Latvia by [[Denmark]] and the German crusaders in the beginning of the 13th century greatly reduced [[Slavic peoples|Slavic]] and [[Eastern Orthodox Church|Orthodox Christian]] influence in the region. [[Russian Orthodox]] Saint [[Isidore of Tartu]] was drowned in [[1472]] in the ice holes of the [[Emajõgi]] river for his refusal to adopt [[Roman Catholicism]] together with 72 Orthodox Christians. <ref> [http://www.orthodox.ee/indexeng.php?d=history/history#1 Historical background of Orthodoxy in Estonia] </ref>. Nonetheless, Orthodox churches and small communities of Russian merchants and craftsmen came into being in the towns of medieval [[Livonia]] (i.e., Estonia and Latvia) as did close trade links with Russian [[Novgorod]], [[Pskov]] and [[Polotsk]] principalities. In [[1481]], [[Ivan III of Russia]] laid siege to the castle [[Viljandi]] and briefly captured several other towns in eastern Livonia in response to a Livonian attack on north-west Russia. Between [[1558]] and [[1582]], [[Ivan the Terrible]] captured much of mainland Estonia, in the midst of the [[Livonian War]], but eventually the Russians were driven out by [[Poland|Polish]] and Swedish armies. Tsar [[Alexis I of Russia]] once again captured towns in eastern Livonia, including [[Tartu]] and [[Vasknarva]] in modern Estonia between [[1656]] and [[1661]], but had to yield his Livonian and [[Ingria]]n conquests to [[Sweden]]. In the late 17th century several thousand Russian [[Old Believers]], escaping religious persecution in [[Russia]], settled in areas of Estonia (then controlled by Sweden) near the western coast of [[Lake Peipus]]. ===Second wave of settlement=== The second period of influx of Russians followed the [[Russian Empire|Imperial Russian]] conquest of the northern Baltic region, including Estonia, from Sweden in 1700&ndash;1721. Under Russian rule, power in the region remained primarily in the hands of the [[Baltic German]] nobility, but a limited number of administrative jobs was gradually taken over by Russians, who settled in Reval ([[Tallinn]]) and other major towns. However, a relatively larger number of ethnic Russian workers settled in Tallinn and [[Narva]] during the period of rapid industrial development in the end of 19th century and the beginning of 20th century. After the [[First World War]], the share of ethnic Russians in the population of independent Estonia was about 10%, of which about half were indigenous Russians living in the areas in and around [[Pechory]] and [[Izborsk]] which were added to Estonian territory according to the 1920 Estonian-Soviet Peace [[Treaty of Tartu (Russian–Estonian)|Treaty of Tartu]], but were transferred to the [[Russian SFSR]] by the Soviet authorities in 1945. ===Third influx=== Most of the present-day Russians in Estonia are migrants from the Soviet era and their descendants. Following the terms of the 1939 [[Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact]], the [[Soviet Union]] occupied and annexed Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania in 1940. Soviet authorities carried out repressions against many prominent ethnic Russians activists in Estonia and Russian [[White emigres]]. Many Russians in Estonia were arrested and executed by different Soviet War Tribunals in 1940-1941.<ref> http://www.historycommission.ee/temp/pdf/appendixes/312-318.pdf Estonian International Commission for Investigation of Crimes Against Humanity.</ref> After Germany attacked the Soviet Union in 1941, the three countries quickly fell under German control. Many Russians, especially Communist party members who had arrived in the area with the initial annexation, retreated to Russia; those who fell into German hands were treated harshly, many were executed. After the war, [[Stalin]] initiated [[population transfer in the Soviet Union]]. Various [[Soviet ethnic groups]] that were relocated to [[Baltic states]] were mostly [[working class]] who settled in major [[urban area]]s, as well as military personnel stationed in the region in significant numbers{{Fact|date=October 2007}} due to the border location of the Baltic States within the Soviet Union. Many military retirees chose to stay in the region, which featured higher [[living standard]]s compared to other parts of Soviet Union. By the [[1980s]], ethnic Russians made up a third of the population in Estonia. During the [[Singing Revolution]] a large fraction of Russian-speaking Soviet immigrants who were organised in [[Intermovement]] actively opposed Estonia regaining its independence. ===Recent situation=== In [[Estonia]], most Russians live in [[Tallinn]] and the major northeastern cities of [[Narva]] and [[Kohtla-Järve]]. The rural areas are populated almost entirely by ethnic Estonians, except for some areas in eastern Estonia near Lake Peipus which have a long history of settlement by Russians, including the [[Old Believers]]' communities. ==== Citizenship ==== After regaining independence in 1991 the restored [[Republic of Estonia]] recognised [[citizenship]] of everybody who was a citizen prior to the Soviet occupation of 1940 or descended from such a citizen (including the long-term Russian settlers from earlier influxes, such as those around [http://www.fallingrain.com/world/EN/5/Mustvee.html Mustvee] near [[Lake Peipus]]), but did not grant any new citizenships automatically. This affected people who had arrived in the country after 1940, the majority of whom were ethnic Russians. Knowledge of [[Estonian language]] and history were set as conditions for [[naturalization]].<ref>[http://www.legislationline.org/legislation.php?tid=11&lid=2296&less=false Citizenship Act of Estonia] (English translation)</ref> According to the [[Estonian Statistical Office]]{{Fact|date=January 2008}}, ethnic Russians comprised 25.7% of the population in 2006. Of that 25.7%, approximately 27% hold Russian citizenship, 35% hold Estonian citizenship, and 35% continue to have [[undefined citizenship]]. Under Estonian law, residents without citizenship may not vote in elections of [[Riigikogu]] (the national parliament) or European Parliament elections, but are eligible to vote in local (municipal) elections. ===== Language requirements ===== The perceived difficulty of the initial language tests necessary for naturalisation became a point of international contention, as the government of [[Russian Federation]], the [[European Union]]{{Fact|date=July 2007}}, and a number of [[human rights]] organizations objected on the grounds that they made it hard for many Russians who had not learned the local language to gain Estonian citizenship in the short term. As a result, the tests were somewhat altered and the number of [[stateless person]]s has steadily decreased. According to Estonian officials, in 1992, 32% of residents lacked any form of citizenship. In July 2007, the Population Registry of the [[Estonian Ministry of the Interior]] reported that 8.5% of Estonia's residents have [[undefined citizenship]] and 7.8% have foreign citizenship<ref>[http://www.vm.ee/estonia/kat_399/4518.html/ Estonia: Citizenship]</ref>. Estonia does not tax income spent on education (including lessons of [[Estonian language]]) given by accredited schools. Furthermore, the laws provide for reimbursement of money spent on Estonian language lessons upon passing the language test to be taken for naturalisation. The rate of reimbursement is set by an executive order; as of [[May 2007]], it is 100%. ===== Alternatives ===== [[Russian Federation|Russia]] being a [[successor state]] to the [[Soviet Union]], all former [[USSR]] citizens qualified for natural-born citizenship of [[Russian Federation]], available upon mere request, as provided by the law “On the RSFSR Citizenship” in force up to end of 2000.<ref>[http://www.eurasianhome.org/doc/Abstract_final.pdf The Policy of Immigration and Naturalization in Russia: Present State and Prospects], by [[Sergei Gradirovsky]] et al</ref> ==== Bronze Soldier ==== {{main|Bronze Night}} In April 2007 Estonian authorities relocated a well-known Soviet war monument from central Tallinn to a new site in the Defense Forces Cemetery, a military cemetery in Tallinn. Fighting between protesters, mostly ethnic Russian, and the police ensued, subsequently turning into a wave of rioting and looting during which one ethnic Russian participant died of stab wounds (believed to have been inflicted by another rioter) and tens of people were injured. ==== Discrimination criticism ==== Some Russians continue to allege job, salary and housing discrimination on account of Estonian-language requirements. Russian government officials and parliamentarians echo these charges in a variety of forums. Both the Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe ([[OSCE]]) mission in Estonia and the OSCE High Commissioner on National Minorities have declared that they cannot find a pattern of human rights violations or abuses in Estonia. [http://www.axt.org.uk/antisem/archive/archive1/estonia/index.htm] However, [[Amnesty International]] has claimed that Russian-speaking linguistic minority living in Estonia often find themselves de facto excluded from the labour market and educational system. The report expressed the view that the current policies fail to constitute a coherent framework within which these rights can be guaranteed for such persons. Amnesty International cites as evidence the high unemployment rate — 12.9% in 2005 — among people belonging to Russian-speaking linguistic minority, in contrast to only 5.3% among ethnic Estonians during the same period.<ref>[[Amnesty International]]: [http://web.amnesty.org/library/Index/ENGEUR510022006 Estonia Linguistic minorities in Estonia: Discrimination must end]</ref> On the other hand, ethnic Estonians without good command of Russian and English language also have limited job opportunities.{{Fact|date=January 2008}} The [[European Centre for Minority Issues]] has also examined Estonia's treatment of its Russophone minority. In its conclusion, the centre notes that while all international organisations agree that no forms of systematic discrimination towards the Russian-speaking population can be observed and praises the efforts made thus far in amendments to laws on education, language and the status of non-citizens, there nevertheless remains the issue of the large number of such non-citizens.<ref>European Centre for Minority Issues: [http://www.ecmi.de/download/working_paper_20.pdf Russian-speaking minorities in Estonia and Latvia: problems of integration at the threshold of the European Union] by Peter van Elsuwege]</ref> The think-tank [[Development and Transition]], which is sponsored by the [[United Nations]], has argued that Latvia and Estonia employ a "sophisticated and extensive policy regime of discrimination" against their respective [[Russophone]] parts of the population. [http://www.developmentandtransition.net/index.cfm?module=ActiveWeb&page=WebPage&DocumentID=586] {{Totally-disputed-section|date=March 2008}} An obscure [[Lobby|initiative group]] established in the aftermath of the [[Bronze Soldier]] <ref>[http://rus.postimees.ee/140607/glavnaja/estonija/17918.php] (russian)</ref> calling itself the ''House of Representatives of Ethnic Minorities of Estonia'' (a non-governmental organization allegedly representing hundreds of groups and societies of ethnical minorities in Estonia<ref name=DZDchamber>[http://www.dzd.ee/?SID=f3a1f1129f075b16345d2c5eb47c2d73&n=76&a=1395&anumber=76 Нацменьшинства объединились (Russian)]</ref><ref name=PostmanHouse>[http://rus.postimees.ee/140607/glavnaja/estonija/17918.php] (russian)</ref>) issued a list of [[theses]] describing its view of the history of Estonia's policy towards ethnic minorities as having four distinct phases<ref name="EthCouncil">[http://rus.delfi.ee/projects/opinion/article.php?id=17971888 Нацменьшинства — о национальной политике ЭР (in Russian)]</ref><ref name=moles>[http://www.moles.ee/08/Jan/22/2-1.php Голос нацменьшинств (in Russian)]</ref>: * In 1991-1995 policy had been geared toward re-migration of non-Estonians out of Estonia. This had been accompanied by splitting of society into citizens and residents denied citizenship, which amounted to stripping of basic human rights from hundreds of thousands of resident. The essence of this policy had been formulated in slogans "Plats рuhtaks!" ("Clear the Square!"), "Eеstimaa eestlaste jaoks!"("Estonia for Estonians!"). The legal status of [[ethnic minority]] had been denied to non-citizens (up to 30% of the population, mostly Russians). * In 1996-1999 policy had been changed as result of pressure from EU and NATO. Among conditions of Estonia's admittance were requirements to switch from pushing minorities out of Estonia to integration. Estonian Parliament adopted laws protecting minority rights. However non-citizens were again explicitly excluded from definition of ethnic minority. * In 2000-2007 policy concentrated on integration of minorities in ethnic Estonian-dominated society, created in 1990s. House of Representatives came to a conclusion that this policy effectively amounted to forced assimilation of minorities, when fines and employment restrictions based on lack of command of the Estonian language became commonplace. * [[Bronze Night]] marked start of 4th stage, which is described by House of Representatives as "crisis of ethnic policy". ==Notable Russians from Estonia== Noteworthy modern Russians who at some point lived in Estonia include: *[[Patriarch Alexius II]] of the [[Russian Orthodox Church]], born Aleksei Ridiger in [[Tallinn]] *[[Sergei Dovlatov]] lived in [[Tallinn]]. *[[Mikhail Veller]], [[writer]], lives in [[Tallinn]]. *[[Igor Severyanin]] (Igor Lotaryov), poet; lived, married, died and was buried in [[Estonia]]. *[[Yuri Lotman]] lived in [[Tartu]]. *[[Valery Karpin]], former football player of Russian national football team, was born in [[Narva]]. Since [[2003]] he holds Estonian citizenship. ==See also== * [[Baltic Russians]] * [[Demographics of Estonia]] * [[Intermovement]] ==References== {{reflist}} ---- * [http://www.multilingual-matters.net/jmmd/021/0058/jmmd0210058.pdf The Russian Diaspora in Latvia and Estonia: Predicting Language Outcomes] == External links == *[http://www.amnesty.org/en/region/europe-and-central-asia/baltic-states/estonia] [[Amnesty International]] report on Estonia, 2007. * [http://web.amnesty.org/library/index/engeur510022006 Linguistic minorities in Estonia: Discrimination must end]'' - [[Amnesty International]] report on Estonia, [[7 December]] [[2006]]. * ''[http://edwardlucas.blogspot.com/2006/12/estonia-and-amnesty.html An excess of conscience - Estonia is right and Amnesty is wrong]'' - ''[[The Economist]]'', editorial by [[Edward Lucas (journalist)|Edward Lucas]], condemning Amnesty International, [[December 14]], [[2006]] * Vetik, Raivo (1993). [http://www.jstor.org/view/00223433/ap020118/02a00030/0 Ethnic conflict and accommodation in post-communist Estonia]. ''[[Journal of Peace Research]]'' 30.3, 271-280. * Andersen, Erik André (1997). [http://www.jstor.org/view/09668136/ap010054/01a00060/0 The Legal Status of Russians in Estonian Privatisation Legislation 1989-1995]. ''Europe-Asia Studies'' 49.2, 303-316. * Park, Andrus (1994). [http://www.jstor.org/view/09668136/ap010016/01a00040/0 Ethnicity and Independence: The Case of Estonia in Comparative Perspective]. ''Europe-Asia Studies'' 46.1, 69-87. * Vares, Peeter and Olga Zhurayi (1998). Estonia and Russia, Estonians and Russians: A Dialogue. 2nd ed. Tallinn: Olof Palme International Center. * Lauristin, Marju & Mati Heidmets (eds.) ''The Challenge of the Russian Minority: Emerging Multicultural Democracy in Estonia''. Tartu: Tartu Ülikooli Kirjastus, 2002. {{Russian diaspora}} [[Category:Estonian society]] [[Category:Russian minorities]] [[Category:Estonia–Russia relations]]