History of Saudi Arabia 27269 225022167 2008-07-11T14:35:01Z 41.196.68.115 /* First Saudi State (1744-1818) */ {{Cleanup|date=February 2008}} {{Refimprove|date=February 2008}} The rise of [[Islam]] in the [[620s]] [[Anno Domini|AD]], the subsequent religious importance of the Arabian cities of [[Makkah]] ([[Makkah al-Mukarramah]], or [[Mecca]]), and [[Medina]] (the two holiest places in Islam), and the discovery of large [[Petroleum| oil]] reserves in the early twentieth century, have given the rulers of this territory significant influence beyond the peninsula. ==Early history== {{main|Pre-Islamic Arabia}} People of various cultures have lived in the peninsula over a span of more than 5,000 years. The [[Dilmun]] culture, along the [[Persian Gulf]] coast, was contemporaneous with the [[Sumer]]ians and ancient [[Egypt]]ians, and most of the empires of the ancient world traded with the states of the peninsula. Except for a few major cities and [[oasis|oases]], the harsh climate historically prevented much settlement of the [[Arabian Peninsula]]. The earliest known events in Arabian history are migrations from the peninsula into neighbouring areas <ref>Philip Khuri Hitti (2002), History of the Arabs, Revised: 10th Edition</ref>. About 3500 BC, [[Semitic languages|semitic-speaking]] peoples of Arabian origin migrated into the valley of the Tigris and Euphrates rivers in [[Mesopotamia]] and became the Assyro-Babylonians (see [[Babylonia]] and [[Assyria]]).{{Fact|date=August 2007}} Some archeologists argue that another group of Semites left Arabia about 2500 BC and settled along the [[Levant]], mixing in with the local populations there some of these migrants became the [[Amorites]] and [[Canaanites]] of later times.{{Fact|date=August 2007}} Some archeologists argue that the migration instead came from the northern Levant. ==Islamic conquest== {{main|Muslim history}} The religion of Islam began with Muhammad began preaching at [[Mecca]] before [[Hijra (Islam)|migrating]] to [[Medina]], from where he united the [[tribes of Arabia]] into a singular Arab Muslim religious polity. With Muhammad's death in 632, disagreement broke out over who would succeed him as leader of the Muslim community. [[Umar ibn al-Khattab]], a prominent [[sahaba|companion]] of Muhammad, nominated [[Abu Bakr]], who was Muhammad's intimate friend and collaborator. Others added their support and Abu Bakr was made the first [[caliph]]. This choice was disputed by some of Muhammad's companions, who held that [[Ali ibn Abi Talib]], his cousin and son-in-law, had been designated his successor. Abu Bakr's immediate task was to avenge a recent defeat by [[Byzantine]] (or [[Eastern Roman Empire]]) forces, although he first had to put down a rebellion by Arab tribes in an episode known as the [[Ridda wars]], or "Wars of Apostasy".<ref>See: Holt (1977a), p.57, Hourani (2003), p.22, Lapidus (2002), p.32, Madelung (1996), p.43, Tabatabaei (1979), p.30–50</ref> [[Image:Age of Caliphs.png|thumb|left|300px|The territory of the [[Caliphate]] in 750]] His death in 634 resulted in the succession of Umar as the caliph, followed by [[Uthman ibn al-Affan]] and Ali ibn Abi Talib. These four are known as ''al-khulafā' ar-rāshidūn'' ("[[Rightly Guided Caliphs]]"). Under them, the territory under Muslim rule expanded deeply into [[Persian Empire|Persian]] and [[Byzantine]] territories.<ref>See: Holt (1977a), p.74</ref><ref>{{cite encyclopedia|title=Islam|encyclopedia=Encyclopaedia of Islam Online|author=L. Gardet|coauthors=J. Jomier|accessdate=2007-05-02}}</ref> When Umar was assassinated in 644, [[the election of Uthman]] as successor was met with increasing opposition. In 656, Uthman was also killed, and Ali assumed the position of caliph. After fighting off opposition in the [[First Fitna|first civil war]] (the "First Fitna"), Ali was assassinated by [[Kharijites]] in 661. Following this, [[Muawiyah I|Mu'awiyah]], who was governor of [[Levant]], seized power and began the [[Umayyad dynasty]].<ref>Holt (1977a), pp.67–72</ref> These disputes over religious and political leadership would give rise to schism in the Muslim community. The majority accepted the legitimacy of the three rulers prior to Ali, and became known as [[Sunni]]s. A minority disagreed, and believed that Ali was the only rightful successor; they became known as the [[Shi'a]].<ref>Waines (2003) p.46</ref> After Mu'awiyah's death in 680, conflict over succession broke out again in a civil war known as the "[[Second Fitna]]". Afterward, the Umayyad dynasty prevailed for seventy years, and was able to conquer the [[Maghreb|Maghrib]] and [[Al-Andalus]] (the [[Iberian Peninsula]], former [[Visigoths|Visigothic]] [[Hispania]]) and the [[Gallia Narbonensis|Narbonnese Gaul]]} as well as expand Muslim territory into the [[Indian subcontinent]].<ref>Donald Puchala, ''Theory and History in International Relations'', page 137. Routledge, 2003.</ref>. While the Muslim-Arab elite engaged in conquest, some devout Muslims, Zahid, began to question the piety of indulgence in a worldly life, emphasizing rather poverty, humility and avoidance of sin based on renunciation of bodily desires. Devout Muslim ascetic exemplars such as [[Hasan al-Basri]] would inspire a movement that would evolve into [[Sufism]].<ref>See: Lapidus (2002), pp.90,91</ref><ref>{{cite encyclopedia|title=Sufism|encyclopedia=Encyclopaedia Britannica Online|accessdate=2007-05-13}}</ref> For the Umayyad aristocracy, Islam was viewed as a religion for Arabs only;<ref>Hawting (2000), p.4</ref> the economy of the Umayyad empire was based on the assumption that a majority of non-Muslims ([[Dhimmis]]) would pay taxes to the minority of Muslim Arabs. A non-Arab who wanted to convert to Islam was supposed to first become a client of an Arab tribe. Even after conversion, these new Muslims (''[[mawali]]'') did not achieve social and economic equality with the Arabs. The descendants of Muhammad's uncle [[Abbas ibn Abd al-Muttalib]] rallied discontented ''mawali'', poor Arabs, and some Shi'a against the Umayyads and overthrew them with the help of their propagandist and general [[Abu Muslim]], inaugurating the [[Abbasid|Abbasid dynasty]] in 750.<ref>Lapidus (2002), p.56; Lewis (1993), pp. 71&ndash;83</ref> Under the Abbasids, Islamic civilization flourished in the "[[Islamic Golden Age]]", with its capital at the cosmopolitan city of Baghdad.<ref>See: Holt (1977a), pp.80,92,105, Holt (1977b), pp.661–663, Lapidus (2002), p.56, Lewis (1993), p.84</ref><ref>{{cite encyclopedia|title=Islam|encyclopedia=Encyclopaedia of Islam Online|author=L. Gardet|coauthors=J. Jomier|accessdate=2007-05-02}}</ref> ''' ==First Saudi State (1744-1818)== {{Main|First Saudi State}} [[Image:First-saudi-state2.JPG|thumbnail|right|250px|[[First Saudi State]]]] The ''First Saudi State'' was established in [[1744]] when [[Muhammad ibn Abd-al-Wahhab]] settled in [[Diriyah]] and Prince [[Muhammed Ibn Saud]] agreed to support and espouse his cause in the hope of cleansing Islamic practices of heresy. The [[House of Saud]] and its allies rose to become the dominant state in Arabia controlling most of the [[Nejd]], but neither coast. This Saudi state lasted for about seventy-five years. Concerned at the growing power of the Saudis, the [[Ottoman Empire|Ottoman]] Sultan instructed [[Mohammed Ali Pasha]] to reconquer the area. Ali sent his sons [[Tusun Pasha]] and [[Ibrahim Pasha]] who were successful in routing the Saudi forces in [[1818]]. Rulers of the first Saudi state include Imam [[Mohammed Ibn Saud]] [[1726]]&ndash;[[1765]] (1139&ndash;1179 H), Imam [[Abdul Aziz Ibn Mohammed Ibn Saud]] [[1765]]&ndash;[[1803]] (1179&ndash;1218 H), Imam [[Saud Ibn Abdul Aziz Ibn Mohammed Ibn Saud]] (Saud Al Kabeer) 1803&ndash;1814 (1218&ndash;1233 H), and Imam [[Abdullah bin Saud]] 1814&ndash;1818. It would only be a few years before the Sauds would return to power, forming the [[Second Saudi State]]. ==Second Saudi State (1824-1891)== {{Main|Second Saudi State}} [[Image:Second Saudi State.png|thumbnail|right|250px|[[Second Saudi State]]]] After a rebuilding period following the ending of the [[First Saudi State]], the [[House of Saud]] returned to power in the ''Second Saudi State'' in [[1824]]. The state lasted until [[1891]] when it succumbed to the [[Rashidi|Al Rashid]] dynasty of [[Ha'il]]. In [[1902]] [[Ibn Saud]] reconquered [[Riyadh]], the first of a series of conquests leading to the creation of the modern [[nation state]] of [[Saudi Arabia]] in [[1932]]. The rulers of the second state: *Amir [[Mushari ibn Saud ibn Abd al-Aziz]] 1819 - 1819 *Amir [[Turki ibn Abdallah|Turki ibn Abdallah ibn Muhammad]] (first time) 1819 - 1820 *Amir [[Turki ibn Abdallah|Turki ibn Abdallah ibn Muhammad]] (second time) 1824 - 1834 *Amir [[Mushari ibn Abd al-Rahman ibn Mushari]] 1834 - 1834 *Amir [[Faisal bin Turki bin Abdullah Al Saud|Faisal ibn Turki ibn Abdallah]] (first time) 1834 - 1838 *Amir [[Khalid ibn Saud|Khalid ibn Saud ibn Abd al-Aziz]] 1838 - 1841 *Amir [[Abdallah ibn Thunayyan ibn Ibrahim]] 1841 - 1843 *Amir [[Faisal bin Turki bin Abdullah Al Saud|Faisal ibn Turki]] (second time) 1843 - 1865 *Amir [[Abdallah ibn Faisal|Abdallah ibn Faisal ibn Turki]] (first time) 1865 - 1871 *Amir [[Saud ibn Faisal|Saud ibn Faisal ibn Turki]] 1871 - 1871 (first time) *Amir [[Abdallah ibn Faisal|Abdallah ibn Faisal ibn Turki]] (second time) 1871 - 1873 *Amir [[Saud ibn Faisal|Saud ibn Faisal ibn Turki]] (second time) 1873 - 1875 *Amir [[Abdul Rahman bin Faisal|Abd al-Rahman ibn Faisal ibn Turki]] (first time) 1875 - 1876 *Amir [[Abdallah ibn Faisal|Abdallah ibn Faisal ibn Turki]] (third time) 1876 - 1889 *Amir [[Abdul Rahman bin Faisal|Abd al-Rahman ibn Faisal ibn Turki]] (second time) 1889 - 1891 {|class="wikitable" |-- ! Period ! from ! to ! Timeline |-- |First Saudi State || [[1744]] || [[1818]] || 74 years |-- |Khedewian Invasion || [[1818]] || [[1824]] || 6 years |-- |Second Saudi State "first period" || [[1824]] || [[1838]] || 14 years |-- |Khedewian Invasion "secondly" || [[1838]] || [[1843]] || 5 years |-- |Second Saudi State "second period" || [[1843]] || [[1865]] || 22 years |-- |Civil War || [[1865]] || [[1887]] || 22 years |-- |Control of Al-Rashid family || [[1887]] || [[1902]] || 15 years |-- |(Conquests of Abdul Aziz Al-Saud "he began to Riyadh") Third Saudi State || [[1902]] || [[1932]] || 30 years |-- |(End of Conquests) "Kingdom of Saudi Arabia" || [[1932]] || .... || ... |-- |} ==1900s to 1940s== {{Main|Unification of Saudi Arabia}} [[Image:Saudi Arabia map.png|thumbnail|right|250px|Third Saudi State (present day) ([[Saudi Arabia]])]] The Third Saudi state was founded by the late King [[Ibn Saud of Saudi Arabia]]. In [[1902]] Ibn Saud captured [[Riyadh]], the Al-Saud dynasty's ancestral capital, from the rival [[Rashidi|Al-Rashid]] family. Continuing his conquests, Abdul Aziz subdued [[Al-Hasa]], the rest of [[Nejd]], and the [[Hejaz]] between [[1913]] and [[1926]]. Boundaries with [[Jordan]], [[Iraq]], and [[Kuwait]] were established by a series of treaties negotiated in the [[1920s]], with two "[[neutral zone]]s" created, one with [[Iraq]] and the other with [[Kuwait]]. On [[January 8]], [[1926]] Abdul Aziz Ibn Saud became the King of Hejaz. On [[January 29]], [[1927]] he took the title King of Nejd (his previous Nejdi title was Sultan). By the [[Treaty of Jeddah]], signed on [[May 20]], [[1927]], the [[United Kingdom]] recognized the independence of Abdul Aziz's realm (then known as the Kingdom of Hejaz and Nejd). In 1932, these regions were unified as the [[monarchy|Kingdom]] of [[Saudi Arabia]]. The discovery of [[petroleum|oil]] on [[March 3]], [[1938]] transformed the country. The country's southern boundary with Yemen was partially defined by the [[1934]] [[Treaty of Taif]], which ended a [[Saudi-Yemeni War|brief border war]] between the two states. ==1950s to 1960s== [[Image:Azizfdr.jpg|thumb|The founder of modern Saudi Arabia, [[King Abdul Aziz]], converses with President Franklin Delano Roosevelt on board a ship returning from the Yalta Conference in 1945.]] [[Image:Jordan-Saudi Arabia Land Exchange.gif|thumb|right|Approximate image showing the land exchanged between Jordan and Saudi Arabia.]] King Abdul Aziz died in [[1953]] and was succeeded by his eldest son, [[Saud of Saudi Arabia|Saud]], who reigned for 11 years. In [[1964]], Saud was forced to abdicate in favour of his half-brother, [[Faisal of Saudi Arabia|Faisal]], who had served as Foreign Minister. Because of fiscal difficulties, King Saud had been persuaded in [[1958]] to delegate direct conduct of Saudi Government affairs to Faisal as Prime Minister; Saud briefly regained control of the government in 1960-62. In October [[1962]], Faisal outlined a broad reform program, stressing economic development. Proclaimed King in [[1964]] by senior royal family members and religious leaders, Faisal also continued to serve as Prime Minister. This practice has been followed by subsequent kings. The mid-[[1960s]] saw external pressures generated by Saudi-Egyptian differences over [[Yemen]]. When civil war broke out in 1962 between Yemeni royalists and republicans, Egyptian forces entered Yemen to support the new republican government, while Saudi Arabia backed the royalists. Tensions subsided only after 1967, when Egypt withdrew its troops from Yemen. In [[1965]] there was an exchange of territories between Saudi Arabia and Jordan in which Jordan gave up a relatively large area of inland desert in return for a small piece of sea-shore near Aqaba. Saudi forces participated in the [[Six-Day War|Six-Day (Arab-Israeli) War]] of June [[1967]] on the Jordanian side , the government later provided annual subsidies to [[Egypt]], [[Jordan]], and [[Syria]] to support their economies. The Saudi economy and infrastructure was developed with help from abroad, particularly from the United States, creating strong links between the two dissimilar countries, and considerable and problematic American presence in the Kingdom. The Saudi petroleum industry under the company of [[ARAMCO]] was built by American petroleum companies, U.S. construction companies such as [[Bechtel]] built much of the country's infrastruture, [[Trans World Airlines]], built the Saudi passenger air service; the [[Ford Foundation]] modernized Saudi government; the [[U.S. Army Corps of Engineers]] built the country's television and broadcast facilities and oversaw the development of its defense industry.<ref>Wright, Lawrence, ''Looming Tower: Al Qaeda and the Road to 9/11,'' by Lawrence Wright, NY, Knopf, 2006, p.152</ref> ==1970s== {{Main|1970s in Saudi Arabia}} The [[Saudi-Kuwaiti neutral zone]] was administratively partitioned in [[1971]], with each state continuing to share the petroleum resources of the former zone equally. During the [[Yom Kippur War|1973 Arab-Israeli war]], Saudi Arabia participated in the [[1973 oil crisis|Arab oil boycott]] of the [[United States]] and [[Netherlands]]. A member of the [[Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries]] (OPEC), Saudi Arabia had joined other member countries in moderate oil price increases beginning in [[1971]]. After the [[1973]] war, the price of oil rose substantially, dramatically increasing Saudi Arabia's wealth and political influence. The location and status of Saudi Arabia's boundary with the [[United Arab Emirates]] is not final; a ''de facto'' boundary reflects a [[1974]] agreement. In 1975, King Faisal was [[assassinate]]d by a nephew, who was executed after an extensive investigation concluded that he acted alone. Faisal was succeeded by his half-brother [[Khalid of Saudi Arabia|Khalid]] as King and Prime Minister; their half-brother Prince [[Fahd of Saudi Arabia|Fahd]] was named Crown Prince and First Deputy Prime Minister. King Khalid empowered Crown Prince Fahd to oversee many aspects of the government's international and domestic affairs. Economic development continued rapidly under King Khalid, and the kingdom assumed a more influential role in regional politics and international economic and financial matters. During the 1970s and 1980s, more than 30,000 Saudi student per year went to the United States, while more than 200,000 Americans have lived and worked in the Kingdom since the discovery of oil.<ref>Wright, Lawrence, ''Looming Tower: Al Qaeda and the Road to 9/11,'' by Lawrence Wright, NY, Knopf, 2006, p.152</ref> ==1980s== {{Main|1980s in Saudi Arabia}} A tentative agreement on the partition of the [[Saudi-Iraqi neutral zone]] was reached in [[1981]]. The governments finalized the partition in [[1983]]. King Khalid died in June 1982. Fahd became King and Prime Minister in a smooth transition. Another half-brother, [[Abdullah of Saudi Arabia|Prince Abdullah]], Commander of the Saudi National Guard, was named Crown Prince and First Deputy Prime Minister. King Fahd's brother, [[Sultan bin Abdulaziz al-Saud|Prince Sultan]], the Minister of Defense and Aviation, became Second Deputy Prime Minister. Under King Fahd, the Saudi economy adjusted to sharply lower oil revenues resulting from [[1980s oil glut|declining global oil prices]]. Saudi Arabia supported neutral shipping in the Persian Gulf during periods of the [[Iran-Iraq war]] and aided Iraq's war-strained economy. King Fahd played a major part in bringing about the August [[1988]] [[cease-fire]] between [[Iraq]] and [[Iran]] and in organizing and strengthening the [[Gulf Cooperation Council]] (GCC), a group of six [[Persian Gulf]] states dedicated to fostering regional economic cooperation and peaceful development. ==1990s== {{Main|1990s in Saudi Arabia}} In August [[1990]], [[Saddam Hussein]]'s forces invaded [[Kuwait]]. Iraqi troops began massing on the border of Kuwait and some feared that they were about to invade Saudi Arabia. King Fahd allowed American and Coalition soldiers to be stationed in Saudi Arabia to counter the Iraqi threat. Many Muslims were angered by this move, because it allowed foreign armies to be stationed in their holiest land. King Fahd played a key role before and during the [[1991]] [[Gulf War|Persian Gulf War]]: Saudi Arabia accepted the Kuwaiti royal family and 400,000 refugees while allowing Western and Arab troops to deploy on its soil for the liberation of Kuwait the following year. King Fahd's action also consolidated the coalition of forces against Iraq and helped define the tone of the operation as a multilateral effort to re-establish the sovereignty and territorial integrity of Kuwait. [[Image:AnschalgInZahran1996 KhobarTower.jpg|thumb|Building #131 after the Khobar Towers bombing, which was the second major terrorist attack against Western troops in Saudi Arabia, 1996]] Acting as a rallying point and personal spokesman for the coalition, King Fahd helped bring together his nation's GCC allies, Western allies, and Arab allies, as well as non-aligned nations from Africa and the emerging democracies of eastern Europe. He used his influence as [[Custodian of the Two Holy Mosques]] to persuade other [[Arab]] and [[Islam]]ic nations to join the coalition. During the Persian Gulf War, Iraq fired [[Scud]] missiles into Saudi Arabia and even penetrated its northern border. These attacks were repelled, and Iraqi forces were expelled from Kuwait. American forces as well as some multinational contingents continued to occupy bases in the kingdom. However, American or foreign forces no longer occupy bases in the kingdom. King Fahd suffered a stroke in November [[1995]]. The foreign military presence caused militants to orchestrate attacks inside Saudi Arabia. In November [[1995]], a [[Saudi National Guard]] base was bombed, killing seven people. In June [[1996]], a [[truck bomb]] killed 19 American servicemen at the [[Khobar Towers bombing|Khobar towers]] in [[Al-Khobar]]. These bombings caused the monarchy to focus on militancy inside their own kingdom, yet they denied there was much of a problem. ==2000s== {{Main|2000s in Saudi Arabia}} [[Image:AramcoCoreArea.jpg|thumb|Headquarters of [[ARAMCO]] (Saudi Arabian Oil Company) in Dhahran, the Saudi national oil company]] A [[June 2000]] treaty further delineated portions of the boundary with Yemen. The border between Saudi Arabia and [[Qatar]] was resolved in [[March 2001]]. The border with [[Oman]] also is not demarcated. With the largest proven [[oil reserves]] in the world, structurally high oil prices due to increasing demand from the emerging Industrial giants such as [[China]] and [[India]], and the destruction of the neighbouring Iraqi military (which was a threat to Saudi hegemony), Saudi Arabia has become one of the economic powers in the [[Middle East]]. Saudi Arabia is increasing investments in infrastructure, science and technology which, it is hoped, will lead to further economic growth. After the [[September 11, 2001 attacks]], it became known that 15 of the 19 suspected hijackers were Saudi. Saudi Arabia became the focus of worldwide attention once again, as it was questioned whether the government was indeed cracking down on radicals. The Saudi government pledged their support to the [[War on Terror]], and vowed to try to eliminate militant elements. However, in [[May 2003]], an [[insurgency in Saudi Arabia]] began, believed to be conducted by al-Qaeda affiliates. This consisted mainly of attacks on [[foreign]]ers in an attempt to expel them from the country and hurt the Saudi government. While the number of attacks dropped significantly in [[2005]], they exposed the vulnerability of the country. Concern was also voiced over the large number of Saudis fighting American soldiers in Iraq following the 2003 invasion. King Fahd died in July [[2005]]. He was succeeded by his brother [[Abdullah of Saudi Arabia|Crown Prince Abdullah]], who had handled most of the day-to-day operations of the government. ==See also== *[[Saudi Arabia]] *[[European exploration of Arabia]] {{History of Asia}} ==References== {{Reflist}} {{Spoken Wikipedia|Wikipedia_-_History_of_Saudi_Arabia.ogg|2008-03-30}} [[Category:History of Saudi Arabia| ]] [[Category:National histories|Saudi Arabia]] [[ar:تاريخ السعودية]] [[de:Geschichte Saudi-Arabiens]] [[es:Historia de Arabia Saudita]] [[fr:Histoire de l'Arabie saoudite]] [[it:Storia dell'Arabia Saudita]] [[he:היסטוריה של ערב הסעודית]] [[nl:Geschiedenis van Saoedi-Arabië]] [[pt:História da Arábia Saudita]] [[ro:Istoria Arabiei Saudite]] [[ru:История Саудовской Аравии]] [[simple:History of Saudi Arabia]] [[uk:Історія Саудівської Аравії]]