History of South Africa
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The '''history of South Africa''' is marked by migration, ethnic conflict, and the anti-[[Apartheid]] struggle. The [[Khoisan]] peoples are the aboriginal people of the region who have lived there for millennia. Black South Africans are believed to originate from the [[African Great Lakes|Great Lakes]] region of Africa in prehistoric times. [[Whites in South Africa|White South Africans]], descendants of later European migrations, regard themselves equally as products of South Africa, as do South Africa's [[Coloured]]s, [[Asians in South Africa|Indians, Asians]], and [[History of the Jews in South Africa|Jews]].
==Ancient history==
===The Bushmen===
{{main|Ancient History of South Africa}}
Some three million years ago, [[ape]]-human-like [[hominids]] migrated to South Africa. Around a million years ago, ''[[homo erectus]]'' gradually replaced them. The first ''[[homo sapiens]]'' ([[modern humans]]) appeared around 100,000 years ago, and formed the so-called [[Bushmen|Bushman culture]] of [[hunter-gatherers]] possibly between 40,000 and 25,000 years ago.
Beginning around 500 [[BCE]], some Bushman groups acquired [[livestock]] from further south. Gradually, hunting and gathering gave way to [[herding]] as the dominant [[Economic system|economic]] activity as these Bushmen tended to small [[herd]]s of [[cattle]] and [[ox]]en. The arrival of livestock introduced concepts of personal [[wealth]] and [[property]]-[[ownership]] into Bushman society. Community structures solidified and expanded, and [[Chiefdom|chief]]taincies developed. These pastoralist Bushmen became known as [[Khoikhoi]] ('men of men'), as opposed to the still hunter-gatherer Bushmen, whom the Khoikhoi referred to as ''San''. At the point where the two groups became intermarried, mixed and hard to tell apart, the term ''[[Khoisan]]'' arose.
Over time the [[Khoikhoi]] established themselves along the coast, while small groups of Bushmen continued to inhabit the interior.
=== Bantu expansion ===
{{main|Bantu expansion}}
Around 2,500 years ago [[Bantu|Bantu peoples]] [[Human migration|migrated]] into Southern Africa from the [[Niger River|Niger River Delta]]. The Bushmen and the Bantu lived mostly peacefully together, although since neither had any method of [[writing]], researchers know little of this period outside of [[archaeology|archaeological]] [[Artifact (archaeology)|artifacts]].
The Bantu peoples had started to make their way south and eastwards in about [[1000 BC]], reaching the present-day [[KwaZulu-Natal Province]] by [[500|AD 500]]. The [[Bantu language|Bantu-speakers]] not only had [[domestic animal]]s, but also practiced agriculture, farming [[wheat]] and other crops. They also displayed skill in working [[iron]], and lived in settled villages. The Bantu arrived in South Africa in small waves rather than in one cohesive migration. Some groups, the [[ancestor]]s of today's [[Nguni]] peoples (the [[Zulu]], [[Xhosa]], [[Swazi]], and [[Ndebele people (South Africa)|Ndebele]]), preferred to live near the coast. Others, now known as the [[Sotho-Tswana]] peoples ([[Tswana]], [[Pedi]], and [[Basotho]]), settled in the Highveld, while today's [[Venda]], [[Lemba]], and [[Shangaan]]-[[Tsonga]] peoples made their homes in the northeastern areas of South Africa.
Bantu-speakers and Khoisan mixed, as evidenced by rock paintings showing the two different groups interacting. The type of contact remains unknown, although [[Linguistics|linguistic]] proof of integration survives, as several [[Bantu languages]] (notably [[Xhosa language|Xhosa]] and [[Zulu language|Zulu]]) incorporated the [[click consonant]] characteristic of earlier [[Khoisan languages]]. Archaeologists have found numerous Khoisan [[Artifact (archaeology)|artifact]]s at the sites of Bantu settlements.
==Colonization==
{{main|History of South Africa (1652-1815)}}
===European expeditions===
{{main|History of Cape Colony}}
[[Image:Bartolomeu dia cape of good hope.jpg|thumb|right|180px|[[Bartolomeu Dias]] rounding the [[Cape of Good Hope]].]]
Although the [[Portugal|Portuguese]] basked in the nautical achievement of successfully navigating the cape, they showed little interest in [[Colonization of Africa|colonisation]]. The area's fierce weather and rocky shoreline posed a threat to their ships, and many of their attempts to trade with the local [[Khoikhoi]] ended in conflict. The Portuguese found the Mozambican coast more attractive, with appealing [[Headlands and bays|bay]]s to use as way stations, [[prawn]]s, and links to [[Gold mining|gold ore]] in the interior.
The Portuguese had little competition in the region until the late 16th century, when the [[Evolution of the British Empire|English]] and [[Dutch Empire|Dutch]] began to challenge the Portuguese along their [[trade route]]s. Stops at the continent's southern tip increased, and the cape became a regular stopover for [[scurvy]]-ridden crews. In [[1647]], a Dutch vessel was wrecked in the present-day [[Table Bay]] at [[Cape Town]]. The marooned crew, the first Europeans to attempt settlement in the area, built a [[fort]] and stayed for a year until they were rescued.
===Arrival of the Dutch===
[[Image:Charles Bell - Jan van Riebeeck se aankoms aan die Kaap.jpg|left|220px|thumb|Painting of an account of the arrival of [[Jan van Riebeeck]], by [[Charles Bell (surveyor)|Charles Bell]].]]
Shortly thereafter, the [[Dutch East India Company]] (in the Dutch of the day: ''Vereenigde Oostindische Compagnie'', or VOC) decided to establish a permanent settlement. The VOC, one of the major European [[Dutch East India Company|trading house]]s sailing the [[Spice trade|spice route]] to the East, had no intention of colonising the area, instead wanting only to establish a secure base camp where passing ships could shelter, and where hungry sailors could stock up on fresh supplies of [[meat]], [[fruit]], and [[vegetable]]s. To this end, a small VOC expedition under the command of [[Jan van Riebeeck]] reached Table Bay on [[April 6]], [[1652]].
While the new settlement [[trade]]d out of necessity with the neighbouring [[Khoikhoi]], it wasn't a friendly relationship, and the [[Dutch East India Company|Company]] authorities made deliberate attempts to restrict contact. Partly as a consequence, VOC employees found themselves faced with a labour shortage. To remedy this, they released a small number of Dutch from their [[contract]]s and permitted them to establish farms, with which they would supply the VOC settlement from their [[harvest]]s. This arrangement proved highly successful, producing abundant supplies of fruit, vegetables, [[wheat]], and [[wine]]; they also later raised livestock. The small initial group of free [[burgher]]s, as these farmers were known, steadily increased in number and began to expand their farms further north and east into the territory of the [[Khoikhoi]].
The majority of burghers had [[Dutch (ethnic group)|Dutch ancestry]] and belonged to the [[Calvinist Reformed Church of the Netherlands]], but there were also numerous [[Germans]] as well as some [[Scandinavia]]ns. In [[1688]] the Dutch and the Germans were joined by [[French people|French]] [[Huguenots]], also [[Calvinist]]s, who were fleeing religious persecution in [[France]] under [[Louis XIV of France|King Louis XIV]].
In addition to establishing the free burgher system, van Riebeeck and the VOC also began to import large numbers of [[slavery|slave]]s, primarily from [[Madagascar]] and [[Indonesia]]. These slaves often married Dutch settlers, and their descendants became known as the [[Cape Coloureds]] and the [[Cape Malays]]. A significant number of the offspring from the White and slave unions were absorbed into the local proto-[[Afrikaans]] speaking White population. With this additional labour, the areas occupied by the VOC expanded further to the north and east, with inevitable clashes with the [[Khoikhoi]]. The newcomers drove the Khoikhoi from their traditional lands, decimated them with introduced [[disease]]s, and destroyed them with superior [[weapon]]s when they fought back, which they did in a number of major wars and with [[guerrilla warfare|guerrilla]] resistance movements that continued into the 19th century. Most survivors were left with no option but to work for the [[European ethnic groups|Europeans]] in an exploitative arrangement that differed little from [[slavery]]. Over time, the Khoisan, their European overseers, and the imported slaves mixed, with the offspring of these unions forming the basis for today's [[Coloured]] population.
The best-known Khoikhoi groups included the [[Griqua]], who had originally lived on the western coast between [[St Helena Bay]] and the [[Cederberg Range]]. In the late 18th century, they managed to acquire [[gun]]s and [[horse]]s and began [[trek]]king northeast. En route, other groups of Khoisan, Coloureds, and even white adventurers joined them, and they rapidly gained a reputation as a formidable [[military]] force. Ultimately, the Griquas reached the Highveld around present-day [[Kimberley, South Africa|Kimberley]], where they carved out territory that came to be known as [[Griqualand]]alina.
===Burgher expansion===
[[Image:TrekBoers crossing the Karoo.jpg|thumb|right|300px|An account of the first [[trekboer]]s.]]
As the burghers, too, continued to expand into the rugged hinterlands of the north and east, many began to take up a semi-nomadic [[pastoralism|pastoralist]] lifestyle, in some ways not far removed from that of the Khoikhoi they displaced. In addition to its herds, a family might have a [[wagon]], a [[tent]], a [[Bible]], and a few guns. As they became more settled, they would build a [[mud]]-walled [[cottage]], frequently located, by choice, days of travel from the nearest European settlement. These were the first of the [[Trekboer]]s (Wandering Farmers, later shortened to [[Boer]]s), completely independent of official controls, extraordinarily self-sufficient, and isolated. Their harsh lifestyle produced [[Individualism|individualists]] who were well acquainted with the land. Like many pioneers with [[Christian]] backgrounds, the burghers attempted to live their lives based on teachings from the [[Bible]].
==British at the cape==
{{main|History of South Africa (1815-1910)}}
As the 18th century drew to a close, Dutch mercantile power began to fade and the [[Kingdom of Great Britain|British]] moved in to fill the vacuum. They seized the Cape in 1795 to prevent it from falling into the hands of [[First French Empire|Napoleonic France]], then briefly relinquished it back to the Dutch (1803), before definitely conquering it in 1806. British [[sovereignty]] of the area was recognized at the [[Congress of Vienna]] in [[1815]].
At the tip of the continent the British found an established [[colony]] with 25,000 slaves, 20,000 white colonists, 15,000 [[Khoisan]], and 1,000 freed black slaves. Power resided solely with a white [[élite]] in [[Cape Town]], and differentiation on the basis of race was deeply entrenched. Outside Cape Town and the immediate hinterland, isolated black and white pastoralists populated the country.
Like the Dutch before them, the British initially had little interest in the Cape Colony, other than as a strategically located port. As one of their first tasks they tried to resolve a troublesome border dispute between the Boers and the Xhosa on the colony's eastern frontier. In [[1820]] the British authorities persuaded about 5,000 [[middle-class]] British [[immigrant]]s (most of them "in [[trade]]") to leave Great Britain behind and settle on tracts of land between the feuding groups with the idea of providing a buffer zone. The plan was singularly unsuccessful. Within three years, almost half of these [[1820 Settlers]] had retreated to the towns, notably [[Grahamstown]] and [[Port Elizabeth]], to pursue the jobs they had held in Britain.
While doing nothing to resolve the border dispute, this influx of settlers solidified the British presence in the area, thus fracturing the relative unity of white South Africa. Where the Boers and their ideas had before gone largely unchallenged, white South Africa now had two distinct language groups and two distinct cultures. A pattern soon emerged whereby English-speakers became highly urbanised, and dominated [[politics]], [[trade]], [[finance]], [[mining]], and [[manufacturing]], while the largely uneducated Boers were relegated to their farms.
The gap between the British settlers and the Boers further widened with the abolition of slavery in [[1833]], a move that the Boers generally regarded as against the God-given ordering of the races. Yet the British settlers' [[conservatism]] stopped any radical social reforms, and in [[1841]] the authorities passed a [[Masters and Servants Ordinance]], which perpetuated white control. Meanwhile, numbers of British immigrants increased rapidly in Cape Town, in the area east of the Cape Colony (present-day [[Eastern Cape Province]]), in [[Colony of Natal|Natal]] and, after the discovery of [[gold]] and [[diamond]]s, in parts of the [[Transvaal]], mainly around present-day [[Gauteng Province|Gauteng]].
===Difaqane and destruction===
{{main|Difaqane}}
[[Image:KingShaka.jpg|thumb|right|150px|[[Shaka Zulu]] in traditional [[Zulu]] military garb.]]
The early 19th century saw a time of immense upheaval relating to the military expansion of the [[Zulu]] [[monarchy|kingdom]]. [[Sotho language|Sotho]]-speakers know this period as the ''[[difaqane]]'' ("[[forced migration]]"); while [[Zulu language|Zulu]]-speakers call it the ''mfecane'' ("crushing").
The full causes of the ''difaqane'' remain in dispute, although certain factors stand out. The rise of a unified Zulu kingdom had particular significance. In the early 19th century, [[Nguni]] tribes in KwaZulu-Natal began to shift from a loosely-organised collection of kingdoms into a centralised, militaristic state. [[Shaka Zulu]], son of the chief of the small Zulu clan, became the driving force behind this shift. At first something of an [[outcast]], Shaka proved himself in battle and gradually succeeded in consolidating power in his own hands. He built large [[army|armies]], breaking from clan tradition by placing the armies under the control of his own officers rather than of the hereditary chiefs. Shaka then set out on a massive programme of expansion, killing or enslaving those who resisted in the territories he conquered. His ''[[impis]]'' (warrior regiments) were rigorously disciplined: failure in battle meant death.
Peoples in the path of Shaka's armies moved out of his way, becoming in their turn aggressors against their neighbours. This wave of displacement spread throughout [[Southern Africa]] and beyond. It also accelerated the formation of several states, notably those of the Sotho (present-day [[Lesotho]]) and of the [[Swazi]] (now [[Swaziland]]).
In [[1828]] Shaka was killed by his half-brothers [[Dingane|Dingaan]] and [[Umthlangana]]. The weaker and less-skilled Dingaan became king, relaxing military discipline while continuing the despotism. Dingaan also attempted to establish relations with the British traders on the Natal coast, but events had started to unfold that would see the demise of Zulu independence.
===The Great Trek===
[[Image:TrekBoerPortrait.jpg|thumb|right|200px|[[Trekboer]]s on the [[karoo]].]]
{{main|Great Trek}}
Meanwhile, the Boers had started to grow increasingly dissatisfied with British rule in the Cape Colony. The British proclamation of the equality of the races particularly angered them. Beginning in [[1835]], several groups of Boers, together with large numbers of Khoikhoi and black [[servant (domestic)|servant]]s, decided to trek off into the interior in search of greater [[independence]]. North and east of the [[Orange River]] (which formed the Cape Colony's frontier) these Boers or [[Voortrekkers]] ("[[Settler|Pioneer]]s") found vast tracts of apparently uninhabited [[graze|grazing]] lands. They had, it seemed, entered their promised land, with space enough for their cattle to graze and their culture of anti-urban independence to flourish. Little did they know that what they found - deserted [[pasture]] lands, disorganised bands of [[refugee]]s, and tales of [[brutality]] - resulted from the ''difaqane'', rather than representing the normal state of affairs.
With the exception of the more powerful [[Ndebele people (South Africa)|Ndebele]], the Voortrekkers encountered little resistance among the scattered peoples of the [[plain]]s. The ''difaqane'' had dispersed them, and the remnants lacked horses and [[firearm]]s. Their weakened condition also solidified the Boers' belief that European occupation meant the coming of civilisation to a savage land. However, the mountains where [[Moshoeshoe I of Lesotho|King Moshoeshoe I]] had started to forge the Basotho nation that would later become Lesotho and the wooded valleys of [[Zululand]] proved a more difficult proposition. Here the Boers met strong resistance, and their incursions set off a series of [[skirmish]]es, squabbles, and flimsy [[treaty|treaties]] that would litter the next 50 years of increasing white domination.
===British, Boers and Zulus===
[[Image:Indians arriving in South Africa.jpg|thumb|right|200px|[[India]]ns arriving in [[Durban]] for the first time.]]
The [[Great Trek]] first halted at [[Thaba Nchu]], near present-day [[Bloemfontein]], where the trekkers established a [[republic]]. Following disagreements among their [[leadership]], the various [[Voortrekker]] groups split apart. While some headed north, most crossed the [[Drakensberg]] into Natal with the idea of establishing a republic there. Since the Zulus controlled this territory, the Voortrekker leader [[Piet Retief]] paid a visit to King [[Dingane|Dingaan]]. The Zulus, accusing the Boers of conspiring to overthrow the Zulu state, captured Retief. After receiving the specified cattle ransom, they sent an army to decimate Retief's settlement, killing 280 Boers and 250 black servants. At the [[Battle of Itala]], a Boer army's attempt at revenge failed miserably.<ref>[[#CITEREFNgubane1970|Ngubane, 1970]] pp. 40-41</ref> The culmination came on [[16 December]] [[1838]], at the [[Ncome River]] in Natal. Though only several Boers suffered injuries, they killed several thousand Zulus. So much bloodshed reportedly caused the Ncome's waters to run red, thus the clash is historically known as the [[Battle of Blood River]].
[[Image:ZuluWarriors.jpg|thumb|right|250px|[[Zulu]] warriors, late 19th century]]
The Voortrekkers, victorious despite their numbers, saw their victory as an affirmation of [[divinity|divine]] approval. Yet their hopes for establishing a Natal republic remained short lived. The British annexed the area in [[1843]], and founded their new Natal colony at present-day [[Durban]]. Most of the Boers, feeling increasingly squeezed between the British on one side and the native African populations on the other, headed north.
[[Image:Zulusmall.jpg|thumb|right|180px|British casualties fighting against the Zulus at The Battle of [[Rorke's Drift]] during the [[Anglo-Zulu War]]s]]
The British set about establishing large [[sugar]] [[plantation]]s in Natal, but found few inhabitants of the neighbouring Zulu areas willing to provide labour. The British confronted stiff resistance to their encroachments from the [[Zulu]]s, a nation with well-established traditions of waging war, who inflicted one of the most humiliating defeats on the British army at the [[Battle of Isandlwana]] in [[1879]], where over 1400 British soldiers were killed. During the ongoing [[Anglo-Zulu War]]s, the British eventually established their control over what was then named [[Zululand]], and is today known as [[KwaZulu-Natal Province]].
The British turned to [[India]] to resolve their labour shortage, as Zulu men refused to adopt the servile position of labourers and in [[1860]] the [[Steamship|SS]] ''Truro'' arrived in Durban harbour with over 300 people on board. Over the next 50 years, 150,000 more [[indentured servant|indentured]] Indians arrived, as well as numerous free "passenger Indians", building the base for what would become the largest Indian community outside of India. As early as [[1893]], when [[Mahatma Gandhi]] arrived in Durban, Indians outnumbered whites in Natal. (See [[Asians in South Africa]].)
==Growth of independent South Africa==
===The Boer republics===
{{main|South African Republic|Orange Free State}}
[[Image:Langlaagte.jpg|thumb|200px|right|The [[farm]] outside of [[Johannesburg]] on the [[Witwatersrand]] - site of the first discovery of [[gold]] in [[1886]].]]
The Boers meanwhile persevered with their search for land and freedom, ultimately establishing themselves in various [[Boer Republics]], eg the [[Transvaal]] or South African Republic and the [[Orange Free State]]. For a while it seemed that these republics would develop into stable states, despite having thinly-spread populations of fiercely independent Boers, no industry, and minimal agriculture. The discovery of [[diamond]]s near [[Kimberley, South Africa|Kimberley]] turned the Boers' world on its head ([[1869]]). The first diamonds came from land belonging to the Griqua, but to which both the Transvaal and Orange Free State laid claim. Britain quickly stepped in and resolved the issue by annexing the area for itself.
The discovery of the Kimberley diamond-[[mining|mines]] unleashed a flood of European and black labourers into the area. Towns sprang up in which the inhabitants ignored the "proper" separation of whites and blacks, and the Boers expressed anger that their impoverished republics had missed out on the economic benefits of the mines.
==Anglo-Boer Wars==
{{main|Boer Wars}}
[[Image:The Relief of Ladysmith by John Henry Frederick Bacon.jpg|250px|thumb|The Relief of [[Ladysmith]]. [[Sir George White]] greets Major [[Hubert Gough]] on [[28 February]]. Painting by [[John Henry Frederick Bacon]] ([[1868]]-[[1914]])]]
[[Image:Boercamp1.jpg|thumb|250px|right|Boer [[woman|women]] and children in a [[concentration camp]].]]
===First Anglo-Boer War===
{{main|First Boer War}}
Long-standing Boer resentment turned into full-blown rebellion in the Transvaal (under British control from 1877), and the first [[First Boer War|Anglo-Boer War]], known to [[Afrikaner]]s as the "War of Independence", broke out in [[1880]]. The conflict ended almost as soon as it began with a crushing Boer victory at [[Battle of Majuba Hill]] ([[27 February]] [[1881]]). The republic regained its independence as the ''Zuid-Afrikaansche Republiek'' ("[[South African Republic]]"), or ZAR. [[Paul Kruger]], one of the leaders of the uprising, became President of the ZAR in [[1883]]. Meanwhile, the British, who viewed their defeat at Majuba as an aberration, forged ahead with their desire to [[federation|federate]] the Southern African colonies and republics. They saw this as the best way to come to terms with the fact of a white Afrikaner majority, as well as to promote their larger strategic interests in the area.
===Inter-war period===
In [[1879]] Zululand came under British control. Then in [[1886]] an Australian prospector [[Witwatersrand Gold Rush|discovered gold]] in the [[Witwatersrand]], accelerating the federation process and dealing the Boers yet another blow. [[Johannesburg]]'s population exploded to about 100,000 by the mid-[[1890s]], and the ZAR suddenly found itself hosting thousands of ''[[uitlanders]]'', both black and white, with the Boers squeezed to the sidelines. The influx of Black labour in particular worried the Boers, many of whom suffered economic hardship and resented the black wage-earners.
The enormous wealth of the mines, largely controlled by European "[[Randlord]]s" soon became irresistible for British [[imperialism|imperialists]]. In [[1895]], a group of renegades led by Captain [[Leander Starr Jameson]] entered the ZAR with the intention of sparking an uprising on the Witwatersrand and installing a British administration. This incursion became known as the [[Jameson Raid]]. The scheme ended in fiasco, but it seemed obvious to Kruger that it had at least the tacit approval of the Cape Colony government, and that his republic faced danger. He reacted by forming an alliance with Orange Free State.
===Second Anglo-Boer War===
{{main|Second Boer War}}
[[Image:Afrikaner Commandos2.JPG|thumb|175px|right|[[Boer]] [[guerilla]]s during the Second Boer War.]]
The situation peaked in [[1899]] when the British demanded voting rights for the 60,000 foreign whites on the Witwatersrand. Until that point, Kruger's government had excluded all foreigners from the [[Suffrage|franchise]]. Kruger rejected the British demand and called for the withdrawal of British troops from the ZAR's borders. When the British refused, Kruger declared war. This [[Second Boer War|Second Anglo-Boer War]] lasted longer than the first, and the British preparedness surpassed that of Majuba Hill. By June [[1900]], [[Pretoria]], the last of the major Boer towns, had surrendered. Yet resistance by Boer ''[[bittereinder]]s'' continued for two more years with guerrilla-style battles, which the British met in turn with [[scorched earth]] tactics. By [[1902]] 26,000 Boers had died of [[disease]] and neglect in [[concentration camp]]s. On [[31 May]] 1902 a superficial peace came with the signing of the [[Treaty of Vereeniging]]. Under its terms, the Boer republics acknowledged British sovereignty, while the British in turn committed themselves to reconstruction of the areas under their control.
==Union of South Africa==
{{main|Union of South Africa}}
[[Image:Earlytown.jpg|thumb|250px|right|[[Johannesburg]] around [[1890]]]]
During the immediate post-war years the British focussed their attention on rebuilding the country, in particular the mining industry. By [[1907]] the mines of the Witwatersrand produced almost one-third of the world's annual gold production. But the peace brought by the treaty remained fragile and challenged on all sides. The Afrikaners found themselves in the ignominious position of poor farmers in a country where big mining ventures and foreign [[capital]] rendered them irrelevant. Britain's unsuccessful attempts to anglicise them, and to impose English as the official language in schools and the [[office|workplace]] particularly incensed them. Partly as a backlash to this, the Boers came to see [[Afrikaans]] as the ''volkstaal'' ("people's language") and as a symbol of Afrikaner nationhood. Several nationalist organisations sprang up.
The system left Blacks and Coloureds completely marginalised. The authorities imposed harsh [[tax]]es and reduced wages, while the British caretaker administrator encouraged the immigration of thousands of [[China|Chinese]] to undercut any resistance. Resentment exploded in the [[Bambatha Rebellion]] of [[1906]], in which 4,000 Zulus lost their lives after protesting against onerous tax legislation.
The British meanwhile moved ahead with their plans for union. After several years of negotiations, the [[South Africa Act 1909]] brought the colonies and republics - Cape Colony, Natal, Transvaal, and Orange Free State - together as the [[Union of South Africa]]. Under the provisions of the act, the Union remained British territory, but with [[home-rule]] for Afrikaners. The [[High Commissioner#British Colonial usage|British High Commission territories]] of [[Basutoland]] (now [[Lesotho]]), [[Bechuanaland]] (now [[Botswana]]), [[Swaziland]], and [[Rhodesia]] (now [[Zambia]] and [[Zimbabwe]]) continued under direct rule from Britain.
English and Dutch became the official languages. Afrikaans did not gain recognition as an official language until [[1925]]. Despite a major campaign by Blacks and Coloureds, the voter franchise remained as in the pre-Union republics and colonies, and only whites could gain election to [[parliament]].
Most significantly, the new Union of South Africa gained international respect with British [[Dominion]] status putting it on par with three other important British dominions and allies: [[Canada]], [[Australia]], and [[New Zealand]].
The [[Natives' Land Act]] of 1913<ref name="Natives' Land Act">"[http://www.sahistory.org.za/pages/chronology/thisday/1913-06-19.htm 19 June 1913 Native Land Act]", ''This day in history'', publish date unknown (accessed 20 December, 2007).</ref> was the first major piece of segregation legislation passed by the Union Parliament, and remained a cornerstone of Apartheid until the 1990s when it was replaced by the current policy of land restitution. Under the act, blacks were severely restricted in the ownership of land, at that stage to a mere 7% of the country, although this amount was eventually increased marginally. The Act created a system of land tenure that deprived the majority of South Africa's inhabitants of the right to own land which had major socio-economic repercussions.
==World War I==
{{main|History of South Africa (1910-1948)}}
The Union of South Africa was tied closely to the [[British Empire]], and automatically joined with Great Britain and the allies against the [[German Empire]]. Both Prime Minister [[Louis Botha]] and Defence Minister of South Africa were part of significant military operations against Germany. In spite of Boer resistance at home, the Afrikaner-led government of [[Louis Botha]] unhestitatingly joined the side of the [[Allies of World War I]] and fought alongside its armies. The South African Government agreed to the withdrawal of British Army units so that they were free to join the European war, and laid plans to invade [[German South-West Africa]]. Elements of the South African army refused to fight against the Germans and along with other opponents of the Government rose in open revolt. The government declared martial law on [[14 October]] 1914, and forces loyal to the government under the command of General Louis Botha and Jan Smuts proceeded to destroy the [[Maritz Rebellion]]. The leading Boer rebels got off lightly with terms of imprisonment of six-seven years and heavy fines. (See [[Jan Smuts and the Old Boers#First Word War and the Maritz Rebellion|World War I and the Maritz Rebellion]].)
===Military action against Germany during World War I===
The South African ''Union Defence Force'' saw action in a number of areas:
# It dispatched its army to [[German South-West Africa]] (later known as [[South West Africa]] and now known as [[Namibia]]). The South Africans expelled German forces and gained control of the former German colony. (See [[German South-West Africa#World War I|German South-West Africa in World War I]].)
# A military expedition under General [[Jan Smuts]] was dispatched to [[German East Africa]] (later known as [[Tanganyika]] and now known as [[Tanzania]]). The objective was to fight German forces in that colony and to try to capture the elusive German General [[Paul Erich von Lettow-Vorbeck|von Lettow-Vorbeck]]. Ultimately, Lettow-Vorbeck fought his tiny force out of German East Africa into [[Mozambique]], where he surrendered a few weeks after the end of the war. (See [[German East Africa#First World War|German East Africa in First World War]].)
# ''1st South African Brigade'' troops were shipped to [[France]] to fight on the [[Western Front]]. The most costly battle that the South African forces on the Western Front fought in was the [[Battle of Delville Wood]] in [[1916]]. (See [[South African Army#World War I|South African Army in World War I]].)
# South Africans also saw action with the [[Cape Corps]] as part of the [[Egyptian Expeditionary Force]] in [[Palestine]]. (See [[Cape Corps#1915 - 1991|Cape Corps 1915 - 1991]])
===Military contributions and casualties in World War I===
More than 146,000 whites, 83,000 blacks and 2,500 people of mixed race ("[[Coloured]]s") and [[Asians in South Africa|Asians]] served in [[South African Army#World War I|South African military units during the war]], including 43,000 in German South-West Africa and 30,000 on the Western Front. An estimated 3,000 South Africans also joined the [[Royal Flying Corps]]. The total South African casualties during the war was about 18,600 with over 12,452 killed - more than 4,600 in the European theater alone.
[[Image:British Empire 1921 IndianSubcontinent.png|thumb|right|250px|The [[British Empire]] is red on the map, at its zenith in [[1919]]. ([[India]] highlighted in purple.) [[South Africa]], bottom center, lies between both halves of the Empire.]]
There is no question that South Africa greatly assisted the Allies, and Great Britain in particular, in capturing the two German colonies of German-West-Africa and German-East-Africa as well as in battles in Western Europe and the Middle East. South Africa's ports and harbors, such as at [[Cape Town]], [[Durban]], and [[Simon's Town]], were also important rest-stops, refueling-stations, and served as strategic assets to the British [[Royal Navy]] during the war, helping to keep the vital [[sea lane]]s to the [[British Raj]] open.
==World War II==
===Political choices at outbreak of war===
On the eve of World War II the Union of South Africa found itself in a unique political and military quandary. While it was closely allied with Great Britain, being a co-equal [[Dominion]] under the [[Statute of Westminster 1931|1931 Statute of Westminster]] with its head of state being the British king, the South African Prime Minister on September 1, 1939 was none other than [[James Barry Munnik Hertzog|Barry Hertzog]] the leader of the pro-Afrikaner anti-British [[National Party (South Africa)|National Party]] that had joined in a unity government as the [[United Party (South Africa)|United Party]].
Herzog's problem was that South Africa was constitutionally obligated to support Great Britain against [[Nazi Germany]]. The [[Polish-British Common Defence Pact]] obligated Britain, and in turn its dominions, to help Poland if attacked by the Nazis. After Hitler's forces attacked Poland on the night of August 31, 1939, Britain declared war on Germany within a few days. A short but furious debate unfolded in South Africa, especially in the halls of power in the [[Parliament of South Africa]], that pitted those who sought to enter the war on Britain's side, led by the pro-[[Allies of World War II|Allied]], pro-British Afrikaner, ex-General, and former Prime Minister [[Jan Smuts]] ''against'' then-current Prime Minister Barry Hertzog who wished to keep South Africa "neutral," if not pro-[[Axis Powers|Axis]].
===Declaration of war against the Axis===
On September 4, [[1939]] the United Party caucus refused to accept Hertzog's stance of neutrality in [[World War II]] and deposed him in favor of Smuts. Upon becoming Prime Minister of South Africa, Smuts declared South Africa officially at war with Germany and the Axis. Smuts immediately set about fortifying South Africa against any possible German sea invasion because of South Africa's global strategic importance controlling the long sea route around the [[Cape of Good Hope]].
Smuts took severe action against the pro-Nazi South African [[Ossewabrandwag]] movement (they were caught committing acts of sabotage) and jailed its leaders for the duration of the war. (One of them, [[B.J. Vorster|John Vorster]], was to become future Prime Minister of South Africa.) (See [[Jan Smuts#Second World War|Jan Smuts during World War II]].)
===Prime Minister and Field Marshal Smuts===
{{Main|Jan Smuts}}
Prime Minister [[Jan Smuts]] was the only important non-British general whose advice was constantly sought by Britain's war-time Prime Minister [[Winston Churchill]]. Smuts was invited to the [[Imperial War Cabinet]] in [[1939 in South Africa|1939]] as the most senior South African in favour of war. In [[28 May]] [[1941 in South Africa|1941]], Smuts was appointed a [[Field Marshal]] of the [[British Army]], becoming the first South African to hold that rank. Ultimately, Smuts would pay a steep political price for his closeness to the British establishment, to the King, and to Churchill which had made Smuts very unpopular among the conservative nationalistic [[Afrikaner]]s, leading to his eventual downfall, whereas most [[South African English|English-speaking whites]] and a minority of liberal Afrikaners in South Africa remained loyal to him. (See [[Jan Smuts#Second World War|Jan Smuts during World War II]].)
===Military contributions and casualties in World War II===
South Africa and its military forces contributed in many theaters of war. [[Military history of South Africa during World War II|South Africa's contribution]] consisted mainly of supplying troops, men and material for the [[North African campaign]] (the Desert War) and the [[Italian Campaign (World War II)|Italian Campaign]] as well as to Allied ships that docked at its crucial ports adjoining the [[Atlantic Ocean]] and [[Indian Ocean]] that converge at the tip of [[Southern Africa]]. Numerous volunteers also flew for the [[Royal Air Force]]. (See: [[South African Army#World War II|South African Army in World War II]]; [[South African Air Force#World War II|South African Air Force in World War II]]; [[South African Navy#World War II|South African Navy in World War II]]; [[Military history of South Africa during World War II|South Africa's contribution in World War II]].)
#The South African Army and [[South African Air Force|Air Force]] helped defeat the Italian army of the Fascist [[Benito Mussolini]] that had [[Second Italo-Abyssinian War|invaded Abyssinia]] (now known as [[Ethiopia]]) in 1935. During the 1941 [[East African Campaign (World War II)|East African Campaign]] South African forces made important contribution to this early Allied victory.
#Another important victory that the South African's participated in was the liberation of [[History of Madagascar#French control|Malagasy]] (now known as [[Madagascar]]) from the control of the [[Vichy France|Vichy French]] who were allies of the Nazis. British troops aided by South African soldiers, staged their attack from South Africa, occupied the strategic island in [[1942]] to preclude its seizure by the Japanese.
#The [[South African 1st Infantry Division]] took part in several actions in North Africa in [[1941]] and [[1942]], including the [[Battle of El Alamein]], before being withdrawn to South Africa.
#The [[South African 2nd Infantry Division]] also took part in a number of actions in North Africa during 1942, but on [[21 June]] 1942 two complete infantry brigades of the division as well as most of the supporting units were captured at the fall of [[Tobruk]].
#The [[South African 3rd Infantry Division]] never took an active part in any battles but instead organised and trained the South African home defence forces, performed garrison duties and supplied replacements for the South African 1st Infantry Division and the South African 2nd Infantry Division. However, one of this division's constituent brigades - ''7 SA Motorised Brigade'' - did take part in the invasion of [[Madagascar]] in 1942.
#The [[South African 6th Armoured Division]] fought in numerous actions in [[Italy]] from [[1944]] to [[1945]].
#South Africa contributed to the war effort against Japan, supplying men and manning ships in naval engagements against the Japanese.<ref>{{cite web|publisher=South African Military History Society (Military History Journal - Vol 10 No 3)|date=November 21, 2006|title=South Africa and the War against Japan 1941-1945|url=http://rapidttp.com/milhist/vol103aw.html}}</ref>
Of the [[South African Army#World War II|334,000 men volunteered for full time service in the South African Army during the war]] (including some 211,000 whites, 77,000 blacks and 46,000 "coloureds" and Asians), nearly 9,000 were killed in action.
==Aftermath of World War II==
South Africa emerged from the Allied victory with its prestige and national honor enhanced as it had fought tirelessly for the Western Allies. South Africa's standing in the international community was rising, at a time when the Third World's struggle against colonialism had still not taken center stage. In May [[1945 in South Africa|1945]], Prime Minister Smuts represented South Africa in [[San Francisco]] at the drafting of the [[United Nations Charter]]. Just as he did in 1919, Smuts urged the delegates to create a powerful international body to preserve peace; he was determined that, unlike the [[League of Nations]], the [[United Nations]] would have teeth. Smuts signed the [[Paris Peace Treaty]], resolving the peace in Europe, thus becoming the only signatory of both the treaty ending the First World War, and that ending the Second.
However, internal political struggles in the disgruntled and essentially impoverished Afrikaner community would soon come to the fore leading to Smuts' defeat at the polls in the [[South African general election, 1948|1948 elections]] (in which only whites and coloureds could vote) at the hands of a resurgent National Party after the war. This began the road to South Africa's eventual isolation from a world that would no longer tolerate any forms of political discrimination or differentiation based on race only.
==General elections and the slow evolution of democracy==
{{main|Elections in South Africa|South African general elections}}
From [[1910]] until the present time, a series of important [[general election]]s have been held in a united South Africa. From 1910 until 1948 the [[Suffrage|franchise]] to vote was given to whites and to [[Cape Province|Cape]] [[Coloured|Coloreds]] (people of [[Multiracial|mixed race]]) only. After the ascent of the Nationalist Party in 1948, the Cape Coloreds were taken off the voters' role. Only eligible whites were permitted to vote from 1948 until 1994 when the vote was granted to South Africans of every racial group. The [[South African general election, 1994|1994 general election]] was the first post-apartheid vote based on [[universal suffrage]].
There have been three [[referendum]]s in South Africa: [[South African referendum, 1960|1960 referendum on becoming a republic]]; [[South African referendum, 1983|1983 referendum on implementing the tricameral parliament]]; and [[South African referendum, 1992|1992 referendum on becoming a multiracial democracy]] all of which were held during the era of Nationalist Party control.
==Apartheid era==
{{Apartheid}}
{{Main|History of South Africa in the apartheid era}}
===Afrikaner nationalism===
{{Main|Afrikaner}}
General [[Louis Botha]] headed the first government of the new Union, with General [[Jan Smuts]] as his deputy. Their [[South African National Party]], later known as the [[South African Party]] or SAP, followed a generally pro-British, white-unity line. The more radical Boers split away under the leadership of [[Barry Hertzog|General Barry Hertzog]], forming the [[National Party (South Africa)|National Party]] (NP) in [[1914]]. The NP championed Afrikaner interests, advocating separate development for the two white groups and independence from Britain.
The new Union had no place for Blacks, despite their constituting over 75 percent of the population. The Act of Union denied them voting-rights in the Transvaal and Orange Free State areas, and in [[Cape Province]] Blacks gained the vote only if they met a property-ownership qualification. Blacks saw the failure to grant the franchise, coming on the heels of British wartime [[propaganda]] promoting freedom from "Boer slavery", as a blatant betrayal. Before long the Union passed a barrage of oppressive legislation, making it [[law|illegal]] for black workers to [[Strike action|strike]], reserving skilled jobs for whites, barring blacks from military service, and instituting restrictive [[pass laws]]. In [[1913]] parliament enacted the [[Natives' Land Act]], setting aside eight percent of South Africa's land for black occupancy. Whites, who made up only 20 percent of the population, held 90 percent of the land. Black Africans could not buy or rent land or even work as sharecroppers outside their designated area. The authorities [[eviction|evicted]] thousands of [[squatter]]s from farms and forced them into increasingly overcrowded and impoverished reserves, or into the cities. Those who remained sank to the status of landless labourers.
[[Image:Architects of apartheid.jpg|thumb|left|200px|The original architects of apartheid gathered around a map of a planned [[township (South Africa)|township]].]]
Black and Coloured opposition began to coalesce, and leading figures such as [[John Jabavu]], [[Walter Rubusana]] and [[Abdullah Abdurahman]] laid the foundations for new non-tribal black political groups. Most significantly, a [[Columbia University]]-educated [[attorney]], [[Pixley ka Isaka Seme]], called together representatives of the various African tribes to form a unified, national organisation to represent the interests of blacks, and to ensure that they had an effective voice in the new Union. Thus there originated the South African Native National Congress, known from [[1923]] as the [[African National Congress]] (ANC). Parallel to this, [[Mahatma Gandhi]] worked with the Indian populations of Natal and the Transvaal to fight against the ever-increasing encroachment on their rights.
The international recession which followed [[World War I]] put pressures on mine-owners, and they sought to reduce costs by recruiting lower-paid, black, semi-skilled workers. White mine-workers saw this as a threat and in [[1922]] rose in the armed [[Rand Rebellion]], supported by the new [[Communist Party of South Africa]] under the slogan "''Workers of the World, unite and fight for a white South Africa''." Smuts suppressed the rising violently, but the failure led to a convergence of views between Afrikaner nationalists and white English-speaking trade-unionists. The Communists saw the failure as having resulted from a lack of mobilisation by black workers, and re-oriented their recruitment.
In [[1924]] the NP, under Hertzog, came to power in a [[coalition government]] with the [[Labour Party (South Africa)|Labour Party]], and Afrikaner [[nationalism]] gained greater hold. Afrikaans, previously regarded only as a low-class dialect of Dutch, replaced Dutch as an official language of the Union, and the so-called ''swart gevaar'' (black peril) became the dominant issue of the [[1929]] [[election]]. In the mid-[[1930s]], Hertzog joined the NP with the more moderate SAP of Jan Smuts to form the [[United Party (South Africa)|United Party]]; this coalition fell apart at the start [[World War II]] when Smuts took the reins and, amid much controversy, led South Africa into war on the side of the [[Allies]]. However, any hopes of turning the tide of Afrikaner nationalism faded when [[Daniel François Malan]] led a radical break-away movement, the Purified National Party, to the central position in Afrikaner political life. The [[Afrikaner Broederbond]], a secret Afrikaner brotherhood formed in [[1918]] to protect Afrikaner culture, soon became an extraordinarily influential force behind both the NP and other organisations designed to promote the ''volk'' ("people", the Afrikaners).
Due to the booming wartime economy, black labour became increasingly important to the mining and manufacturing industries, and the black urban population nearly doubled. Enormous [[squatter camp]]s grew up on the outskirts of Johannesburg and (though to a lesser extent) outside the other major cities. Despite the appalling conditions in the [[township (South Africa)|township]]s, not only blacks knew poverty: wartime surveys found that 40 percent of white schoolchildren suffered from [[malnutrition]].
===Legalized discrimination===
{{main|South Africa under apartheid}}
From 1948 successive [[National Party (South Africa)|National Party]] administrations formalised and extended the existing system of segregation and denial of rights into the legal system of ''apartheid'', which lasted until the 1990s. Although many important events occurred during this period, apartheid remained the central system around which most of the historical issues of this period revolved.
===Dismantling===
With increasing opposition to apartheid in the final decades of the 20th century - including an [[armed struggle]], economic and cultural sanctions by the [[international community]], pressure from the [[Anti-Apartheid Movement|anti-apartheid movement]] around the world, a rebellion amongst Afrikaner and English-speaking youth as well as open revolt within the ruling [[National Party (South Africa)|National Party]] - [[State President of South Africa|State President]] [[F.W. de Klerk]] announced the unbanning of the [[African National Congress]] and [[Pan Africanist Congress]] as well as the release of [[Nelson Mandela]] on [[2 February]] [[1990]], which signaled the beginning of a transition to [[democracy]]. In the [[South African referendum, 1992|referendum]] held on [[March 17]], [[1992]] a white electorate voted 68% in favor of dismantling apartheid through negotiations.
After years of negotiations under the auspices of the [[Convention for a Democratic South Africa]] (CODESA), a draft [[constitution]] appeared on [[26 July]] [[1993]], containing concessions towards all sides: a federal system of regional [[legislature]]s, equal voting-rights regardless of race, and a bicameral legislature.
From April 26 to 29, [[1994]] the South African population voted in the first [[universal suffrage]] [[South African general election, 1994|general elections]]. The African National Congress won election to govern for the very first time, leaving the [[National Party (South Africa)|National Party]] and the [[Inkatha Freedom Party]] behind it and parties such as the [[Democratic Party (South Africa)|Democratic Party]] and Pan Africanist Congress took up their seats as part of the [[parliamentary opposition]] in the first genuine multiracial [[Parliament of South Africa|parliament]]. [[Nelson Mandela]] was elected as President on 9 May 1994 and formed -according to the interim constitution of 1993- a government of national unity, consisting of the ANC, the NP and the Inkatha. On May 10 Mandela was inaugurated as South Africas new President in Pretoria and [[Thabo Mbeki]] and FW De Klerk as his vice-presidents.
After considerable debate, and following submissions from [[special interest|special-interest group]]s, individuals and ordinary citizens, the [[Parliament of South Africa|Parliament]] enacted a new [[Constitution of South Africa|Constitution]] and [[Bill of Rights of South Africa|Bill of Rights]] in [[1996]].
==Truth and Reconciliation Commission==
{{main|History of South Africa since 1994}}
After the enactment of the constitution focus turned to the [[Truth and Reconciliation Commission (South Africa)|Truth and Reconciliation Commission]], established in 1995 under the dictum of Archbishop [[Desmond Tutu]] to expose crimes committed during the apartheid era. The commission heard many stories of brutality and injustice from all sides and offered some [[catharsis]] to people and communities shattered by their past experiences.
The Commission operated by allowing victims to tell their stories and by allowing perpetrators to confess their guilt; with amnesty on offer to those who made a full confession. Those who chose not to appear before the commission would face criminal prosecution if the authorities could prove their guilt. But while some soldiers, police, and ordinary citizens confessed their crimes, few of those who had given the orders or commanded the police presented themselves. For example, State President [[Pieter Willem Botha|P.W. Botha]] himself, notably, refused to appear before the Commission. It has proven difficult to gather evidence against these alleged higher-level criminals.
==Late-1990s==
[[Image:ThaboMbeki.jpg|thumb|175px|[[President of South Africa|President]] [[Thabo Mbeki]]]]
In [[1999]] South Africa held its [[South African general election, 1999|second universal-suffrage elections]]. In [[1997]], [[Nelson Mandela|Mandela]] had handed over leadership of the ANC to his deputy, [[Thabo Mbeki]], and speculation grew that the ANC vote might therefore drop. In fact, it increased, putting the party within one seat of the two-thirds majority that would allow it to alter the constitution.
The NP, restyled as the [[New National Party (South Africa)|New National Party]] (NNP), lost two-thirds of its seats, as well as official [[Opposition (parliamentary)|opposition]] status to the [[Democratic Party (South Africa)|Democratic Party]] (DP). The DP had traditionally functioned as a stronghold of liberal whites, and now gained new support from conservatives disenchanted with the NP, and from some middle-class blacks. Just behind the DP came the KwaZulu-Natal [[Inkatha Freedom Party]] (IFP), historically the voice of Zulu nationalism. While the IFP lost some support, its leader, [[Buthelezi|Chief Buthelezi]], continued to exercise power as the national [[South African Ministry of Home Affairs|Home Affairs]] minister.
While the ANC grassroots hold Mbeki in far less affection than the beloved "Madiba" (Mandela), he has proven himself a shrewd politician, maintaining his political pre-eminence by isolating or co-opting opposition parties. In [[2003]], Mbeki manoeuvred the ANC to a two-thirds majority in parliament for the first time.
Yet not everything has gone the ANC's way. In the early days of his presidency, Mbeki's effective denial of the [[HIV]] crisis invited global criticism, and his conspicuous failure to condemn the forced reclamation of white-owned farms in neighbouring [[Zimbabwe]] unnerved both South African landowners and foreign [[investor]]s.
Violent crime escalated dramatically in the early 90's. ''[[The Economist]]'' reports the killing of approximately 1,500 white farmers in non-political attacks since [[1991]]. In [[1998]], [[South Africa]] led the world in reported murders and robberies.
From [[1994]] onwards and more recently, the [[South African Police Service]] and [[South African Medical Research Council]] respectively have published statistics showing a decrease in homicides at national and city level.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.issafrica.org/CJM/stats0903/murder.htm|title=SAPS: Crime Statistics|accessdate=2007-07-03 |publisher=Institute for Security Studies}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.saps.gov.za/statistics/reports/crimestats/2006/_pdf/category/murder.pdf|title=Crime Statistics|accessdate=2007-07-03 |format=PDF |publisher=South African Police Service}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.iss.co.za/pubs/CrimeQ/No.13/Matzopoulos.pdf|title=VIOLENT DEATHS IN SA|accessdate=2007-06-25 |format=PDF |publisher=Institute for Security Studies |}}</ref> A widely used estimate of over 32,000 homicides was reported by the [[South African Medical Research Council]] for the 2000/01 financial year. This, however, has been scrutinized and is now considered erroneous.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.iss.org.za/pubs/CrimeQ/No.14/No14.pdf|title=SA CRIME QUARTERLY|accessdate=2007-07-03 |format=PDF |publisher=Institute for Security Studies |}}</ref>
According to ''The Economist'', an estimated 250,000 white South Africans have emigrated since [[1994]].<ref name="adults">"[http://www.economist.com/displayStory.cfm?story_id=3886937 If only the adults would behave like the children]", ''The Economist'', April 21, 2005 (accessed June 15, 2005).</ref>
==See also==
*[[Timeline of South African history]]
*[[Timeline of liberal parties in South Africa]]
*[[History of Johannesburg]]
*[[History of Cape Colony]]
*[[List of South Africa-related topics]]
*[[Military history of South Africa]]
==Further reading==
*''A History of South Africa, Third Edition''. Leonard Thompson. [[Yale University Press]]. [[1 March]] [[2001]]. 384 pages. ISBN 0-300-08776-4.
*''South Africa: A Narrative History''. [[Frank Welsh]]. Kodansha America. [[1 February]] [[1999]]. 606 pages. ISBN 1-56836-258-7.
*''The Atlas of Changing South Africa''. A. J. Christopher. [[1 October]] [[2000]]. 216 pages. ISBN 0-415-21178-6.
*''The Politics of the New South Africa''. Heather Deegan. [[28 December]] [[2000]]. 256 pages. ISBN 0-582-38227-0.
*''Making of Modern South Africa: Conquest, Segregation and Apartheid''. Nigel Worden. [[1 July]] [[2000]]. 194 pages. ISBN 0-631-21661-8.
*''Emerging Johannesburg: Perspectives on the Postapartheid City''. Richard Tomlinson, et al. [[1 January]] [[2003]]. 336 pages. ISBN 0-415-93559-8.
*''Twentieth-Century South Africa''. William Beinart. [[Oxford University Press]]. [[2001]].
*''The Migant Farmer in the History of the Cape Colony''.P.J. Van Der Merwe, Roger B. Beck. [[Ohio University Press]]. [[1 January]] [[1995]]. 333 pages. ISBN 0-8214-1090-3.
*''History of the Boers in South Africa; Or, the Wanderings and Wars of the Emigrant Farmers from Their Leaving the Cape Colony to the Acknowledgment of Their Independence by Great Britain''. George McCall Theal. Greenwood Press. [[28 February]] [[1970]]. 392 pages. ISBN 0-8371-1661-9.
*''Status and Respectability in the Cape Colony, 1750-1870 : A Tragedy of Manners''. Robert Ross, David Anderson. [[Cambridge University Press]]. [[1 July]] [[1999]]. 220 pages. ISBN 0-521-62122-4.
*''The War of the Axe, 1847: Correspondence between the governor of the Cape Colony, Sir Henry Pottinger, and the commander of the British forces at the Cape, Sir George Berkeley, and others''. Basil Alexander Le Cordeur. Brenthurst Press. [[1981]]. 287 pages. ISBN 0-909079-14-5.
*''Blood Ground: Colonialism, Missions, and the Contest for Christianity in the Cape Colony and Britain, 1799-1853''. Elizabeth Elbourne. McGill-Queen's University Press. December [[2002]]. 560 pages. ISBN 0-7735-2229-8.
*''Recession and its aftermath: The Cape Colony in the eighteen eighties''. Alan Mabin. University of the Witwatersrand, African Studies Institute. [[1983]]. 27 pages.
*''Early Johannesburg, Its Buildings and People'', Hannes Meiring, Human & Rousseau, 1986, 143 pages, ISBN 0-7981-1456-8
*''Gold! Gold! Gold! The Johannesburg Gold Rush'', Eric Rosenthal, AD. Donker, 1970, ISBN 0-949937-64-9
*''Südafrika im Spiegel der Schweizer Botschaft. Die politische Berichterstattung der Schweizer Botschaft in Südafrika während der Apartheidära 1952-1990'', Bischof Michael H. et al, Chronos, 2006. ISBN 3-0340-0756-6
*''The Making of a Nation South Africa's Road to Freedom'', Peter Joyce. Published by Zebra Press, 2004, ISBN 978-1-77007-312-8
==References==
{{Reflist}}
*{{Citation|last=Ngubane|first=Jordan K.|author-link=Jordan Ngubane|title=An African Explains Apartheid|publisher=Frederick A. Praeger, Inc.|date=1963|place=Natal, South Africa|publication-place=New York, NY}}
==External links==
*[http://www.sahistory.org.za South African History Online]
*[http://www.southafrica.info SouthAfrica.info]. Accessed [[12 February]] [[2005]].
*[http://www.gov.za South Africa Government Online]. Accessed [[20 February]] [[2005]].
*[http://www.villagelife.co.za/NewFiles/15_hromnik.pdf Dr Cyril Hromník on research into ancient history of Africa] - an article written by Maré Mouton.
*[http://www-cs-students.stanford.edu/~cale/cs201/apartheid.hist.html "The History of Apartheid in South Africa"] - an article written by a student at Stanford
*[http://www.photobiker.com/continents/Africa/iblog/Pierre-Journal/unfiled/E-700536758/index.html?lang=en "The Museum of The Apartheid"] - the travel-blog of a motorcyclist around the world
*[http://www.afrikanerbond.org.za/Dokideal.pdf ''Bearer of an Ideal''] - a public-release document of the Afrikanerbond (formerly ''Afrikaner Broederbond''): think-tank which influenced policies of separate development in South Africa
*[http://www.unhchr.ch/html/menu3/b/11.htm Full text of the UN convention]
*[http://www.npr.org/news/specials/mandela/ South Africa, 10 years later] from [[National Public Radio]]
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