History of Switzerland
27461
223800631
2008-07-05T21:42:47Z
Kozuch
1339567
clean up + reference formating fixes using [[Project:AutoWikiBrowser|AWB]]
{{History of Switzerland}}
Since [[1848]], the [[Swiss Confederation]] has been a [[federal state]] of relatively autonomous [[Cantons of Switzerland|canton]]s, some of which have a history of confederacy that goes back more than 700 years, arguably putting them among the world's oldest surviving [[republic]]s. For the time before [[1291]], this article summarizes events taking place on the territory of modern Switzerland. From [[1291]], it focuses mainly on the fates of the [[Old Swiss Confederacy]], at first consisting of only three cantons (Uri, Schwyz and Unterwalden) in what is now central Switzerland, and gradually expanding until it encompassed the present-day area of Switzerland in [[1815]].
==Early history==
{{Main article|Early history of Switzerland}}
[[Image:Historische Karte CH Rome 1.png|thumb|Map of Switzerland during the Roman period]]
[[Archeology|Archeological]] evidence suggests that hunter-gatherers were already settled in the lowlands north of the [[Swiss Alps|Alps]] in the late [[Paleolithic]] period. By the [[Neolithic]] period, the area was relatively densely populated. Remains of [[Bronze Age]] [[pile dwelling]]s from as early as [[3800 BC]]<ref>{{cite news|title=Prehistoric find located beneath the waves|date= September 10, 2007|author=Julia Slater|publisher=[[swissinfo]]|url=http://www.swissinfo.org/eng/social_affairs/detail/Prehistoric_find_located_beneath_the_waves.html?siteSect=201&sid=8202971}}</ref> have been found in the shallow areas of many lakes. Around [[1500 BC]], [[Celt]]ic tribes settled in the area. The [[Raetia]]ns lived in the eastern regions, while the west was occupied by the [[Helvetii]].
In [[58 BC]], the Helvetii tried to evade migratory pressure from Germanic tribes by moving into [[Gaul]], but were defeated at [[Bibracte]] by [[Julius Caesar]]'s armies and then sent back. The alpine region became integrated into the [[Roman Empire]] and was extensively romanized in the course of the following centuries. The center of Roman administration was at ''Aventicum'' ([[Avenches]]). In [[259]], [[Alamanni]] tribes overran the [[Germanic Limes|Limes]], putting the settlements on Swiss territory on the frontier of the Roman Empire.
The first Christian bishoprics were founded in the [[4th century]]. With the [[fall Of The Roman Empire|fall of the Western Roman Empire]], Germanic tribes entered the area. [[Burgundians]] settled in the west; while in the north, [[Alamanni]] settlers slowly forced the earlier Celto-Roman population to retreat into the mountains. Burgundy became a part of the kingdom of the [[Franks]] in [[534]]; two years later, the dukedom of the Alamans followed suit. In the Alaman-controlled region, only isolated Christian communities continued to exist and [[Hiberno-Scottish mission|Irish monks]] re-introduced the Christian faith in the early [[7th century]].
Under the [[Carolingian]] kings, the [[feudalism|feudal system]] proliferated, and monasteries and bishoprics were important bases for maintaining the rule. The [[Treaty of Verdun]] of [[843]] assigned [[Upper Burgundy]] (the western part of what is today Switzerland) to [[Lotharingia]], and [[Alemannia]] (the eastern part) to the eastern kingdom of [[Louis the German]] which would become part of the [[Holy Roman Empire]].
In the [[10th century]], as the rule of the Carolingians waned, [[Saracen]]es ravaged the [[Valais]], and [[Magyars]] destroyed [[Basel]] in [[917]] and [[St. Gallen]] in [[926]]. Only after the victory of king [[Otto I the Great|Otto I]] over the Magyars in [[955]] in the [[Battle of Lechfeld]], were the Swiss territories reintegrated into the empire.
In the [[12th century]], the dukes of [[Zähringen]] were given authority over part of the Burgundy territories which covered the western part of modern Switzerland. They founded many cities, including [[Fribourg]] in [[1157]], and [[Berne]] in [[1191]]. The Zähringer dynasty ended with the death of [[Berchtold V of Zähringen|Berchtold V]] in [[1218]], and their cities subsequently became ''[[reichsfrei]]'' (essentially a city-state within the Holy Roman Empire), while the dukes of [[Kyburg]] competed with the house of [[Habsburg]] over control of the rural regions of the former Zähringer territory.
Under the [[Hohenstaufen]] rule, the alpine passes in Raetia and the [[St. Gotthard Pass]] gained importance. The latter especially became an important direct route through the mountains. [[Canton of Uri|Uri]] (in [[1231]]) and [[Schwyz]] (in [[1240]]) were accorded the ''[[Reichsfreiheit]]'' to grant the empire direct control over the mountain pass. Most of the territory of [[Unterwalden]] at this time belonged to monasteries which had previously become reichsfrei.
The extinction of the [[Kyburg]] dynasty paved the way for the Habsburg dynasty to bring much of the territory south of the Rhine under their control, aiding their rise to power. [[Rudolph I of Germany|Rudolph I of Habsburg]], who became Holy Roman Emperor in [[1273]], effectively revoked the status of ''Reichsfreiheit'' granted to the "Forest Cantons" of Uri, Schwyz, and Unterwalden. The Forest Cantons thus lost their independent status and were governed by [[Vogt|reeve]]s.
==Old Confederacy (1291–1523)==
{{Main article|Growth of the Old Swiss Confederacy}}
[[Image:Battle of Laupen.jpg|thumb|200px|The [[Battle of Laupen]] ([[1339]]) between Swiss forces and an army of the [[Dukes of Savoy]] ([[Diebold Schilling the Elder]], [[1480s]]).]]
In [[1291]], the cantons of Uri, Schwyz, and Unterwalden conspired against the Habsburgs. Their union, the nucleus of the [[Old Swiss Confederacy]], is recorded in the [[Federal Charter]], a document probably written after the fact, in the [[14th century]]. At the battles of [[battle of Morgarten|Morgarten]] in [[1315]] and [[Battle of Sempach|Sempach]] [[1386]], the Swiss defeated the Habsburg army, allowing the confederacy to continue within the Holy Roman Empire.
By [[1353]], the three original cantons had been joined by the cantons of [[Glarus]] and [[Canton of Zug|Zug]] and the city states of [[Lucerne]], [[Zürich]], and [[Berne]], forming the "Old Federation" of eight states that persisted during much of the [[15th century]]. Zürich was expelled from the confederation during the [[1440s]] due to a conflict over the territory of [[Toggenburg (Switzerland)|Toggenburg]] (the [[Old Zürich War]]). This led to a significant increase of power and wealth of the federation, in particular due to the victories over [[Charles the Bold]] of [[Burgundy]] during the [[1470s]] and the success of Swiss [[mercenary|mercenaries]].
The traditional listing order of the [[cantons of Switzerland]] reflects this state, listing the eight "Old Cantons" first, with the city states preceding the founding cantons, followed by cantons that joined the federation after [[1481]], in historical order.
The Swiss victory in a war against the [[Swabian League]] in [[1499]] amounted to de facto independence from the [[Holy Roman Empire]]. In [[1506]], Pope [[Julius II]] engaged the [[Swiss Guard]] that continues to serve the papacy to the present day. The expansion of the federation and the reputation of invincibility acquired during the earlier wars suffered a first setback in [[1515]] with the Swiss defeat in the [[Battle of Marignano]].
==Reformation (1523–1648)==
{{Main|Reformation in Switzerland}}
[[Huldrych Zwingli]] was elected priest of the [[Great Minster church]] in [[Zürich]] in [[1518]]. Zwingli's [[Reformation]] of [[1523]] was supported by the magistrate and population of Zürich and led to significant changes in civil life and state matters in Zürich. The reformation was spread from Zürich to five other cantons of Switzerland, while the remaining five sternly held onto the Roman Catholic faith, leading to inter-cantonal wars (''Kappeler Kriege'') in [[1529]] and [[1531]], where Zwingli died on the battlefield.
During the [[Thirty Years' War]], Switzerland was a relative "oasis of peace and prosperity" ([[Hans Jacob Christoph von Grimmelshausen|Grimmelshausen]]) in war-torn Europe, mostly because all major powers in Europe were depending on Swiss mercenaries, and would not let Switzerland fall in the hands of one of their rivals. Politically, they all tried to take influence, by way of mercenary commanders such as [[Jörg Jenatsch]] or [[Johann Rudolf Wettstein]]. The ''Drei Bünde'' of [[Grisons]], at that point not yet a member of the Confederacy, were involved in the war from [[1620]], which led to their loss of the [[Valtellina]] in [[1623]].
==Ancien Régime (1648–1798)==
{{Main article|Early Modern Switzerland}}
At the [[Treaty of Westphalia]] in [[1648]], Switzerland attained legal independence from the [[Holy Roman Empire]]. The Valtellina became a dependency of the ''Drei Bünde'' again after the Treaty and remained so until the founding of the [[Cisalpine Republic]] by [[Napoleon Bonaparte]] in [[1797]].
In [[1653]], peasants of territories subject to [[Lucerne]], [[Berne]], [[Solothurn]] and [[Basel]] revolted because of currency devaluation. Although the authorities prevailed in this [[Swiss peasant war]], they did pass some tax reforms and the incident in the long term prevented an [[Absolutism (European history)|absolutist]] development as would occur at some other courts of Europe. The confessional tensions remained, however, and erupted again in the [[Battles of Villmergen]] in [[1656]] and [[1712]].
==Napoleonic Era (1798–1848)==
{{Main|Switzerland in the Napoleonic era}}
[[Image:Republiquehelv.svg|right|150px|thumb|The Swiss flag between 1798–1803]]
During the [[French Revolutionary Wars]], the revolutionary armies boiled eastward, enveloping Switzerland in their battles against [[Austria]]. In [[1798]] Switzerland was completely overrun by the French and became the united [[Helvetic Republic]], effectively abolishing the cantons. Having been imposed by a foreign power, and relying on French troops to survive, the Helvetic Republic was highly unpopular and encountered severe economic and political problems and uprisings.
In [[1803]] [[Napoleon]]'s [[Act of Mediation]] partially restored the sovereignty of the cantons, and the former tributary and allied territories of [[Aargau]], [[Thurgau]], [[Grisons]], [[Canton of St. Gallen|St. Gallen]], [[Vaud]] and [[Ticino]] became cantons with equal rights.
The [[Congress of Vienna]] of [[1815]] fully re-established Swiss independence and the European powers agreed to permanently recognise Swiss neutrality ([[Restauration (Switzerland)|Restauration]]). At this time, the territory of Switzerland was increased for the last time, by the new cantons of [[Valais]], [[Canton of Neuchâtel|Neuchatel]] and [[Canton of Geneva|Geneva]].
==Switzerland as a federal state (1848–1914)==
{{Main article|Switzerland as a federal state}}
In [[1847]], a civil war broke out between the Catholic and the Protestant cantons (''[[Sonderbundskrieg]]''). Its immediate cause was a 'special treaty' (''[[Sonderbund]]'') of the Catholic cantons. It lasted for less than a month, causing fewer than 100 casualties. Apart from small riots, this was the last armed conflict on Swiss territory.
As a consequence of the [[civil war]], Switzerland adopted a [[Swiss Federal Constitution|federal constitution]] in [[1848]], amending it extensively in [[1874]] and establishing federal responsibility for defence, trade, and legal matters, leaving all other matters to the cantonal governments. From then, and over much of the [[20th century]], continuous political, economic, and social improvement has characterized''' Swiss history.
==World Wars (1914–1945)==
{{Main|Switzerland during the World Wars}}
The major powers respected Switzerland's neutrality during [[World War I]], though the [[Grimm-Hoffmann Affair]] did come close into calling it into question.
[[Switzerland during World War II|During World War II]], detailed invasion plans were drawn up by the Germans,<ref>''Let's Swallow Switzerland'' by Klaus Urner (Lexington Books, 2002).</ref> but Switzerland was never attacked. Switzerland was able to remain independent through a combination of military deterrence, economic concessions to Germany, and good fortune as larger events during the war delayed an invasion. Attempts by Switzerland's small Nazi party to cause an [[Anschluss]] with Germany failed miserably, largely due to Switzerland's multicultural heritage, strong sense of national identity, and long tradition of direct democracy and civil liberties. The Swiss press vigorously criticized the Third Reich, often infuriating its leadership. Under General [[Henri Guisan]], a massive mobilization of militia forces was ordered. The Swiss military strategy was changed from one of static defence at the borders to protect the economic heartland, to a strategy of organized long-term attrition and withdrawal to strong, well-stockpiled positions high in the Alps known as the [[Reduit|Réduit]]. Switzerland was an important base for espionage by both sides in the conflict and often mediated communications between the Axis and Allied powers.
Switzerland's trade was blockaded by both the [[Allies of World War II|Allies]] and by the [[Axis Powers|Axis]]. Both sides openly exerted pressure on Switzerland not to trade with the other. Economic cooperation and extension of credit to the Third Reich varied according to the perceived likelihood of invasion, and the availability of other trading partners. Concessions reached their zenith after a crucial rail link through [[Vichy France]] was severed in 1942, leaving Switzerland completely surrounded by the Axis. Switzerland relied on trade for half of its food and essentially all of its fuel, but controlled vital trans-alpine rail tunnels between Germany and Italy. Switzerland's most important exports during the war were precision machine tools, watches, jewel bearings (used in bombsights), electricity, and dairy products. During World War Two, the [[Swiss franc]] was the only remaining major freely convertible currency in the world, and both the Allies and the Germans sold large amounts of gold to the [[Swiss National Bank]]. Between 1940 and 1945, the German [[Reichsbank]] sold 1.3 billion francs worth of gold to Swiss Banks in exchange for Swiss francs and other foreign currency.<ref>The Bergier Commission Final Report, page 238 http://www.uek.ch/en/.</ref> Hundreds of millions of francs worth of this gold was [[Gold standard|monetary gold]] plundered from the [[central bank]]s of occupied countries. 581,000 francs of "Melmer" gold taken from [[Holocaust]] victims in eastern Europe was sold to Swiss banks.<ref>The Bergier Commission Final Report, page 249 http://www.uek.ch/en/.</ref> In total, trade between Germany and Switzerland contributed about 0.5% to the German war effort but did not significantly lengthen the war.<ref>The Bergier Commission Final Report, page 518 http://www.uek.ch/en/.</ref>
Over the course of the war, Switzerland interned 300,000 refugees. 104,000 of these were foreign troops interned according to the Rights and Duties of Neutral Powers outlined in the [[Hague Conventions (1899 and 1907)|Hague Conventions]]. The rest were foreign civilians and were either interned or granted tolerance or residence permits by the cantonal authorities. Refugees were not allowed to hold jobs. 60,000 of the refugees were civilians escaping persecution by the Nazis. Of these, 26,000 to 27,000 were Jews.<ref>The Bergier Commission Final Report, page 117 http://www.uek.ch/en/.</ref> Between 10,000 and 25,000 civilian refugees were refused entry. At the beginning of the war, Switzerland had a Jewish population of about 25,000{{Fact|date=September 2007}} and a total population of about 4 million.
Within Switzerland at the time of the conflict there was moderate polarization. Some were pacifists. Some took sides according to international capitalism or international communism. Others leaned more towards their language group, with some in French-speaking areas more pro-Allied, and some in Swiss-German areas more pro-Axis. The government attempted to thwart the activities of any individual, party, or faction in Switzerland that acted with extremism or attempted to break the unity of the nation. The Swiss-German speaking areas moved linguistically further away from the standard (high) German spoken in Germany, with more emphasis on local Swiss dialects.
In the 1990s, controversy over a [[World Jewish Congress lawsuit against Swiss Banks|class-action lawsuit]] brought in [[Brooklyn, New York]] over Jewish assets in Holocaust-era bank accounts prompted the Swiss government to commission the most recent and authoritative study of Switzerland's interaction with the Nazi regime. The final report by this independent panel of international scholars, known as the [[Bergier Commission]],<ref>[http://www.uek.ch/en/ Independent Commission of Experts Switzerland - Second World War ICE<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref> was issued in 2002.
==After 1945==
{{Main articles|Modern history of Switzerland|Politics of Switzerland}}
After the war, Swiss authorities considered the construction of a Swiss [[nuclear bomb]]. Leading nuclear physicists at the [[Swiss Federal Institute of Technology|Federal Institute of Technology]] such as [[Paul Scherrer]] made this a realistic possibility, and in [[1958]] the population clearly voted in favour of the bomb. The [[Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty]] of [[1968]] was seen as a valid alternative, however, and the bomb was never built.
From [[1959]], the [[Swiss Federal Council|Federal Council]], elected by the parliament, is composed of members of the four major parties, the Protestant [[Free Democratic Party of Switzerland|Free Democrats]], the Catholic [[Christian Democratic People's Party of Switzerland|Christian Democrats]], the left-wing [[Social Democratic Party of Switzerland|Social Democrats]] and the right-wing [[Swiss People's Party|People's Party]], essentially creating a system without a sizeable [[parliamentary opposition]] (see [[concordance system]]), reflecting the powerful position of an opposition in a [[direct democracy]].
In [[1963]], Switzerland joined the [[Council of Europe]]. Women were granted the right to vote only in [[1971]], and an equal rights amendment was ratified in [[1981]]. In [[1979]], parts of the canton of [[Berne]] attained independence, forming the new [[canton of Jura]].
Switzerland's role in many [[United Nations]] and international organizations, helped to mitigate the country's concern for neutrality. In [[2002]], Switzerland was officially ratified as a member of the [[United Nations]] — the only country joining after agreement by a popular vote.
Switzerland is not a member state of the [[EU]], but has been (together with [[Liechtenstein]]) surrounded by EU territory since the joining of [[Austria]] in [[1995]]. In 2005, Switzerland agreed to join the [[Schengen treaty]] and [[Dublin Convention]] by popular vote.
==References==
{{reflist}}
==Order of accession of the cantons==
{{main|Cantons of Switzerland}}
*1291 - [[Image:Uri-coat of arms.svg|20px]] [[Canton of Uri|Uri]], [[Image:Schwytz-coat of arms.svg|20px]] [[Canton of Schwyz|Schwyz]], [[Unterwalden]] (now divided into [[Image:Obwald-coat of arms.svg|20px]] [[Obwalden]] and [[Image:Nidwald-coat of arms.svg|20px]] [[Nidwalden]])
*1332 - [[Image:Lucerne-coat of arms.svg|20px]] [[Canton of Lucerne|Lucerne]]
*1351 - [[Image:Zurich-coat of arms.svg|20px]] [[Canton of Zurich|Zurich]]
*1352 - [[Image:Glaris-coat of arms.svg|20px]] [[Canton of Glarus|Glarus]], [[Image:Zug-coat of arms.svg|20px]] [[Canton of Zug|Zug]]
*1353 - [[Image:Berne-coat of arms.svg|20px]] [[Canton of Berne|Berne]]
*1481 - [[Image:Fribourg-coat of arms.svg|20px]] [[Canton of Fribourg|Fribourg]], [[Image:Solothurn-coat of arms.svg|20px]] [[Canton of Solothurn|Solothurn]]
*1501 - [[Image:Bale-coat of arms.svg|20px]] [[Basel-City|Basel-Stadt]], [[Image:BaleCampagne-coat of arms.svg|20px]] [[Basel-Country|Basel-Landschaft]], [[Image:Schaffhouse-coat of arms.svg|20px]] [[Canton of Schaffhausen|Schaffhausen]]
*1513 - [[Image:AppenzellRE-coat of arms.svg|20px]] [[Appenzell Ausserrhoden|Appenzell Außerrhoden]], [[Image:AppenzellRI-coat of arms.svg|20px]] [[Appenzell Innerrhoden]]
*1803 - [[Image:St.Gallen-coat of arms.svg|20px]] [[Canton of St. Gallen|St. Gallen]], [[Image:Grisons-coat of arms.svg|20px]] [[Graubunden]], [[Image:Argovie-coat of arms.svg|20px]] [[Aargau]], [[Image:Thurgovie-coat of arms.svg|20px]] [[Thurgau]], [[Image:Tessin-coat of arms.svg|20px]] [[Ticino]], [[Image:Vaud-coat of arms.svg|20px]] [[Vaud]]
*1815 - [[Image:Valais-coat of arms.svg|20px]] [[Valais]], [[Image:Neuchatel-coat of arms.svg|20px]] [[Canton of Neuchâtel|Neuchâtel]], [[Image:Coat of Arms of Geneva.svg|20px]] [[Canton of Geneva|Geneva]]
*1979 - [[Image:Jura-coat of arms.svg|20px]] [[Canton of Jura|Jura]] (secession from [[Berne]])
==See also==
*[[History of Zürich]]
*[[History of the Grisons]]
*[[Postage stamps and postal history of Switzerland]]
*[[History of the Alps]]
==English literature==
*Dieter Fahrni (2003). An Outline History of Switzerland. From the Origins to the Present Day. 8th enlarged edit Pro Helvetia, Zurich. ISBN 3-908102-61-8
*James Murray Luck (1985). A History of Switzerland. The First 100,000 Years: Before the Beginnings to the Days of the Present. SPOSS, Palo Alto CA. ISBN 0-930664-06-X
==External links==
{{commonscat}}
*[http://www.dodis.ch/ Swiss Diplomatic Documents (DDS)]
*[http://library.byu.edu/~rdh/eurodocs/switzerl.html History of Switzerland: Primary Documents]
{{History of Europe}}
[[Category:History of Switzerland| ]]
[[Category:History of the Germanic peoples]]
[[Category:National histories|Switzerland]]
[[als:Geschichte der Schweiz]]
[[cs:Dějiny Švýcarska]]
[[de:Geschichte der Schweiz]]
[[es:Historia de Suiza]]
[[fr:Histoire de la Suisse]]
[[it:Storia della Svizzera]]
[[he:היסטוריה של שווייץ]]
[[lt:Šveicarijos istorija]]
[[nl:Geschiedenis van Zwitserland]]
[[ja:スイスの歴史]]
[[pt:História da Suíça]]
[[ro:Istoria Elveţiei]]
[[ru:История Швейцарии]]
[[sr:Историја Швајцарске]]
[[sh:Historija Švicarske]]
[[fi:Sveitsin historia]]
[[sv:Schweiz historia]]
[[tr:İsviçre tarihi]]
[[uk:Історія Швейцарії]]
[[zh:瑞士历史]]