History of York 5099728 223878282 2008-07-06T08:37:26Z 81.86.34.21 /* External links */ changed historyofyork.co.uk to .org.uk - same site, new name; altered text to better describe the site {{refimprove|date=August 2007}} [[Image:EnglandYork.png|thumb|right|York within [[England]].]] The '''history of York''' as a city dates to the beginning of the first millennium AD but evidence for the presence of people in the area date back much further to 8000/7000 BC. As York was a town in [[Roman Empire|Roman times]], its [[Celtic languages|Celtic]] name is recorded in Roman sources as ''Eboracum'' and ''Eburacum''; after 400, [[Anglo-Saxons]] took over the area and adapted the name by [[folk etymology]] to [[Old English language|Old English]] ''Eoforwīc'', which means "wild-boar town", and the [[Vikings]], who took over the area later, in turn adapted the name by folk etymology to [[Old Norse language|Norse]] ''[[Jórvík]]'' meaning "horse bay." After the [[Anglo-Saxons|Saxon]] settlement of the North of England, Anglian York was first capital of [[Deira (kingdom)|Deira]] and later [[Northumbria]], and by the early 7th century, York was an important royal centre for the [[Northumbrian]] kings. Following the [[Norman Conquest]] of 1066, York was substantially damaged but in time became an important urban centre as the administrative centre of the [[county]] of [[Yorkshire]]. York prospered during much of the later [[Middle Ages|medieval]] era; the later years of the 14th and the earlier years of the 15th centuries were characterised by particular prosperity. During the [[English Civil War]], the city was regarded as a [[Cavaliers (royalists)|Royalist]] stronghold and was [[Siege of York|besieged]] and eventually captured by Parliamentary forces under [[Ferdinando Fairfax, 2nd Lord Fairfax of Cameron|Lord Fairfax]] in 1644. After the war, York slowly regained its former pre-eminence in the North, and, by 1660, was the third-largest city in England after [[London]] and [[Norwich]]. Modern York has 34 [[Conservation Area]]s, 2,084 [[Listed building]]s and 22 [[Scheduled Ancient Monument]]s in its care. Every year, thousands of tourists flock to see the surviving [[medieval architecture|medieval buildings]], interspersed with Roman and Viking remains and [[Georgian architecture]]. ==Prehistoric settlement== There is archeological evidence that [[Mesolithic]] people settled in the region where York now is from 8000/7000 BC, although it is not known if these were permanent or temporary settlements. During the [[Neolithic Period]] polished stone axes indicate the presence of people in the area where the City of York is now, especially on the south west bank of the [[River Ouse, Yorkshire|River Ouse]], just outside the city centre near the area where Scarborough bridge is now. Evidence for people continues into the [[Bronze Age]] with a hoard of [[flint tool]]s and weapons found by Holgate Beck between the railway and the River Ouse, burials and [[bronzes]] found on both sides of the River Ouse and a [[Beaker culture|beaker]] vessel found in [[Bootham]]. [[Iron Age]] burials have been found near the area on the south west bank of the Ouse where the concentration of Neolithic axes were found. Few other finds from this period have been found in York itself but evidence of a late Iron Age farmstead has been uncovered at Lingcroft Farm 4.7 km (3 miles) away at [[Naburn]].<ref name=Hall-27>{{cite book | last = Hall | first = Richard | title = English Heritage: Book of York | origyear = 1996 | edition = 1st Ed. | year = 1996 | publisher = B.T.Batsford Ltd | pages = 26-27 | isbn = 0-7134-7720-2}}</ref> == Roman York == {{main|Eboracum}} [[image:Roman Fortifications in Museum Gardens York.jpg|thumb|right|Roman wall and the west corner tower of the fort at York, with medieval additions]] The Romans called the tribes in the region around York the [[Brigantes]] and the [[Parisii]] and York may have been on the border between these two tribes. During the [[Roman conquest of Britain]] the Brigantes became a Roman client state but when their leadership changed becoming more hostile to Rome Roman General [[Quintus Petillius Cerialis]] led the [[Legio VIIII Hispana|Ninth Legion]] north of the [[Humber]].<ref name=Willis35>{{cite book | last = Willis | first = Ronald | date = 1988 | title = The illustrated portrait of York | edition = 4th Ed | publisher = Robert Hale Limited | isbn = 0-7090-3468-7 | pages = 16-17}}</ref>. York was founded in 71 AD when Cerialis and the Ninth Legion constructed a military fortress ([[castra]]) on flat ground above the [[River Ouse, Yorkshire|River Ouse]] near its junction with the [[River Foss]]. The fortess was later rebuilt in stone, covered an area of 50 [[acre]]s, and was inhabited by 6,000 soldiers. Much of the Roman fortress now lies under the foundations of [[York Minster]], and excavations in the Minster's undercroft have revealed some of the original walls.<ref name=coyyh>{{cite web | title = York's history | publisher = City of York Council | url = http://www.york.gov.uk/leisure/Local_history_and_heritage/yorks_history/ | date = 2006-12-20 | accessdate = 2007-10-01}}</ref><ref name=ytss-2>{{cite book | last = Shannon | first = John | coauthors = Tilbrook, Richard | title = York - the second city | publisher = Jarrold Publishing | date = 1990 | isbn = 0 7117 0507 0 | pages = 2}}</ref> At some time between 109 AD and 122 AD, the garrison of the Ninth Legion was replaced by the [[Legio VI Victrix|Sixth Legion]]. There is no documented trace of the Ninth Legion after 117 AD, and various theories have been proposed as to what happened to it. The Sixth Legion remained in York until the end of Roman occupation about 400 AD.<ref name=ytss-2>{{cite book | last = Shannon | first = John | coauthors = Tilbrook, Richard | title = York - the second city | publisher = Jarrold Publishing | date = 1990 | isbn = 0 7117 0507 0 | pages = 2}}</ref> The Emperors [[Hadrian]], [[Septimius Severus]] and [[Constantius I]] all held court in York during their various campaigns. During his stay, the Emperor Severus proclaimed York capital of the province of [[Britannia Inferior]], and it is likely that it was he who granted York the privileges of a [[Colonia (Roman)|colonia]] or city. Constantius I died during his stay in York, and his son [[Constantine I|Constantine the Great]] was proclaimed Emperor by the troops based in the fortress.<ref name=ytss-2>{{cite book | last = Shannon | first = John | coauthors = Tilbrook, Richard | title = York - the second city | publisher = Jarrold Publishing | date = 1990 | isbn = 0 7117 0507 0 | pages = 2}}</ref> Economically the military presence was important with workshops growing up to supply the needs of the 5000 troops [[garrison]]ed there and in its early stages York operated a [[command economy]]. Production included military pottery until the mid-third century, military tile kilns have been found in the Aldwark-Peasholme Green area, glassworking at coppergate, metalworks and leatherworks producing military equipment in Tanner Row. New trading opportunities led local people to create a permanent civilian settlement on the southwest bank of the [[River Ouse, Yorkshire|River Ouse]] opposite the fortress. By 237 it had been made a [[Colonia (Roman)|colonia]] one of only four in Britain and the others were founded for retired soldiers.<ref>Hall, ''English Heritage: Book of York'', Pages 31</ref> York was self-governing, with a council made up of rich locals, including merchants, and veteran soldiers.<ref>Hartley, Elizabeth [1985]. Roman Life at the Yorkshire Museum, The Yorkshire Museum, ISBN 0-905807-02-2 P.12</ref> Evidence of [[Roman religion|Roman religious]] beliefs in York have been found including [[altar]]s to [[Mars (mythology)|Mars]], [[Hercules]], [[Jupiter (mythology)|Jupiter]] and [[Fortuna|Fortune]], while [[phallic]] [[amulets]] are the most commonly found type of good luck charm. In terms of number of reference the most popular [[deities]] were the spiritual representation ([[Genius (mythology)|''genius'']]) of York and the [[Mother Goddess]], there is also evidence of local or regional deities. There was also a [[Christian]] community in York although it is unknown when this was first formed and there is virtually no record of it in archeological terms. The first evidence of this community is a document noting the attendance of Bishop Eborius of Eboracum at the [[Council of Arles]] in 314.<ref>Hall, ''English Heritage: Book of York'', Pages 97-101</ref> ==Sub-Roman, Anglo-Saxon and Viking York== ===Sub-Roman=== Following the Roman withdrawal from Britain in 410, there is a lack of evidence about York in the 5th and 6th centuries, a pattern repeated throughout [[Sub-Roman Britain]]. There is evidence of 5th century settlement near the Ouse at York,<ref>Pryor, Francis [2004] (2004). ''Britain AD:A Quest for Arthur, England and the Anglo-Saxons'', Harper Collins Publishers, ISBN 0-00-718186-8 P.173</ref> and private Roman houses, especially suburban villas were occupied, after the Roman withdrawal.<ref>Hall,''English Heritage: Book of York'', Pages 32</ref> In [[Nennius]]'s list of 28 towns of Sub-Roman Britain York is listed as [[Caer]] [[Ebrauc]] this may indicate that York became the capital of a British kingdom called [[Ebrauc]] possibly around 470. ===Anglo-Saxon=== [[Image:Anglian Tower York.jpg|thumb|right|upright|Anglian Tower]] The [[Anglo-Saxons|Angles]], coming from northern [[Germany]] and the [[Jutes]] from southern [[Denmark]], apparently first appeared in the vicinity in the late 5th or early 6th century, and their cemeteries have been excavated close to York on The Mount and at Heworth. There are, however, few objects from inside the city, and whether York was settled at all at this period remains unclear. After the later [[Anglo-Saxons|Saxon]] settlement of the North of England, Anglian York was first capital of [[Deira (kingdom)|Deira]] and then of the united kingdom of [[Deira (kingdom)|Deira]] and [[Bernicia]], later know as [[Northumbria]]. Certainly by the early 7th century, York was an important royal centre for the [[Northumbrian]] kings, for it was here that [[Paulinus of York]] (later St Paulinus) came to set up his wooden church, the precursor of [[York Minster]], and it was here that King [[Edwin of Northumbria]] was [[baptised]]. The first Minster is believed to have been built in 627, although the location of the early Minster is a matter of dispute.<ref name=ymhist>{{cite web | title = York Minster: a very brief history | url = http://www.yorkminster.org/learning/the-minsters-history/ | publisher = The Dean and Chapter of York | date = 2007 | accessdate = 2007-10-04}}</ref> Throughout the succeeding centuries, York remained an important royal and ecclesiastical centre, the seat of a [[bishop]], and later, from 735, of an [[archbishop]]. Very little about Anglican York is known and few documents survive. It is known that the building and rebuilding of the Minster was carried out, and of the construction of great church of the Alma Sophia (Holy Wisdom), the location of which still remains a mystery. York became a centre of learning under Northumbrian rule , with the establishment of the library and of the Minster school. [[Alcuin]], later adviser to [[Charlemagne]], was its most distinguished pupil and then master. Of this great royal and ecclesiastical centre, little is yet known archaeologically. Excavations on the Roman fortress walls have shown that they may have survived more or less intact for much of their circuit, and the [[Anglian Tower, York|Anglian Tower]], a small square tower built to fill a gap in the Roman way may be a repair of the Anglian period. The survival of the walls and gates will have meant that the Roman street pattern survived, at least in part, inside the fortress. Certainly excavations beneath York Minster have shown that the great hall of the Roman headquarters building still stood and was used up until the 9th century. ===Viking=== :''For Viking York, see [[Jórvík]].'' [[image:St. Marys Bishophill Junior, York.jpg|thumb|right|St Mary, Bishophill Junior]] A large army of Danish Vikings, called the "[[Great Heathen Army]]" captured York in 866, and, in 876, the Vikings settled permanently in parts of the Yorkshire countryside. Viking kings ruled this area, known to historians as "[[Jórvík|The Viking Kingdom of Jorvik]]", for almost a century. In 954 the last Viking king, [[Eric I of Norway|Eric Bloodaxe]], was expelled and his kingdom was incorporated in the newly consolidated Anglo-Saxon state.<ref name=coyyjv>{{cite web | title = Jorvik: Viking York | publisher = City of York Council | url = http://www.york.gov.uk/leisure/Local_history_and_heritage/yorks_history/03_jorvik/ | date = 2006-12-20 | accessdate = 2007-10-05}}</ref> A renowned scholar of this era was [[Wulfstan II, Archbishop of York]]. Several churches were built in York during the Viking Age including St. Olave's built in 1050 on Marygate which is dedicated to [[Olaf II of Norway|St. Olaf King of Norway]] and [[St Mary, Bishophill Junior]] which has a 10th century tower that was heightened in the early 11th century. == Medieval York == [[Image:York Minster close.jpg|thumb|right|upright|[[York Minster]]]] Following the [[Norman Conquest]] of 1066, York was substantially damaged by the punitive [[The Harrying of the North|harrying of the north]] (1069) launched by [[William I of England|William the Conqueror]] in response to regional revolt.<ref name=coynm>{{cite web | title = Norman and Medieval York | publisher = City of York Council | url = http://www.york.gov.uk/leisure/Local_history_and_heritage/yorks_history/04_norman/ | date = 2006-12-20 | accessdate = 2007-10-01}}</ref> Two [[York Castle|castles]] were erected in the city on either side of the [[River Ouse, Yorkshire|River Ouse]]. In time York became an important urban centre as the administrative centre of the [[county]] of [[Yorkshire]], as the seat of an [[archbishop]], and at times in the later 13th and 14th century as an alternative seat of royal government. It was an important trading centre. Several religious houses were founded following the Conquest, including [[St Mary's Abbey, York|St Mary's Abbey]] and Holy Trinity Priory. The city as a possession of the crown also came to house a substantial Jewish community under the protection of the [[sheriff]]. On [[March 16]], [[1190]], a [[Crowd|mob]] of townsfolk forced the [[Jew]]s in York to flee into [[York Castle|Clifford's Tower]], which was under the control of the sheriff. The castle was set on fire and the Jews were massacred. It is likely that various local magnates who were debtors of the Jews helped instigate this massacre or, at least, did nothing to prevent it. It came during a time of widespread [[History of the Jews in England#Massacres at London and York (1189–1190)|attacks against Jews in Britain]]. The Jewish community in York did recover after the massacre and a Jewish presence remained in York until [[Edict of Expulsion|the expulsion]] of Jews from England took place in 1290.<ref>Hall, ''English Heritage: Book of York'', Pages 58-59</ref> York prospered during much of the later [[Middle Ages|medieval]] era and this is reflected in the built environment. Twenty [[Medieval churches of York|medieval parish churches]] survive in whole or in part, though only eight of these are regularly used for worship. The medieval [[York city walls|city walls]], with their entrance gates, known as ''bars'', encompassed virtually the entire city and survive to this day. The city was also designated as a [[county corporate]], giving it effective county status. [[Image:York Shambles.jpg|thumb|left|upright|"[[The Shambles (York)|The Shambles]]," a medieval street in York.]] The later years of the 14th and the earlier years of the 15th centuries were characterised by particular prosperity. It is in this period that the [[York Mystery Plays]], a regular cycle of religious pageants (or plays) associated with the [[Corpus Christi (feast)|Corpus Christi]] cycle and performed by the various craft [[guild]]s grew up. Among the more important personages associated with this period was [[Nicholas Blackburn]] senior, Lord [[Mayor]] in 1412 and a leading merchant. He is depicted in glass in the (now) east window of [[Medieval churches of York#All Saints, North Street|All Saints' Church]] in North Street. The period from the later 15th century seems to have witnessed economic contraction and a dwindling in York's regional importance. The construction of the city's new [[Guildhall, York|Guildhall]] around the middle of the century can be seen as an attempt to project civic confidence in the face of growing uncertainty. Dating from the later medieval era, and now a popular tourist attraction, is the [[the Shambles (York)|Shambles]], a street of [[Timber framing|timber-framed]] shops originally occupied by [[butcher]]s. Some retain the outdoor shelves and the hooks on which meat was displayed. They have overhanging upper floors and are now largely [[souvenir]] shops. == Early modern York == Few buildings of significance were put up in the century after the completion of the [[York Minster|Minster]] in 1472, the exceptions being the completion of the [[King's Manor]] (which from 1537 to 1641 housed the [[Council of the North]]) and the rebuilding of the church of [[St. Michael le Belfrey]], where [[Guy Fawkes]] was baptised in 1570. During the [[dissolution of the monasteries]] all the [[Christian monasticism|monastic]] institutions in the City were closed including St. Leonards Hospital and in 1539 [[St. Mary's Abbey, York|St. Mary's Abbey]].<ref>Wilson, Christoper and Burton, Janet [1988] (1988). ''St Mary's Abbey York, The Yorkshire Museum'', ISBN 0-905807-03-0. P4</ref> In 1547, fifteen parish churches were closed, reducing their number from forty to twenty-five - a reflection of the decline in the city's population. Despite the [[English Reformation]] making the practice of [[Roman Catholicism]] illegal a Catholic Christian community remained in York although this was mainly in secret. Its members included [[Margaret Clitherow|St. Margaret Clitherow]] who was executed in 1586 for harbouring a priest <ref>Whitworth Ed. [2000], ''Aspects of York:Discovering local history'', Warncliffe Books, ISBN 1-871647-83-5. Pages 77-85</ref> and [[Guy Fawkes]] who tried to blow up the [[Palace of Westminster|Houses of Parliament]] in 1605. Following his break with [[Parliament of England|Parliament]], [[Charles I of England|King Charles I]] established his [[Court of St. James's|Court]] in York in 1642 for six months. Subsequently, during the [[English Civil War]], the city was regarded as a [[Cavaliers (royalists)|Royalist]] stronghold and was [[Siege of York|besieged]] and eventually captured by Parliamentary forces under [[Ferdinando Fairfax, 2nd Lord Fairfax of Cameron|Lord Fairfax]] in 1644. After the war, York slowly regained its former pre-eminence in the North, and, by 1660, was the third-largest city in England after [[London]] and [[Norwich]]. In 1686 the [[Bar Convent]] was founded, in secret due to [[anti-catholic]] Laws, making it the oldest surviving convent in England. York elected two members to the [[Unreformed House of Commons]]. On [[22 March]] [[1739]], the [[highwayman]] [[Dick Turpin]] was convicted at the York Grand Jury House of horse-stealing, and was [[hanging|hanged]] at the Knavesmire on [[7 April]] [[1739]]. Turpin is buried in the churchyard of [[St George's York|St George's Church]], where his tombstone also shows his alias, John Palmer. ==Modern York== {| class="toccolours" align="{{{align|right}}}" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="0" style="margin:0 0 1em 1em; clear:right; text-align:center" |- ! colspan="4" bgcolor="#ccccff" style="background-color:#ccccff; padding-right:3px; padding-left:3px; font-size:110%; text-align:center" |York population 1801-2001 |- style="font-size:95%" ! style="text-align:center; border-bottom:1px solid black" | Year || style="text-align:center; border-bottom:1px solid black" |Population|| style="text-align:center; border-bottom:1px solid black" | %increase |- |1801 |24,080 |- |1811 |27,486 |14.14 |- |1821 |30,913 |12.47 |- |1831 |36,340 |17.56 |- |1841 |40,337 |11.00 |- |1851 |49,899 |23.71 |- |1861 |58,632 |17.50 |- |1871 |67,364 |14.89 |- |1881 |76,097 |12.96 |- |1891 |81,802 |7.50 |- |1901 |90,665 |10.83 |- |1911 |100,487 |10.83 |- |1921 |106,278 |5.76 |- |1931 |112,404 |5.76 |- |1941 |123,227 |9.63 |- |1951 |135,093 |9.63 |- |1961 |144,585 |7.03 |- |1971 |154,749 |7.03 |- |1981 |158,170 |2.21 |- |1991 |172,847 |9.28 |- |2001 |181,131 |4.79 |- | <tr><td colspan=4 style="border-top:1px solid black; font-size:85%; text-align:left">Data for UK Census results for York UA<ref>[http://www.visionofbritain.org.uk/data_cube_table_page.jsp?data_theme=T_POP&data_cube=N_TPop&u_id=10057127&c_id=10001043&add=N ''York UA: Total Population''], A vision of Britain through time, retrieved on 22 September 2007</ref> </td></tr> |} In 1796 [[Quaker]] [[William Tuke]] founded [[The Retreat]] a hospital for the [[mentally ill]], situated in the east of the city outside the city walls, which used [[moral treatment]]. Largely thanks to the efforts of "Railway King" [[George Hudson]], York became a major centre for the railways during the 19th century, a status it maintained well into the 20th century. On the [[29 April]] [[1942]] York was bombed as part of the retaliatory [[Baedeker Blitz]] by the German [[Luftwaffe]] when 92 people were killed and hundreds injured.<ref>[http://www.yorkpress.co.uk/search/display.var.1333684.0.luftwaffe_pilot_says_sorry_for_bombing_york.php ''Luftwaffe pilot says sorry for bombing York''], The Press, York (2007), retrieved on 23 September 2007.</ref> Buildings damaged in the raid included the [[York railway station|Railway Station]], [[Rowntree's]] Factory, St Martin-le-Grand Church, the [[Bar Convent]] and the [[Guildhall, York|Guildhall]] which was completely gutted and not restored until 1960. During the [[cold war]] the headquarters of the Number 20 Group, [[Royal Observer Corps]] was moved to the newly constructed [[York Cold War Bunker]] in the Holgate area of York. It was opened on the [[16th December]] [[1961]], was in operation until 1991 and was then turned into a museum owned by [[English Heritage]].<ref name=ehps30gh>{{cite web | title = NO 20 GROUP ROYAL OBSERVER CORPS HEADQUARTERS | publisher = English Heritage Pastscapes | date = 2007 | url = http://pastscape.english-heritage.org.uk/hob.aspx?hob_id=1310348&type=&class1=Defence&period=Modern&county=None&place=york&yearfrom=ALL&yearto=ALL&recordsperpage=5&source=text&sort=1&nmr=&defra=&p=1 | accessdate = 2007-09-22}}</ref> In October and November 2000 York experienced the worst flooding in 375 years with over 300 homes being flooded. <ref name=dmcbflood>{{cite web | title = The impact of the October–November 2000 floods on contaminant metal dispersal in the River Swale catchment, North Yorkshire, UK | url = http://www.aber.ac.uk/iges/staff/Macklin%20files/HP%20Dennis%20et%20al.%202003.pdf | publisher = Wiley InterScience | date = 2002 | last = Dennis | first = Ian A. | coauthors = Macklin, Mark G.; Coulthard, Tom J.; Brewer, Paul A. | pages = 1 | accessdate = 2007-09-23}}</ref> == References == {{reflist}} == See also == * [[History of Yorkshire]] * [[Medieval churches of York]] * [[Religion in York]] == External links == * [http://www.historyofyork.org.uk History of York]: Extensive site dedicated to the History of York * [http://www.british-history.ac.uk/source.asp?pubid=183 Victoria County History of the City of York]: part of British History Online. * [http://www.british-history.ac.uk/catalogue.asp?gid=89 Register of the Freemen of York, 1272-1759]: key biographical source, originally published by the Surtees Society. Part of British History Online. *[http://www.stmary-bishophill.co.uk/ Parish of St. Mary Bishophill Junior] [[Category:History of York| ]] [[Category:History of Yorkshire]]