History of agriculture 2899597 224961494 2008-07-11T05:27:00Z Physis 822864 /* See also */ [[Hoe-farming]] {{farming}} {{Unreferenced|date=July 2008}} '''Agriculture''' was developed at least 10,000 years ago, and it has undergone significant developments since the time of the earliest cultivation. Evidence points to the [[Fertile Crescent]] of the [[Middle East]] as the site of the earliest planned sowing and harvesting of plants that had previously been gathered in the wild. Independent development of agriculture occurred in northern and southern [[China]], Africa's [[Sahel]], [[New Guinea]] and several regions of the [[Americas]]. Agricultural practices such as [[irrigation]], [[crop rotation]], [[fertilizers]], and [[pesticides]] were developed long ago but have made great strides in the past century. The [[Haber-Bosch]] method for synthesizing [[ammonium nitrate]] represented a major breakthrough and allowed [[crop yields]] to overcome previous constraints. In the past century agriculture has been characterized by enhanced productivity, the substitution of labor for synthetic fertilizers and pesticides, [[selective breeding]], [[Mechanized farming|mechanization]], [[water pollution]], and [[farm subsidies]]. In recent years there has been a backlash against the [[externalities|external]] environmental effects of conventional agriculture, resulting in the [[organic movement]]. ==Origins== {{main|Neolithic Revolution}} [[Image:ClaySumerianSickle.jpg|thumb|left|230px|[[Sumer]]ian Harvester's sickle, 3000 BCE. Baked clay. [[Field Museum]].]] Identifying the exact origin of agriculture remains problematic because the transition from hunter-gatherer societies began thousands of years before the invention of [[writing]]. Nonetheless, [[paleoethnobotany|archaeobotanists]]/[[paleoethnobotany|paleoethnobotanists]] have traced the selection and cultivation of specific food plant characteristics, such as a semi-tough [[rachis]] and larger seeds, to just after the [[Younger Dryas]] (about 9,500 BC) in the early [[Holocene]] in the [[Levant]] region of the [[Fertile Crescent]]. There is earlier evidence for use of wild cereals: [[anthropology|anthropological]] and [[archaeology|archaeological]] evidence from sites across [[Southwest Asia]] and [[North Africa]] indicate use of wild [[cereal|grain]] (e.g., from the ca. 20,000 BC site of [[Ohalo II]] in [[Israel]], many [[Natufian]] sites in the [[Levant]] and from sites along the [[Nile]] in the 10th millennium BC). There is even evidence of planned cultivation and trait selection: grains of [[rye]] with domestic traits have been recovered from [[Epi-Palaeolithic]] (10,000+ BC) contexts at [[Abu Hureyra]] in [[Syria]], but this appears to be a localised phenomenon resulting from cultivation of stands of wild rye, rather than a definitive step towards domestication. It isn't until after 9,500 BC that the eight so-called [[Neolithic founder crops|founder crops]] of agriculture appear: first [[emmer wheat|emmer]] and [[einkorn wheat]], then hulled [[barley]], [[pea]]s, [[lentil]]s, [[bitter vetch]], [[chick pea]]s and [[flax]]. These eight crops occur more or less simultaneously on [[Pre-Pottery Neolithic B|PPNB]] sites in the [[Levant]], although the consensus is that [[wheat]] was the first to be sown and harvested on a significant scale. [[Mehrgarh]], one of the most important Neolithic (7000 BC to 3200 BC) sites in archaeology, lies on the "Kachi plain of Baluchistan, Pakistan, and is one of the earliest sites with evidence of farming (wheat and barley) and herding (cattle, sheep and goats) in South Asia."{{Fact|date=November 2007}} By 7000 BC, sowing and harvesting reached Mesopotamia and there, in the super fertile soil just north of the [[Persian Gulf]], [[Sumer]]ian ingenuity systematized it and scaled it up. By 6000 BC farming was entrenched on the banks of the Nile River. About this time, agriculture was developed independently in the Far East, probably in China, with [[rice]] rather than wheat as the primary crop. [[Maize]] was first domesticated, probably from [[teosinte]], in the Americas around 3000-2700 BC, though there is some archaeological evidence of a much older development. The [[potato]], the [[tomato]], the [[capsicum|pepper]], [[Squash (fruit)|squash]], several varieties of [[legume|bean]], and several other plants were also developed in the New World, as was quite extensive [[Terrace (agriculture)|terracing]] of steep hillsides in much of [[Andes|Andean]] [[South America]]. Agriculture was also independently developed on the island of [[New Guinea]].{{Fact|date=April 2008}} In [[Europe]], there is evidence of emmer and einkorn wheat, barley, sheep, goats and pigs that suggest a food producing economy in Greece and the Aegean by 7000 BC.<ref>[http://www.metmuseum.org/toah/ht/02/eus/ht02eus.htm]</ref> Archaeological evidence from various sites on the [[Iberian peninsula]] suggest the domestication of plants and animals between 6000 and 4500 BC.<ref>[http://www.metmuseum.org/toah/ht/02/eus/ht02eus.htm]</ref> [[Céide Fields]] in [[Ireland]], consisting of extensive tracts of land enclosed by stone walls, date to 5500 BC and are the oldest known field systems in the world.<ref>[http://www.museumsofmayo.com/ceide.htm]</ref><ref>[http://whc.unesco.org/en/tentativelists/309/]</ref> By 5000 BC, domesticated horses were found in the [[Ukraine]] {{Fact|date=June 2008}}. Agriculture was in northern Europe by 4000 BC {{Fact|date=June 2008}}. In [[China]], [[rice]] and [[millet]] were domesticated by 8000 BC, followed by the beans [[mung bean|mung]], [[soy]] and [[Azuki bean|azuki]]. In the [[Sahel]] region of [[Africa]] local rice and [[sorghum]] were domestic by 5000 BC. Local crops were domesticated independently in [[West Africa]] and possibly in [[New Guinea]] and [[Ethiopia]]. Evidence of the presence of [[wheat]] and some [[legumes]] in the 6th millennium BC have been found in the [[Indus Valley]]. [[Orange (fruit)|Orange]]s were cultivated in the same millennium. The crops grown in the valley around 4000 BC were typically wheat, [[pea]]s, [[sesame seed]], [[barley]], [[Date palm|date]]s and [[mango]]es. By 3500 BC [[cotton]] growing and cotton textiles were quite advanced in the valley. By 3000 BC farming of [[rice]] had started. Other monsoon crops of importance of the time was [[cane sugar]]. By 2500 BC, rice was an important component of the staple diet in [[Mohenjodaro]] near the [[Arabian Sea]]. By this time the Indians had large cities with well-stocked granaries. Three regions of the [[Americas]] independently domesticated [[corn]], [[Squash (plant)|squashes]], [[potato]] and [[sunflowers]]. ===Theory=== The reasons for the development of farming may have included climate change, but possibly there were also social reasons (e.g., accumulation of food surplus for competitive gift-giving as in the Pacific Northwest [[potlatch]] culture). Most likely there was a gradual transition from [[hunter-gatherer]] to agricultural economies after a lengthy period during which some crops were deliberately planted and other foods were gathered in the wild. Although localised climate change is the favoured explanation for the origins of agriculture in the [[Levant]], the fact that farming was 'invented' at least three times elsewhere, and possibly more, suggests that social reasons may have been instrumental. When major climate change took place after the last [[ice age]] c.11,000 BC much of the earth became subject to long dry seasons. These conditions favoured [[annual plant]]s which die off in the long dry season, leaving a [[dormant]] [[seed]] or [[tuber]]. These plants tended to put more energy into producing seeds than into woody growth. An abundance of readily storable wild grains and pulses enabled [[hunter-gatherers]] in some areas to form the first settled villages at this time.{{Fact|date=November 2007}} There are several theories as to what drove populations to take up agriculture: *The '''Oasis Theory''' which was original proposed by [[Raphael Pumpelly]] in 1908, but popularized by [[Vere Gordon Childe]] in 1928 and summarised in his book ''Man Makes Himself''<ref>Childe, Gordon. (1936) ''Man Makes Himself'' (Oxford University Press).</ref> This theory maintains that as the climate got drier, communities contracted to oases where they were forced into close association with animals which were then domesticated together with planting of seeds. It has little support now as the climate data for the time does not support the theory. *The '''Hilly Flanks''' hypothesis. Proposed by [[Robert Braidwood]] in 1948, it suggests that agriculture began in the hilly flanks of the Taurus and Zagros mountains, and that it developed from intensive focused grain gathering in the region. *The '''Feasting''' model by [[Bryan Hayden]]<ref>{{cite book|last=Hayden|first=Brian| |chapter=Models of Domestication|title=Transitions to Agriculture in Prehistory|editor=Anne Birgitte Gebauer and T. Douglas Price|location=Madison|publisher=Prehistory Press|year=1992|pages=11-18}}</ref> suggests that agriculture was driven by ostentatious displays of power, such as throwing feasts to exert dominance. This required assembling large quantities of food which drove agricultural technology. *The '''Demographic theories''' proposed by [[Carl Sauer]]<ref>{{cite book |last=Sauer|first=Carl, O|year=1952|title=Agricultural origins and dispersals |publisher-MIT Press|location=Cambridge, MA}}</ref> and adapted by [[Lewis Binford]]<ref> {{cite book|last=Binford|first=Lewis R.|year=1968|chapter=Post-Pleistocene Adaptations |title=New Perspectives in Archaeology|editor=Sally R. Binford and Lewis R. Binford| publisher=Aldine Publishing Company|location=Chicago|pages=313-342}}</ref> and [[Kent Flannery]]. This leads from an increasingly sedentary population, expanding up to the carrying capacity of the local environment, and requiring more food than can be gathered. Various social and economic factors help drive the need for food. *The '''evolutionary/intentionality theory'''. As proposed by those such as [[David Rindos]]<ref>{{cite book|title=The Origins of Agriculture: An Evolutionary Perspective|first=David|last=Rindos|publisher=Academic Press|month=Dec|year=1987|isbn=978-0125892810)}}</ref> the idea that agriculture is an evolutionary adaptation of plants and humans. Starting with domestication by protection of wild plants, followed specialisation of location and then domestication. ==Ancient agriculture== [[Image:Ancient egyptian farmer.gif|thumb|Ancient Egyptian farmer, copied from [[Archaeology|archaeologically]] preserved specimen by a modern artist guessing at original colors.<br><font size="-3" face="Verdana, sans-serif">Source: http://www.kingtutone.com</font>]] By the [[Bronze Age]], wild food contributed a nutritionally insignificant component to the usual diet. If the operative definition of ''agriculture'' includes large scale intensive cultivation of land, [[mono-cropping]], organized [[irrigation]], and use of a specialized [[labour (economics)|labour]] force, the title "inventors of agriculture" would fall to the [[Sumer]]ians, starting ca. 5,500 BC. Intensive farming allows a much greater density of population than can be supported by hunting and gathering, and allows for the accumulation of excess product for off-season use, or to sell/barter. The ability of farmers to feed large numbers of people whose activities have nothing to do with agriculture was the crucial factor in the rise of standing armies. Sumerian agriculture supported a substantial territorial expansion which along with internecine conflict between cities, made them the first [[empire]] builders. Not long after, the Egyptians, powered by farming in the fertile [[Nile|Nile valley]], achieved a population density from which enough warriors could be drawn for a territorial expansion more than tripling the Sumerian empire in area.{{Fact|date=January 2007}} ===Sumerian agriculture=== In Sumer, [[barley]] was the main crop, but [[wheat]], [[flax]], [[date]]s, [[apple]]s, [[plum]]s, and [[grape]]s were grown as well. Mesopotamia was blessed with flooding from the Tigris and Euphrates rivers but floods came in late spring or early summer from snow melting from the Turkish mountains. With Salt deposits under the soil, all of this made Mesopotamia very hard to farm.<ref> [http://www.historylink101.com/lessons/farm-city/mes1.htm historylink101]</ref> The earliest known [[sheep]] and [[goats]] were also domesticated and were in a much larger quantity than cattle. Sheep were mainly kept for meat and milk, and [[butter]] and [[cheese]] were made from the latter. [[Ur]], a large town that covered about 50 acres (20 hectares), had 10,000 animals kept in sheepfolds and stables and 3,000 slaughtered every year. The city's population of 6,000 included a labour force of 2,500 cultivated 3,000 acres (12 km²) of land. The labour force contained storehouse recorders, work foremen, overseers, and harvest supervisors to supplement labourers. Agricultural produce was given to temple personnel, important people in the community, and small farmers. The land was plowed by teams of [[oxen]] pulling light unwheeled plows and [[grain]] was harvested with [[sickle]]s in the spring. Wagons had solid wheels covered by leather [[tire]]s kept in position by [[copper]] nails and were drawn by oxen and the [[Syrian onager]] (now extinct). Animals were harnessed by collars, [[yoke]]s, and headstalls. They were controlled by [[rein]]s, and a ring through the nose or upper lip and a strap under the [[jaw]]. As many as four animals could pull a wagon at one time. Though some hypothesize that [[Domestication of the horse]] occurred as early as 4000 BC in the [[Ukraine]], the horse was definitely in use by the Sumerians around 2000 BC. ===Chinese agriculture=== {{main|History of agriculture in the People's Republic of China}} The unique tradition of [[China|Chinese]] agriculture has been traced to the pre-historic [[Xianrendong Relics]] and [[Diaotonghuan Relics]] (c. 12 0000 BC-7500 BC). {{Fact|date=September 2007}} Chinese historical and governmental records of the [[Warring States]] (481 BC-221 BC), [[Qin Dynasty]] (221 BC-207 BC), and [[Han Dynasty]] (202 BC-220 AD) eras allude to the use of complex agricultural practices, such as a nationwide [[granary]] system and widespread use of [[sericulture]]. However, the oldest extant Chinese book on agriculture is the ''Chimin Yaoshu'' of 535 AD, written by [[Jia Sixia]].<ref name="needham volume 6 part 2 55 56">Needham, Volume 6, Part 2, 55-56.</ref> Although much of the literature of the time was elaborate, flowery, and allusive, Jia's writing style was very straightforward and lucid, a literary approach to agriculture that later Chinese [[agronomist]]s after Jia would follow, such as [[Wang Zhen (official)|Wang Zhen]] and his groundbreaking ''Nong Shu'' of 1313 AD.<ref name="needham volume 6 part 2 56">Needham, Volume 6, Part 2, 56.</ref> Jia's book was also incredibly long, with over one hundred thousand written [[Chinese characters]], and quoted 160 other Chinese books that were written previously (but no longer survive).<ref name="needham volume 6 part 2 56"/> The contents of Jia's 6th century book include sections on land preparation, seeding, cultivation, orchard management, forestry, and animal husbandry.<ref name="needham volume 6 part 2 57"/> The book also includes peripherally related content covering trade and culinary uses for crops.<ref name="needham volume 6 part 2 57">Needham, Volume 6, Part 2, 57.</ref> For agricultural purposes, the Chinese had innovated the [[hydraulic]]-powered [[trip hammer]] by the 1st century BC.<ref name="needham volume 4 part 2 184">Needham, Volume 4, Part 2, 184.</ref> Although it found other purposes, its main function to pound, decorticate, and polish grain that otherwise would have been done manually. The Chinese also innovated the square-pallet [[chain pump]] by the 1st century AD, powered by a [[waterwheel]] or an [[oxen]] pulling a on a system of mechanical wheels.<ref name="needham volume 4 part 2 89 110">Needham, Volume 4, Part 2, 89, 110.</ref> Although the chain pump found use in [[public works]] of providing water for urban and palatial [[Pipeline transport|pipe systems]],<ref name="needham volume 4 part 2 33">Needham, Volume 4, Part 2, 33.</ref> it was used largely to lift water from a lower to higher elevation in filling [[irrigation]] [[canal]]s and [[Channel (geography)|channel]]s for [[farmland]].<ref name="needham volume 4 part 2 110">Needham, Volume 4, Part 2, 110.</ref> ===Papuan agriculture=== Ancient [[Papuans]] are thought to have begun practicing agriculture around 7000 BC. They began domesticating [[sugarcane]] and [[root crops]]. Pigs may also have been domesticated around this time. By 3000 BC, Papuan agriculture was characterised by water control for irrigation.<ref>[[Encyclopedia Britannica]], "Melanesian cultures"</ref> === Indian agriculture === {{main|Agriculture in India}} Evidence of the presence of [[wheat]] and some [[legumes]] in the 6th millennium BC have been found in the [[Indus Valley]]. [[Orange (fruit)|Orange]]s were cultivated in the same millennium. The crops grown in the valley around 4000 BC were typically wheat, [[pea]]s, [[sesame seed]], [[barley]], [[Date palm|date]]s and [[mango]]es. By 3500 BC [[cotton]] growing and cotton textiles were quite advanced in the valley. By 3000 BC farming of [[rice]] had started. Other monsoon crops of importance of the time was [[cane sugar]]. By 2500 BC, rice was an important component of the staple diet in [[Mohenjodaro]] near the [[Arabian Sea]]. The [[Indus Plain]] had rich alluvial deposits which came down the [[Indus River]] in annual floods. This helped sustain farming that formed basis of the [[Indus Valley Civilization]] at [[Harappa]]. The people built dams and drainage systems for the crops. By 2000 BC tea, [[banana]]s and [[apple]]s were being cultivated in India. There was [[coconut]] trade with East Africa in 200 BC. By 500 AD, [[eggplant]]s were being cultivated. === Roman agriculture === {{main|Roman agriculture}} [[Roman agriculture]] built off techniques pioneered by the Sumerians, with a specific emphasis on the cultivation of crops for trade and export. Romans laid the groundwork for the [[manorial]] economic system, involving [[serfdom]], which flourished in the Middle Ages. ===Mesoamerican agriculture=== {{main|Agriculture in Mesoamerica}} In [[Mesoamerica]], the [[Aztec]]s were some of the most innovative farmers of the ancient world and farming provided the entire basis of their economy. The land around [[Lake Texcoco]] was fertile but not large enough to produce the amount of food needed for the population of their expanding empire. The Aztecs developed [[irrigation]] systems, formed [[Terrace (agriculture)|terraced]] hillsides, and fertilized their soil. However, their greatest agricultural technique was the ''chinampa'' or artificial islands also known as "floating gardens". These were used to make the swampy areas around the lake suitable for farming. To make chinampas, canals were dug through the marshy islands and shores, then mud was heaped on huge mats made of woven [[Phragmites|reeds]]. The mats were anchored by tying them to posts driven into the lake bed and then planting trees at their corners that took root and secured the artificial islands permanently. The Aztecs grew [[corn]], [[Squash (fruit)|squash]], vegetables, and flowers on chinampas. ===Andean agriculture=== {{main|Incan agriculture}} The Andean civilizations were predominantly agricultural societies; the Incas took advantage of the ground, conquering the adversities like the Andean area and the inclemencies of the weather. The adaptation of agricultural technologies that already were used previously, allowed the Incas to organize the production a diversity of products of the [[coast]], [[mountain]] and [[jungle]], so them could be able to redistribute to villages that did not have access to other regions. The technological achievements reached to agricultural level, had not been possible without the workforce that was at the disposal of the [[Sapa Inca]], as well as the road system that was allowing to store adequately the harvested resources and to distribute them for all the territory. ==Muslim Agricultural Revolution== {{main|Muslim Agricultural Revolution}} [[Image:al-jazari pump.png|thumb|A [[valve]]-operated [[reciprocating engine|reciprocating]] [[suction]] [[piston]] [[pump]] water-raising machine with a [[crankshaft]]-[[connecting rod]] mechanism invented by [[al-Jazari]].]] From the 8th century, the [[Islamic Golden Age|medieval Islamic world]] witnessed a fundamental transformation in [[agriculture]] known as the "[[Muslim]] [[Agricultural Revolution]]", "[[Arab]] Agricultural Revolution", or "[[Green Revolution]]".<ref>Thomas F. Glick (1977), "Noria Pots in Spain", ''Technology and Culture'' '''18''' (4), p. 644-650.</ref> Due to the [[global economy]] established by Muslim traders across the [[Old World]] during the "[[Islamic Golden Age#Age of discovery|Afro-Asiatic age of discovery]]" or "Pax Islamica", this enabled the [[diffusion]] of many [[Crop (agriculture)|crops]], [[plant]]s and [[farming]] techniques between different parts of the Islamic world, as well as the adaptation of crops, plants and techniques from beyond the Islamic world, distributed throughout Islamic lands which normally would not be able to grow these crops.<ref name=Watson/> These techniques included [[crop rotation]], [[irrigation]] and [[pest control]]. Some have referred to the diffusion of numerous crops during this period as the "[[Globalisation]] of Crops"<ref>FTSC [http://www.muslimheritage.com/topics/default.cfm?ArticleID=229 The Globalisation of Crops]</ref> ,which, along with increased [[mechanization]] of agriculture, led to major changes in [[economy]], [[population distribution]], [[vegetation]] cover,<ref>Andrew M. Watson (1983), ''Agricultural Innovation in the Early Islamic World'', [[Cambridge University Press]], ISBN 052124711X.</ref> agricultural production and [[income]], [[population]] levels, [[Urbanization|urban growth]], the distribution of the [[labour]] force, linked [[industries]], [[cooking]] and diet, [[clothing]], and numerous other aspects of [[life]] in the Islamic world.<ref name=Watson>Andrew M. Watson (1974), "The Arab Agricultural Revolution and Its Diffusion, 700-1100", ''The Journal of Economic History'' '''34''' (1), p. 8-35.</ref> [[Serfdom]] became widespread in eastern Europe in the Middle Ages. Medieval Europe owed much of its development to advances made in Islamic areas (see [[Islamic contributions to Medieval Europe]]),<ref>Claude Lebedel (2006), ''Les Croisades, origines et conséquences'', pp. 109-13, Editions Ouest-France, ISBN 2737341361</ref> which flourished culturally and materially while Europe and other [[Roman Empire|Roman]] and [[Byzantine Empire|Byzantine]] administered lands entered an extended period of social and economic stagnation.<ref name="M532">Magdalino ''in Laiou'' (2002), {{PDFlink|[http://www.doaks.org/EconHist/EHB20.pdf 532]|519&nbsp;[[Kibibyte|KiB]]<!-- application/pdf, 531963 bytes -->}}</ref> As early as the ninth century, an essentially modern agricultural system became central to economic life and organization in the Arab caliphates, replacing the largely export driven Roman model. The great cities of the Near East, North Africa and Moorish Spain were supported by elaborate agricultural systems which included extensive irrigation based on knowledge of [[hydraulic]] and [[hydrostatic]] principles, some of which were continued from Roman times. In later centuries, Persian Muslims began to function as a conduit, transmitting cultural elements, including advanced agricultural techniques, into Turkic lands and western India. The Muslims introduced what was to become an agricultural revolution based on four key areas: * Development of a sophisticated system of [[irrigation]] using [[machine]]s such as [[noria]]s, [[water mill]]s, water raising machines, [[dam]]s and [[reservoir]]s. With such technology they managed to greatly expand the exploitable land area. * The adoption of a scientific approach<ref name=Woodcock>Al-Hassani, Woodcock and Saoud (2007), ''Muslim heritage in Our World'', FSTC publishing, 2nd Edition, p. 102-123.</ref> to farming enabled them to improve farming techniques derived from the collection and collation of relevant information throughout the whole of the known world.<ref name=Woodcock/> Farming manuals were produced in every corner of the Muslim world detailing where, when and how to plant and grow various crops. Advanced scientific techniques allowed leaders like [[Ibn al-Baytar]] to introduce new crops and breeds and strains of livestock into areas where they were previously unknown. * Incentives based on a new approach to [[land ownership]] and labourers' rights, combining the recognition of private ownership and the rewarding of cultivators with a harvest share commensurate with their efforts.<ref name=Idrisi>Zohor Idrisi (2005), [http://www.muslimheritage.com/uploads/AgricultureRevolution2.pdf The Muslim Agricultural Revolution and its influence on Europe], FSTC.</ref> Their counterparts in Europe struggled under a feudal system in which they were almost slaves ([[serfs]]) with little hope of improving their lot by hard work. * The introduction of new crops transforming private farming into a new global industry exported everywhere,<ref name=Watson/> including Europe, where farming was mostly restricted to wheat strains obtained much earlier via central Asia. Spain received what she in turn transmitted to the rest of Europe; many agricultural and fruit-growing processes, together with many new plants, fruit and vegetables. These new crops included sugar cane, rice, citrus fruit, apricots, cotton, artichokes, aubergines, and saffron. Others, previously known, were further developed. Muslims also brought to that country lemons, oranges, cotton, almonds, figs and sub-tropical crops such as bananas and sugar cane. Several were later exported from Spanish coastal areas to the Spanish colonies in the New World. Also transmitted via Muslim influence, a silk industry flourished, flax was cultivated and linen exported, and [[esparto]] grass, which grew wild in the more arid parts, was collected and turned into various articles. ===Agriculture in the Middle Ages=== {{main|Muslim Agricultural Revolution}} During the Middle Ages, Muslim farmers in North Africa and the Near East developed and disseminated agricultural technologies including irrigation systems based on [[hydraulic]] and [[hydrostatic]] principles, the use of machines such as [[Water wheel|norias]], and the use of water raising machines, dams, and reservoirs. They also wrote location-specific farming manuals, and were instrumental in the wider adoption of crops including sugar cane, rice, citrus fruit, apricots, cotton, artichokes, aubergines, and saffron. Muslims also brought lemons, oranges, cotton, almonds, figs and sub-tropical crops such as bananas to Spain. ==Renaissance agriculture== The invention of a [[three field system]] of crop rotation during the [[Middle Ages]], and the importation of the Chinese-invented [[moldboard]] plow{{Fact|date=June 2007}}, vastly improved agricultural efficiency. After 1492 the world's agricultural patterns were shuffled in the widespread exchange of plants and animals known as the [[Columbian Exchange]].<!--Is this just Crosby's term or is it more widely used? Crosby's at first, but others use it. --> Crops and animals that were previously only known in the Old World were now transplanted to the New and vice versa. Perhaps most notably, the [[tomato]] became a favorite in European cuisine, and [[maize]] and [[potato]]es were widely adopted. Other transplanted crops include [[pineapple]], [[cocoa]], and [[tobacco]]. In the other direction, several wheat strains quickly took to western hemisphere soils and became a dietary staple even for native North, Central and South Americans. Agriculture was a key element in the [[Atlantic slave trade]], [[Triangular trade]], and the expansion by European powers into the Americas. In the expanding [[Plantation economy]], large plantations producing crops including sugar, cotton, and indigo, were heavily dependent upon [[slave labor]]. ==British Agricultural Revolution== {{main|British Agricultural Revolution}} Between the 16th century and the mid-19th century, [[Great Britain]] saw a massive increase in agricultural productivity and net output. New agricultural practices like [[enclosure]], [[mechanization]], [[four-field crop rotation]] and [[selective breeding]] enabled an unprecedented population growth, freeing up a significant percentage of the workforce, and thereby helped drive the [[Industrial Revolution]]. By the early 1800s, agricultural practices, particularly careful selection of hardy strains and cultivars, had so improved that yield per land unit was many times that seen in the Middle Ages and before. The 18th and 19th century also saw the development of glasshouses, or [[greenhouses]], initially for the protection and cultivation of exotic plants imported to Europe and North America from the tropics. [[Experiments on Plant Hybridization]] in the late 1800s yielded advances in the understanding of plant genetics, and subsequently, the development of hybrid crops. Increasing dependence upon monoculture crops lead to famines and food shortages, most notably the [[Irish Potato Famine (1845–1849)]]. [[Storage silo]]s and [[grain elevator]]s appeared in the 19th century. ==Recent history== {{main|Industrial agriculture}} ===New technologies=== [[Image:Agriculture (Plowing) CNE-v1-p58-H.jpg|left|thumb|250px|A [[tractor]] [[plough]]ing an [[alfalfa]] field]] With the rapid rise of [[mechanised agriculture|mechanization]] in the late 19th and 20th centuries, particularly in the form of the [[tractor]], farming tasks could be done with a speed and on a scale previously impossible. These advances, joined to science-driven innovations in methods and resources, have led to efficiencies enabling certain modern farms in the United States, Argentina, Israel, Germany and a few other nations to output volumes of high quality produce per land unit at what may be the practical limit. The development of rail and highway networks and the increasing use of [[containerization|container shipping]] and [[refrigeration]] in developed nations have also been essential to the growth of mechanized agriculture, allowing for the economical long distance shipping of produce. While chemical [[fertilizer]] and [[pesticide]] have existed since the 19th century, their use grew significantly in the early twentieth century. In the 1960s, the [[Green Revolution]] applied western advances in fertilizer and pesticide use to farms worldwide, with varying success. Other applications of scientific research since 1950 in agriculture include [[gene manipulation]], and [[Hydroponics]]. ===New criticisms=== Though the intensive farming practices pioneered and extended in recent history generally led to increased outputs, they have also led to the destruction of farmland, most notably in the [[dust bowl]] area of the United States following World War I. As global population increases, agriculture continues to replace natural ecosystems with monoculture crops. In the past few decades, western consumers have become increasingly aware of, and in some cases critical of, widely used intensive agriculture practices, contributing to a rise in popularity of [[organic farming]], the growth of the [[Slow Food]] movement, and an ongoing discussion surrounding the potential for [[sustainable agriculture]]. ===Agricultural revolutions=== * [[Neolithic Revolution]] * [[Muslim Agricultural Revolution]] * [[British Agricultural Revolution]] * [[Green Revolution]] ==See also== * [[Hoe-farming]] ==Notes== {{reflist|3}} <!-- Using this template per Wikipedia:Citation templates {{cite news |first= |last= |authorlink= |author= |coauthors= |title= |url= |format= |work= |publisher= |id= |pages= |page= |date= |accessdate= |language= |quote= }} ...OR... {{cite web |url= |title= |accessdate= |accessmonthday= |accessdaymonth= |accessyear= |author= |last= |first= |authorlink= |coauthors= |date= |year= |month= |format= |work= |publisher= |pages= |language= |doi= |archiveurl= |archivedate= |quote= }} ...OR... {{cite journal |last= |first= |authorlink= |coauthors= |year= |month= |title= |journal= |volume= |issue= |pages= |id= |url= |accessdate= |quote= }} ...OR.... {{cite book |last= |first= |authorlink= |coauthors= |editor= |others= |title= |origdate= |origyear= |origmonth= |url= |format= |accessdate= |accessyear= |accessmonth= |edition= |series= |date= |year= |month= |publisher= |location= |language= |isbn= |oclc= |doi= |id= |pages= |chapter= |chapterurl= |quote= }} --> <math>Insert formula here</math> ==Sources== *Needham, Joseph (1986). ''Science and Civilization in China: Volume 4, Physics and Physical Technology, Part 2, Mechanical Engineering''. Taipei: Caves Books, Ltd. *Needham, Joseph (1986). ''Science and Civilization in China: Volume 6, Part 2''. Taipei: Caves Books Ltd. ==Further reading== {{Horticulture and Gardening}} *Marcel Mazoyer, Laurence Roudart, ''A History of World Agriculture: From the Neolithic Age to the Current Crisis'', New York: Monthly Review Press, 2006, ISBN 1583671218 *[[Bernard Stiegler]], [http://www.arsindustrialis.org/Members/bstiegler/prendresoin-en Take Care]. A philosopher's perspective. ==External links== * [http://acl.arts.usyd.edu.au/projects/earth/ Early Agricultural Remnants and Technical Heritage] is a multidisciplinary project investigating the development of non-industrial agricultural techniques, with a focus on Europe. * [http://www.nal.usda.gov/afsic/pubs/tracing/tracing.shtml ''Tracing the Evolution of Organic/Sustainable Agriculture''] A Selected and Annotated Bibliography. Alternative Farming Systems Information Center, [[National Agricultural Library]]. [[Category:History of agriculture| ]] [[ca:Història de l'agricultura]] [[de:Agrargeschichte]] [[fr:Histoire de l'agriculture]] [[hr:Povijest poljoprivrede]] [[id:Sejarah pertanian]] [[no:Landbrukshistorie]] [[sv:Jordbrukets historia]] [[zh:农业史]]