History of anatomy
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The '''history of [[anatomy]]''' as a [[science]] extends from the earliest examinations of [[sacrifice|sacrificial]] victims to the sophisticated analyses of the body performed by modern scientists. It has been characterized, over time, by a continually developing understanding of the functions of [[organ (anatomy)|organ]]s and structures in the body. The field of Human Anatomy has a prestigious history, and is considered to be the most prominent of the biological sciences of the 19th and early 20th centuries. Methods have also advanced dramatically, advancing from examination of [[animal]]s through dissection of [[cadaver]]s to technologically complex techniques developed in the [[20th century]].
==Ancient anatomy==
===Egypt===
The study of anatomy begins at least as early as [[1600 BCE]], the date of the [[ancient Egypt]]ian [[papyrus]]. This treatise shows that the [[heart]], its vessels, [[liver]], [[spleen]], [[kidneys]],[[hypothalmus]], [[uterus]] and [[Urinary bladder|bladder]] were recognized, and that the [[blood vessel]]s were known to come from the heart. Other vessels are described, some carrying air, some [[mucus]], and two to the right [[ear]] are said to carry the "breath of [[life]]", while two to the left ear the "breath of [[death]]". The [[Ebers papyrus]] (''c.'' [[1550 BCE]]) features a ''treatise on the heart.'' It notes that the heart is the center of the blood supply, with vessels attached for every member of the body. The Egyptians seem to have known little about the function of the kidneys and made the heart the meeting point of a number of vessels which carried all the fluids of the body – [[blood]], [[tear]]s, [[urine]] and [[semen|sperm]].<ref>Porter (1997), ''pp''49-50</ref>
===Greece===
The earliest medical scientist of whose works any great part survives today is [[Hippocrates]], a [[ancient Greece|Greek]] physician active in the late [[5th century BCE|5th]] and early [[4th century BCE|4th centuries BCE]] ([[460 BCE|460]] - [[377 BCE]]). His work demonstrates a basic understanding of [[musculoskeletal]] structure, and the beginnings of understanding of the function of certain organs, such as the kidneys. Much of his work, however, and much of that of his students and followers later, relies on speculation rather than empirical observation of the body.
In the 4th century BCE, [[Aristotle]] and several contemporaries produced a more empirically founded system, based animal [[dissection]]. Works produced around this time are the first to identify the difference between [[artery|arteries]] and [[vein]]s, and the relations between organs are described more accurately than in previous works.
The first use of human [[cadaver]]s for anatomical research occurred later in the 4th century BCE when [[Herophilos]] and [[Erasistratus]] performed dissections of cadavers in [[Alexandria]] under the auspices of the [[Ptolemaic dynasty]]. Herophilos in particular developed a body of anatomical knowledge much more informed by the actual structure of the human body than previous works had been.
===Galen===
The final major anatomist of ancient times was [[Galen]], active in the [[2nd century]]. He compiled much of the knowledge obtained by previous writers, and furthered the inquiry into the function of organs by performing [[vivisection]] on animals. His collection of drawings, based mostly on dog anatomy, became ''the'' anatomy textbook for 1500 years. The original text is long gone, and his work was only known to the [[Renaissance]] doctors through the careful custody of [[Islamic golden age|Arabic]] medicine. Hampered by similar religious restrictions as anatomists for centuries after him, Galen assumed that anatomical structures in dogs were the same as for humans.
==Medieval anatomy==
:''Main article: [[Islamic medicine#Anatomy and Physiology|Islamic medicine - Anatomy and Physiology]]''
After the fall of the [[Roman Empire]], the study of anatomy became stagnant in [[Christian]] [[Europe]] but flourished in the [[Islamic Golden Age|medieval Islamic world]], where [[Islamic medicine|Muslim physicians]] and [[Islamic science|Muslim scientists]] contributed heavily to medieval learning and culture. The [[Persian people|Persian]] physician [[Avicenna]] (980-1037) absorbed the Galenic teachings on anatomy and expanded on it in ''[[The Canon of Medicine]]'' (1020s), which was very influential throughout the Islamic world and Christian Europe. ''The Canon'' remained the most authoritative book on anatomy in the Islamic world until [[Ibn al-Nafis]] in the 13th century, though the book continued to dominate European medical education for even longer until the 16th century.
The [[Arab]]ian physician [[Ibn Zuhr]] (Avenzoar) (1091-1161) was the first physician known to have carried out human [[dissection]]s and postmortem [[autopsy]]. He proved that the [[List of skin diseases|skin disease]] [[scabies]] was caused by a [[parasite]], a discovery which upset the theory of [[humorism]] supported by [[Hippocrates]] and [[Galen]]. The removal of the parasite from the patient's body did not involve [[purging]], [[bleeding]], or any other traditional treatments associated with the four humours.<ref name=Hutchinson>[http://encyclopedia.farlex.com/Islamic+medicine Islamic medicine], ''[[Hutchinson Encyclopedia]]''.</ref> In the 12th century, [[Saladin]]'s physician Ibn Jumay was also one the first to undertake human dissections, and he made an explicit appeal for other physicians to do so as well. During a [[famine]] in [[Egypt]] in [[1200]], [[Abd-el-latif]] observed and [[examine]]d a large number of [[skeleton]]s, and he discovered that [[Galen]] was incorrect regarding the formation of the [[bone]]s of the lower [[jaw]] and [[sacrum]].<ref name=Emilie>Emilie Savage-Smith (1996), "Medicine", in Roshdi Rashed, ed., ''[[Encyclopedia of the History of Arabic Science]]'', Vol. 3, p. 903-962 [951-952]. [[Routledge]], London and New York.</ref>
===Ibn al-Nafis===
The [[Arab]]ian physician [[Ibn al-Nafis]] (1213-1288) was one of the earliest proponents of human dissection and postmortem autopsy, and in 1242, he was the first to describe the [[pulmonary circulation]]<ref name=Dabbagh>S. A. Al-Dabbagh (1978). "Ibn Al-Nafis and the pulmonary circulation", ''[[The Lancet]]'' '''1''', p. 1148.</ref> and [[coronary circulation]]<ref>Husain F. Nagamia (2003), "Ibn al-Nafīs: A Biographical Sketch of the Discoverer of Pulmonary and Coronary Circulation", ''Journal of the International Society for the History of Islamic Medicine'' '''1''', p. 22–28.</ref> of the [[blood]], which form the basis of the [[circulatory system]], for which he is considered the father of the theory of circulation.<ref>Chairman's Reflections (2004), "Traditional Medicine Among Gulf Arabs, Part II: Blood-letting", ''Heart Views'' '''5''' (2), p. 74-85 [80].</ref> Ibn al-Nafis also described the earliest concept of [[metabolism]],<ref name=Roubi>Dr. Abu Shadi Al-Roubi (1982), "Ibn Al-Nafis as a philosopher", ''Symposium on Ibn al-Nafis'', Second International Conference on Islamic Medicine: Islamic Medical Organization, Kuwait ([[cf.]] [http://www.islamset.com/isc/nafis/drroubi.html Ibn al-Nafis As a Philosopher], ''Encyclopedia of Islamic World'').</ref> and developed new systems of anatomy and [[physiology]] to replace the [[Avicenna|Avicennian]] and [[Galen]]ic doctrines, while discrediting many of their erroneous theories on the [[humorism|four humours]], [[Pulse|pulsation]],<ref>Nahyan A. G. Fancy (2006), "Pulmonary Transit and Bodily Resurrection: The Interaction of Medicine, Philosophy and Religion in the Works of Ibn al-Nafīs (d. 1288)", p. 3 & 6, ''Electronic Theses and Dissertations'', [[University of Notre Dame]].[http://etd.nd.edu/ETD-db/theses/available/etd-11292006-152615]</ref> [[bone]]s, [[muscle]]s, [[intestine]]s, [[Sensory system|sensory organs]], [[Bile|bilious]] [[Canal (anatomy)|canals]], [[esophagus]], [[stomach]], and the [[anatomy]] of almost every other part of the [[human body]].<ref name=Oataya>Dr. Sulaiman Oataya (1982), "Ibn ul Nafis has dissected the human body", ''Symposium on Ibn al-Nafis'', Second International Conference on Islamic Medicine: Islamic Medical Organization, Kuwait ([[cf.]] [http://www.islamset.com/isc/nafis/index.html Ibn ul-Nafis has Dissected the Human Body], ''Encyclopedia of Islamic World'').</ref>
==Early modern anatomy==
[[Image:Anatomia del corpo humano.jpg|right|thumb|In this 1559 anatomical plate by Juan Valverde de Amusco, a figure holds a knife in one hand and his own skin in the other.]]
The works of [[Galen]] and [[Avicenna]], especially ''[[The Canon of Medicine]]'' which incorporated the teachings of both, were translated into [[Latin]], and the ''Canon'' remained the most authoritative text on anatomy in European medical education until the 16th century. The first major development in anatomy in Christian Europe, since the fall of Rome, occurred at [[Bologna]] in the [[14th century|14th]] to [[16th century|16th centuries]], where a series of authors dissected cadavers and contributed to the accurate description of organs and the identification of their functions. Prominent among these anatomists were [[Mondino de Liuzzi]] and [[Alessandro Achillini]].
The first challenges to the Galenic doctrine in Europe occurred in the 16th century. Thanks to the [[printing press]], all over Europe a collective effort proceeded to circulate the works of Galen and Avicenna, and later publish criticisms on their works. [[Vesalius]] was the first to publish a treatise, ''De humani corporis fabrica'', that challenged Galen "drawing for drawing" travelling all the way from [[Leuven]]<ref>[http://www.kuleuven.ac.be/english/ Katholieke Universiteit Leuven<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref> to [[Padua]] for permission to dissect victims from the [[gallows]] without fear of persecution. His drawings are triumphant descriptions of the, sometimes major, discrepancies between dogs and humans, showing superb drawing ability. Many later anatomists challenged Galen in their texts, though Galen reigned supreme for another century.
A succession of researchers proceeded to refine the body of anatomical knowledge, giving their names to a number of anatomical structures along the way. The 16th and [[17th century|17th centuries]] also witnessed significant advances in the understanding of the [[circulatory system]], as the purpose of [[valve]]s in veins was identified, the left-to-right ventricle flow of blood through the circulatory system was described, and the [[hepatic vein]]s were identified as a separate portion of the circulatory system. The [[lymphatic system]] was also identified as a separate system at this time.
===17th and 18th centuries===
[[Image:Rembrandt Harmensz. van Rijn 007.jpg|thumb|left|250 px|The ''[[Anatomy Lesson of Dr. Nicolaes Tulp]]'', by [[Rembrandt]], depicts an autopsy.]]
The study of anatomy flourished in the 17th and 18th centuries. The advent of the printing press facillitated the exchange of ideas. Because the study of anatomy concerned observation and drawings, the popularity of the anatomist was equal to the quality of his drawing talents, and one need not be an expert in Latin to take part. [http://www.nlm.nih.gov/dreamanatomy/da_info.html] Many famous artists studied anatomy, attended dissections, and published drawings for money, from [[Michelangelo]] to [[Rembrandt]]. For the first time, prominent universities could teach something about anatomy through drawings, rather than relying on knowledge of Latin. The only impediment was a possible reprimand from the Church, which frightened several anatomists of that time from performing dissections on their own kind. Though a very fruitful period for the sciences, the Renaissance could be dangerous, as seen in the case of [[Galileo]]. Some scientists were scared enough to keep moving from city to city. [[Descartes]] is a prime example. Only certified anatomists were allowed to perform dissections, and sometimes then only yearly. These dissections were sponsored by the city councilors and often charged an admission fee, rather like a circus act for scholars. Many European cities, such as Amsterdam, London, Copenhagen, Padua, and Paris, all had Royal anatomists (or some such office) tied to local government. Indeed, [[Nicolaes Tulp]] was Mayor of Amsterdam for three terms. Though it was a risky business to perform dissections, and unpredictable depending on the availability of fresh bodies, ''attending'' dissections was perfectly legal. Many anatomy students traveled around Europe from dissection to dissection during the course of their study - they had to go where a fresh body was available (eg after a hanging) because before refrigeration, a body would decay rapidly and become unsuitable for examination.
Many Europeans interested in the study of anatomy traveled to Italy, then the center of anatomy. Only in Italy could certain important research methods be used, such as dissections on women. [[Realdo Colombo|M. R. Columbus]] and [[Gabriele Falloppio]] were pupils of [[Andreas Vesalius|Vesalius]], the [[16th century]] anatomist. Columbus, as his immediate successor in Padua, and afterwards professor at Rome, distinguished himself by rectifying and improving the anatomy of the bones, by giving correct accounts of the shape and cavities of the heart, of the pulmonary artery and aorta and their valves, and tracing the course of the blood from the right to the left side of the heart, by a good description of the brain and its vessels, and by correct understanding of the internal ear, and the first good account of the ventricles of the larynx. Osteology at nearly the same time found an assiduous cultivator in [[Giovanni Filippo Ingrassias]].
==19th century anatomy==
[[Image:Gray188.png|right|thumb|A plate of the [[skull]] from the 1918 edition of ''[[Gray's Anatomy]]'']]
During the [[19th century]], [[anatomist]]s largely finalised and systematised the descriptive [[human anatomy]] of the previous century. The discipline also progressed to establish growing sources of knowledge in [[histology]] and [[developmental biology]], not only of humans but also of [[animal]]s. Extensive research was conducted in more areas of anatomy. England was particularly important in this research.{{Fact|date=February 2007}} Demand for cadavers grew so great there that [[body-snatching]] and even murder came into use as a means of obtaining them.{{Fact|date=February 2007}} In response, parliament passed the [[Anatomy Act 1832]], which finally provided for an adequate and legitimate supply of corpses. The relaxed restrictions on dissection provided a suitable environment for ''[[Gray's Anatomy]]'', a text that was a collective effort and became widely popular. Now seen as unwieldy, Gray's Anatomy was born out of a need to create a single volume on anatomy for the traveling doctor.
==Modern anatomy==
Anatomical research in the past hundred years has taken advantage of technological developments and growing understanding of sciences such as [[evolutionary biology|evolutionary]] and [[molecular biology]] to create a thorough understanding of the body's organs and structures. Disciplines such as [[endocrinology]] have explained the purpose of glands that anatomists previously could not explain; medical devices such as [[MRI]] machines and [[CAT scan]]ners have enabled researchers to study the organs of living people or of dead ones. Progress today in anatomy is centered in the development, evolution, and function of anatomical features, as the macroscopic aspects of human anatomy have been largely catalogued. The subfield of non-human anatomy is particularly active as modern anatomists seek to understand basic organizing principles of anatomy through the use of advanced techniques ranging from [[finite element analysis]] to molecular biology.
==Notes==
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{{reflist}}
==Bibliography==
{{commons|Anatomy}}
*{{ cite book | title=The Body in Parts: Discourses and Anatomies in Early Modern Europe | author=Mazzio, C. | publisher=Routledge | year=1997 | id=ISBN 0-415-91694-1 }}
*{{cite book | title = The Greatest Benefit to Mankind: A Medical History of Humanity from Antiquity to the Present | last = Porter | first = R. | year = 1997 | publisher = Harper Collins | id = ISBN 0-00-215173-1 }}
*{{ cite book | title=The Body Emblazoned: Dissection and the Human Body in Renaissance Culture | author=Sawday, J. | publisher=Routledge | year=1996 | id=ISBN 0-415-15719-6 }}
==External links==
* [http://link.library.utoronto.ca/anatomia/ Anatomia 1522-1867: Anatomical Plates from the Thomas Fisher Rare Book Library]
* [http://www.hapsweb.org Human Anatomy & Physiology Society] A society to promote communication among teachers of human anatomy and physiology in colleges, universities, and related institutions.
{{History of biology}}
[[Category:History of anatomy|*]]
[[Category:History of medicine|Anatomy, history of]]
[[Category:History of biology|Anatomy, history of]]
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