History of antisemitism
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{{Antisemitism}}
'''The history of antisemitism''', hostile actions or discrimination against [[Jew]]s as a religious or ethnic group goes back many centuries. [[Antisemitism]] has been called "the longest hatred."<ref>[http://www.richardwebster.net/antisemitismthelongesthatred.html Our common inhumanity: anti-semitism and history] by Richard Webster (a review of ''Antisemitism: The Longest Hatred'' by Robert S. Wistrich, Thames Methuen, 1991</ref>
==Ancient times==
Examples of antipathy to [[Jews]] and [[Judaism]] during [[ancient world|ancient times]] are easy to find.{{Or|date=January 2008}} There are examples of [[Greeks|Greek]] rulers desecrating the [[Temple in Jerusalem|Temple]] and banning Jewish religious practices, such as circumcision, Sabbath observance, study of Jewish religious books, etc. Examples may also be found in anti-Jewish riots in [[Alexandria]] in the 3rd century BCE. [[Philo of Alexandria]] described an attack on Jews in Alexandria in 38 CE in which thousands of Jews died.
===Early animosity towards Jews===
The earliest occurrence of antisemitism has been the subject of debate among scholars. Different writers use different definitions of antisemitism. The terms "[[religious antisemitism]]" and "[[anti-Judaism]]" are sometimes used to refer to animosity towards Judaism as a religion rather than to Jews defined as an ethnic or racial group.
Professor Peter Schafer of the [[Free University of Berlin|Freie University of Berlin]] has argued that antisemitism was first spread by "the [[Greeks|Greek]] retelling of ancient [[Ancient Egypt|Egyptian]] prejudices". In view of the anti-Jewish writings of the Egyptian priest [[Manetho]], Schafer suggests that antisemitism may have emerged "in Egypt alone".<ref name=Schafer>Schafer, Peter. ''Judeophobia'', Harvard University Press, 1997, p 208.</ref> The hostility commonly faced by Jews in the [[Jewish diaspora|Diaspora]] has been extensively described by John M. G. Barclay of the [[Durham University|University of Durham]].<ref name=Barclay>Barclay, John M. G. ''Jews in the Mediterranean Diaspora: From Alexander to Trajan (323 BCE-117 CE)'', University of California, 1999.</ref> The ancient Jewish philosopher [[Philo of Alexandria]] described an attack on Jews in [[Alexandria]] in 38 CE in ''[http://www.earlychristianwritings.com/yonge/book36.html Flaccus]'', in which thousands of Jews died. In the analysis of Pieter W. Van Der Horst, the cause of the violence in Alexandria was that Jews had been portrayed as [[misanthropy|misanthropes]].<ref name=vanderhorst>Van Der Horst, Pieter Willem. ''Philo's Flaccus: the First Pogrom'', Philo of Alexandria Commentary Series, Brill, 2003.</ref> Gideon Bohak has argued that early animosity against Jews was not [[anti-Judaism]] unless it arose from attitudes held against Jews alone. Using this stricter definition, Bohak says that many Greeks had animosity toward any group they regarded as barbarians.<ref name=Bohak>Bohak, Gideon. "The Ibis and the Jewish Question: Ancient 'Antisemitism' in Historical Context" in Menachem Mor et al, ''Jews and Gentiles in the Holy Land in the Days of the Second Temple, the Mishna and the Talmud'', Yad Ben-Zvi Press, 2003, p 27-43.</ref>
Father Edward H. Flannery, in ''The Anguish of the Jews: Twenty-Three Centuries of Antisemitism'', traces what he calls the first clear examples of anti-Jewish sentiment, which he calls "antisemitism," back to [[Alexandria]] in the third century [[BCE]]. [[Hecataeus of Abdera]], a Greek historian, wrote that [[Moses]] "in remembrance of the exile of his people, instituted for them a misanthropic and inhospitable way of life." Manetho, an Egyptian priest and historian, wrote that the Jews were expelled Egyptian [[Leprosy|lepers]] who had been taught by Moses "not to adore the gods." The same themes appeared in the works of [[Chaeremon]], [[Lysimachus]], [[Poseidonius]], [[Apollonius Molon]], and in [[Apion]] and [[Tacitus]], according to Flannery. [[Agatharchides of Cnidus]] wrote about the "ridiculous practices" of the Jews and of the "absurdity of their [[Torah|Law]]," making a mocking reference to how Ptolemy Lagus was able to invade [[Jerusalem]] in 320 BCE because its inhabitants were observing the [[Shabbat|Sabbath]].<ref name=Flannery>Flannery, Edward H. ''The Anguish of the Jews: Twenty-Three Centuries of Antisemitism''. Paulist Press, first published in 1985; this edition 2004, pp. 11-12.</ref>
==Greco-Roman period==
Statements exhibiting prejudice towards Jews and their religion can be found in the works of many pagan Greek and Roman writers.<ref>Daniels. J,L, ''Anti-Semitism in the Hellenistic-Roman Period'' in JBL 98 (1979) P.45 - 65</ref>
===Roman Empire===
Relationships between the Jewish people and the occupying [[Roman Empire]] were at first antagonistic and resulted in [[Jewish-Roman wars|several rebellions]]. According to [[Suetonius]], the emperor [[Tiberius]] expelled from Rome, Jews who had gone to live there. The 18th century [[England|English]] historian [[Edward Gibbon]] identified a more tolerant period beginning in about 160 CE.
According to [[James P. Carroll|James Carroll]], "Jews accounted for 10% of the total population of the [[Roman Empire]]. By that ratio, if other factors such as [[pogrom]]s and [[forced conversion|conversion]]s had not intervened, there would be 200 million Jews in the world today, instead of something like 13 million."<ref>Carroll, James. ''[[Constantine's Sword]]'' (Houghton Mifflin, 2001) ISBN 0-395-77927-8 p.26</ref><ref>[http://www.townhall.com/columnists/DennisPrager/2006/02/21/explaining_jews,_part_iii_a_very_insecure_people Explaining Jews, Part III: A very insecure people::By Dennis Prager]</ref>
When the Jewish kingdom became absorbed into the Roman Empire, relationships between the Jewish people and the Roman rulers were always fraught with difficulty. There was an antagonistic attitude on the part of both emperors and the Roman public that went beyond religious antisemitism. Eventually [[Jewish-Roman wars|warfare]] broke out between Jews of Judea and the Roman occupiers.
In 19 CE [[Tiberius]] expelled from Rome Jews who had gone to live in the city. [[Suetonius]] says that Tiberius "suppressed all foreign religions... . He distributed the Jewish youths, under the pretence of military service, among the provinces noted for an unhealthy climate; and dismissed from the city all the rest of that nation as well as those who were proselytes to that religion [335], under pain of slavery for life, unless they complied."<ref>[[Suetonius]], ''Lives of the Twelve Caesars'', Vol 3, "Tiberius", Section 36</ref> [[Josephus]], in his ''Jewish Antiquities''<ref>[[Josephus]], ''Jewish Antiquities'' (18.3.5)</ref>, concurs that Tiberius "ordered all the Jews to be banished out of Rome," taking "four thousand men out of them, and sent them to the island [[Sardinia]]; but punished a greater number of them, who were unwilling to become soldiers, on account of keeping the laws of their forefathers. Thus were these Jews banished out of the city ..." [[Cassius Dio]] writes of Tiberius, "As the Jews flocked to Rome in great numbers and were converting many of the natives to their ways, he banished most of them."<ref>Cassius Dio, ''Roman History'', 57.18.5a.</ref>
Some light may be shed on the animosity of Tiberius toward the Jews by Philo of Alexandria. Without giving details, Philo records Tiberius' lieutenant Sejanus as a major enemy of the Jews.<ref>''Against Flaccus''(1.1)</ref> Since this passage was written after Tiberius' death and Philo readily engaged in direct posthumous criticism of Caligula, it is possible that Sejanus was the prime mover in these persecutions.
The historian [[Edward Gibbon]] divides the attitude of Romans to Jews into two periods. The first, from the reign of [[Nero]] ([[37]]-[[68]] CE) to that of [[Antoninus Pius]] ([[86]]-[[161]]), he calls ''The rebellious spirit of the Jews''
<blockquote>[...] the Jews discovered a fierce impatience of the dominion of Rome, which repeatedly broke out in the most furious massacres and insurrections''<ref name=Gibbon>Gibbon, Edward [[''The Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire'']], chapter 16.[http://www.ccel.org/ccel/gibbon/decline/files/volume1/chap16.htm#rebe online text of Gibbon, Chapter 16]</ref></blockquote>
This was followed by a period of ''The toleration of the Jewish religion'' when:
<blockquote>[...] gentle treatment insensibly assuaged the stern temper of the Jews. Awakened from their dream of prophecy and conquest, they assumed the behaviour of peaceable and industrious subjects.<ref>Gibbon, ''op. cit.'' chapter 16</ref></blockquote>
During the [[Bar Kokhba's revolt]] in the second century CE Roman soldiers murdered many Jews. Some authors have argued that Roman policy prefigured European antisemitism<ref>eg see Martin Goodman, ''Rome and Jerusalem: the clash of ancient civilisations'', Allen Lane 2006. </ref>. They cite for example the fact that Rome refused permission for the rebuilding of the [[Temple]] at [[Jerusalem]] after its destruction in 70 CE in the course of the suppression of a rebellion; the tax imposed on Jews at the same time ostensibly to finance the rebuilding of the temple of Jupiter Capitolinus, or the renaming of [[Judaea]] as [[Syria Palestina]]. Others have argued that Rome suppressed revolts in all conquered territories, that Tiberius’ explusion was of "all foreign religions", and that Rome did not single out Jews. Not only were Jews not wiped out: Jews of the [[Diaspora]] were given special privileges unknown to others: alone among subjects of the empire (and unlike Christians for much of the period) they were given the right to maintain their customs and religion, instead of being expected to accommodate themselves to those of the cities they resided in. Even in 70 CE some cities petitioned the Emperor to rescind Jewish privileges and were refused; though [[Hadrian]] outlawed circumcision along with castration as a mutilation normally visited on people unable to consent, following protests Jews were later exempted from this law<ref>See Clifford Ando,''Times Literary Supplement'' 6 April 2007, pages 6-7</ref>.
===The New Testament and early Christianity===
{{main|Antisemitism in the New Testament}}
Although the majority of the [[New Testament]] was written by Jews who became followers of [[Jesus]], there are a number of passages in the New Testament that some see as antisemitic, or have been used for antisemitic purposes, most notably:
*Jesus speaking to a group of [[Pharisees]]: "I know that you are descendants of [[Abraham]]; yet you seek to kill me, because my word finds no place in you. I speak of what I have seen with my Father, and you do what you have heard from your father. They answered him, "Abraham is our father." Jesus said to them, "If you were Abraham's children, you would do what Abraham did. ... You are of your father the devil, and your will is to do your father's desires. He was a murderer from the beginning, and has nothing to do with the truth, because there is no truth in him. When he lies, he speaks according to his own nature, for he is a liar and the father of lies. But, because I tell the truth, you do not believe me. Which of you convicts me of sin? If I tell the truth, why do you not believe me? He who is of God hears the words of God; the reason why you do not hear them is you are not of God." ([[Book of John|John]] 8:37-39, 44-47, [[Revised Standard Version|RSV]]){{Fact|Needs a source claiming it is "antisemitic, or ha[s] been used for antisemitic purposes"|date=June 2007}}
*[[Saint Stephen|Stephen]] speaking before a synagogue council just before his execution: "You stiff-necked people, uncircumcised in heart and ears, you always resist the [[Holy Spirit]]. As your fathers did, so do you. Which of the prophets did not your fathers persecute? And they killed those who announced beforehand the coming of the Righteous One, whom you have now betrayed and murdered, you who received the law as delivered by angels and did not keep it." ([[Book of Acts|Acts]] 7:51-53, RSV) {{Fact|Needs a source claiming it is "antisemitic, or ha[s] been used for antisemitic purposes"|date=June 2007}}
*"Behold, I will make those of the synagogue of Satan who say that they are Jews and are not, but lie — behold, I will make them come and bow down before your feet, and learn that I have loved you." ([[Book of Revelation|Revelation]] 3:9, RSV). {{Fact|Needs a source claiming it is "antisemitic, or ha[s] been used for antisemitic purposes"|date=June 2007}}
Some biblical scholars point out that Jesus and Stephen are presented as Jews speaking to other Jews, and that their use of broad accusations against Israel is borrowed from [[Moses]] and the later Jewish prophets (e.g. {{bibleverse||Deuteronomy|9:13-14|RSV}}; {{bibleverse-nb||Deuteronomy|31:27-29|RSV}}; {{bibleverse-nb||Deuteronomy|32:5|RSV}}, {{bibleverse-nb||Deuteronomy|20-21|RSV}}; {{bibleverse|2|Kings|17:13-14|RSV}}; {{Bibleverse||Isaiah|1:4|RSV}}; {{bibleverse||Hosea|1:9|RSV}}; {{bibleverse-nb||Hosea|10:9|RSV}}). Jesus once calls his own disciple Peter 'Satan' ({{bibleverse||Mark|8:33|RSV}}). Other scholars hold that verses like these reflect the Jewish-Christian tensions that were emerging in the late first or early second century, and do not originate with Jesus. Today, nearly all Christian denominations de-emphasize verses such as these, and reject their use and misuse by antisemites.{{Fact|again, needs a cite to these "biblical scholars"|date=June 2007}}
Drawing from the Jewish prophet [[Jeremiah]] ({{bibleverse-nb||Jeremiah|31:31-34|RSV}}), the [[New Testament]] teaches that with the death of Jesus a [[New Covenant (theology)|New Covenant]] was established which rendered obsolete, and in many respects superseded, the first covenant established by Moses ({{bibleverse||Hebrews|8:7-13|RSV}}; {{bibleverse||Luke|22:20|RSV}}). Observance of the earlier covenant traditionally characterizes [[Judaism]]. This New Testament teaching, and later variations to it, are part of what is called [[supersessionism]]. However, the early Jewish followers of Jesus continued to practice [[circumcision]] and observe [[Kashrut|dietary laws]], which is why the failure to observe these laws by the first [[Gentile]] Christians became a matter of controversy and dispute some years after Jesus' death ({{bibleverse||Acts|11:3|RSV}}; {{bibleverse-nb||Acts|15:1|RSV}}ff; {{bibleverse-nb||Acts|16:3|RSV}}). {{Fact|need secondary sources for this|date=June 2007}}
The New Testament holds that Jesus' (Jewish) disciple [[Judas Iscariot]] ({{bibleverse||Mark|14:43-46|RSV}}), the [[Roman Empire|Roman]] governor [[Pontius Pilate]] along with Roman forces ({{bibleverse||John|19:11|RSV}}; {{bibleverse||Acts|4:27|RSV}}) and Jewish leaders and people of Jerusalem were (to varying degrees) responsible for the death of Jesus ({{bibleverse||Acts|13:27|RSV}}); Diaspora Jews are not blamed for events which were clearly outside their control. {{Fact|date=June 2007}}
After Jesus' death, the New Testament portrays the Jewish religious authorities in [[Jerusalem]] as hostile to Jesus' followers, and as occasionally using force against them. Stephen is executed by stoning ({{bibleverse||Acts|7:58|RSV}}). Before his conversion, Saul puts followers of Jesus in prison ({{bibleverse||Acts|8:3|RSV}}; {{bibleverse||Galatians|1:13-14|RSV}}; {{bibleverse|1|Timothy|1:13|RSV}}). After his conversion, [[Paul of Tarsus|Saul]] is whipped at various times by Jewish authorities ({{bibleverse|2|Corinthians|11:24|RSV}}), and is accused by Jewish authorities before Roman courts (e.g., {{bibleverse||Acts|25:6-7|RSV}}). However, opposition by Gentiles is also cited repeatedly ({{bibleverse|2|Corinthians|11:26|RSV}}; {{bibleverse||Acts|16:19|RSV}}ff; {{bibleverse-nb||Acts|19:23ff|RSV}}). More generally, there are widespread references in the New Testament to suffering experienced by Jesus' followers at the hands of others ({{bibleverse||Romans|8:35|RSV}}; {{bibleverse|1|Corinthians|4:11|RSV}}ff; {{bibleverse||Galatians|3:4|RSV}}; {{bibleverse|2|Thessalonians|1:5|RSV}}; {{bibleverse||Hebrews|10:32|RSV}}; {{bibleverse|1|Peter|4:16|RSV}}; {{Bibleverse||Revelation|20:4|RSV}}). {{Fact|Secondary sources needed who have used these passages to make claims about antisemitism|date=June 2007}}
The first [[Jewish deicide|accusation of deicide against the Jewish people as a whole]]: that they were collectively responsible for the death of Jesus came in a sermon in 167 CE attributed to [[Melito of Sardis]] entitled ''Peri Pascha'', ''On the Passover''. This text blames the Jews for allowing King Herod and Caiaphas to execute Jesus, despite their calling as God's people. It says "you did not know, O Israel, that this one was the firstborn of God". The author does not attribute particular blame to [[Pontius Pilate]], but only mentions that Pilate washed his hands of guilt.<ref>[http://www.kerux.com/documents/KeruxV4N1A1.asp On the passover] pp. 57, 82, 92, 93</ref> The sermon is written in Greek, so does not use the Latin word for deicide, ''deicida''. At a time when Christians were widely persecuted, Melito's speech was an appeal to Rome to spare Christians.{{Fact|date=February 2007}} The sermon demonstrates substantial misunderstanding (perhaps deliberate) of the central tenet of Christianity: that everyone, Jew or Gentile, is complicit in Jesus' sacrificial death (which, according to Christianity, he had the supernatural powers to avoid or prevent) and therefore no one person or race is more or less responsible.
According to a Latin dictionary, the Latin word ''deicidas'' was used by the fourth century, by Peter Chrystologus in his sermon number 172.<ref>Charleton Lewis and Charles Short, ''Latin Dictionary'' [http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/resolveform?lang=Latin Latin Dictionary]</ref>
===Under the Christian Roman Empire===
When Christianity became the state religion of Rome in the 4th century, Jews became objects of religious intolerance and political oppression. Christian literature began to display extreme hostility to Jews, and this occasionally resulted in attacks on Jews and the burning of synagogues.
Emperor [[Constantine I]] instituted several laws concerning Jews: they were forbidden to own Christian slaves or to circumcise their slaves. Conversion of Christians to Judaism was outlawed. Congregations for religious services were restricted, but Jews were allowed to enter Jerusalem on [[Tisha B'Av]], the anniversary of the destruction of the Temple.
Discrimination became worse in the 5th century. Jews were barred from the civil service and the army. The Jewish Patriarchate was abolished and the scope of Jewish courts restricted. New synagogues were confiscated and old synagogues could be repaired only if they were in danger of collapse. Synagogues fell into ruin or were converted to churches.
Synagogues in the following places were destroyed: [[Tortona]] in 350, [[Rome]] in 388 and 500, [[Raqqa]] in 388, [[Minorca]] in 418, Daphne (near [[Antioch]]) in 489 and 507, [[Genoa]] in 500, [[Ravenna]] in 495, [[Tours]] in 585 and [[Orleans]] in 590.
Other synagogues were confiscated: [[Urfa]] in 411, several in Palestine between 419 and 422, [[Constantinople]] in 442 and 569, [[Antioch]] in 423, [[Vannes]] in 465, [[Diyarbakir]] in 500 [[Terracina]] in 590, [[Cagliari]] in 590 and [[Palermo]] in 590.<ref>[[N. de Lange]], "Atlas of the Jewish World", Facts on File, 1984, pp.34-36</ref>
====Accusations of deicide====
{{main|Jewish deicide}}
[[Deicide]] is the killing of a god. In the context of Christianity, deicide refers to the [[responsibility for the death of Jesus]]. The [[Jewish deicide|accusation of Jews in deicide]] has been the most powerful warrant for antisemitism by Christians.<ref>Schweitzer, Perry (2002) pp. 26</ref>
===Persecution of Jews in the Middle Ages===
{{Main|Jews in the Middle Ages}}
From the 9th century CE the [[Islamic world]] imposed [[dhimmi]] laws on both Christian and Jewish minorities. The 11th century saw Muslim pogroms against Jews in the [[Iberian Peninsula]]; those occurred in Cordoba in 1011 and in [[1066 Granada massacre|Granada in 1066]].<ref name="Schweitzer267-268"> Schweitzer, Perry (2002) pp. 267-268.</ref><ref>[http://jewishencyclopedia.com/view.jsp?artid=412&letter=G&search=Granada Granada] by Richard Gottheil, Meyer Kayserling, ''[[Jewish Encyclopedia]]''. 1906 ed. </ref><ref>Harzig, Hoerder & Shubert, 2003, p. 42.</ref> Decrees ordering the destruction of synagogues were enacted in the Middle Ages in [[Egypt]], [[Syria]], [[Iraq]] and [[Yemen]]. Jews were also forced to convert to Islam or face death in some parts of Yemen, Morocco and [[Baghdad]] at certain times.<ref>[http://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/anti-semitism/Jews_in_Arab_lands_(gen).html The Treatment of Jews in Arab/Islamic Countries]</ref>
The [[Almohad]]s, who had taken control of the Almoravids' Maghribi and Andalusian territories by 1147,<ref name=islamicworldeb>Islamic world. (2007). In Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved September 2, 2007, from [http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-26925 Encyclopædia Britannica Online].</ref> far surpassed the [[Almoravides]] in fundamentalist outlook, and they treated the ''dhimmis'' harshly. Faced with the choice of either death or conversion, many Jews and Christians emigrated.<ref name=frank>Frank and Leaman, 2003, p. 137-138.</ref><ref>[http://www.myjewishlearning.com/history_community/Medieval/IntergroupTO/JewishMuslim/Almohads.htm The Almohads]</ref><ref>[http://www.theforgottenrefugees.com/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=66&Itemid=39 The Forgotten Refugees]</ref> Some, such as the family of [[Maimonides]], fled east to more tolerant Muslim lands,<ref name=frank/> while others went northward to settle in the growing Christian kingdoms.<ref>[http://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/Judaism/Sephardim.html Sephardim]</ref><ref> Kraemer, 2005, pp. 16-17.</ref>
During the [[Middle Ages]] in Europe there was full-scale persecution in many places, with [[blood libel]]s, expulsions, [[forced conversion]]s and [[wiktionary:massacre|massacres]]. A main justification of prejudice against Jews in Europe was religious. Jews were frequently massacred and exiled from various European countries. The persecution hit its first peak during the [[Crusades]]. In the [[First Crusade]] (1096) flourishing communities on the Rhine and the Danube were utterly destroyed; see [[German Crusade, 1096]]. In the [[Second Crusade]] (1147) the Jews in France were subject to frequent massacres. The Jews were also subjected to attacks by the [[Shepherds' Crusade]]s of 1251 and 1320. The Crusades were followed by expulsions, including in, 1290, the banishing of all English Jews; in 1396, 100,000 Jews were expelled from France; and, in 1421 thousands were expelled from Austria. Many of the expelled Jews fled to Poland.<ref>[http://www.holocaustcenterpgh.net/2-3.html Why the Jews? - Black Death]</ref>
As the [[Black Death]] epidemics devastated Europe in the mid-14th century, annihilating more than half of the population, Jews were used as [[scapegoat#Political/sociological scapegoating|scapegoats]]. Rumors spread that they caused the disease by deliberately [[well poisoning|poisoning wells]]. Hundreds of Jewish communities were destroyed by violence. Although [[Pope Clement VI]] tried to protect them by the [[July 6]], [[1348]], [[papal bull]] and an additional bull in 1348, several months later, 900 Jews were burnt alive in [[Strasbourg]], where the plague hadn't yet affected the city.<ref name="Black"/>
====Continuing accusations of deicide====
Though not part of [[Roman Catholic]] [[dogma]], many Christians, including members of the [[clergy]], held the Jewish people under a [[antisemitic canard]] to be [[collective guilt|collectively responsible]] for [[Jewish deicide|killing Jesus]].<ref>[http://www.vatican.va/jubilee_2000/magazine/documents/ju_mag_01111997_p-31_en.html Nostra Aetate: a milestone - Pier Francesco Fumagalli<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref> According to this interpretation, both the Jews present at Jesus’ death and the Jewish people collectively and for all time had committed the sin of deicide, or God-killing. This charge of deicide and all direct and indirect antisemitism was ruled wrong by the [[Second Vatican Council]] in 1962 and most Christians have followed suit since.<ref name=Paley>Paley, Susan and Koesters, Adrian Gibbons, eds. [http://moses.creighton.edu/JRS/pdf/ViewersGuide.pdf "A Viewer's Guide to Contemporary Passion Plays"], accessed March 12, 2006.</ref>
==Middle Ages==
{{main|Antisemitism in Europe (Middle Ages)}}
{{see|Jews in the Middle Ages}}
There was continuity in the hostile attitude to Judaism from the ancient Roman Empire into the medieval period. From the 9th century CE, the [[Islamic Golden Age|medieval Islamic world]] imposed ''[[dhimmi]]'' status on both Christian and Jewish minorities, though Jews were allowed to freely practice their religion to a greater extent in the [[Muslim world]] than in Christian Europe.<ref>{{citation|first=María Rosa|last=Menocal|author-link=María Rosa Menocal|title=The Ornament of the World: How Muslims, Jews and Christians Created a Culture of Tolerance in Medieval Spain|date=April 2003|publisher=Back Bay Books|isbn=0316168718}}</ref> In the later [[Middle Ages]] in Christian Europe, there was full-scale persecution in many places, with [[blood libel]]s, expulsions, [[forced conversion]]s and massacres. A main justification of prejudice against Jews in Europe was religious.
===Continuation of accusations of deicide===
Though not part of [[Roman Catholic]] [[dogma]], many Christians, including members of the [[clergy]], held Jews collectively responsible for killing Jesus. According to this interpretation, both the Jews present at Jesus’ death and Jewish people collectively and for all time had committed the sin of deicide, or God-killing.<ref name=Paley>Paley, Susan and Koesters, Adrian Gibbons, eds. [http://moses.creighton.edu/JRS/pdf/ViewersGuide.pdf "A Viewer's Guide to Contemporary Passion Plays"], accessed March 12, 2006.</ref>
===Restriction to marginal occupations===
Among socio-economic factors were restrictions by the authorities. Local rulers and church officials closed many professions to Jews, pushing them into marginal occupations considered socially inferior, such as tax and rent collecting and [[moneylending]], tolerated then as a "[[The ends justify the means#necessary evil|necessary evil]]". Catholic doctrine of the time held that lending money for interest was a [[sin]], and forbidden to Christians. Not being subject to this restriction, Jews dominated this business. The [[Torah]] and later sections of the [[Hebrew Bible]] criticise [[Usury#Biblical|Usury]] but interpretations of the Biblical prohibition vary. Since few other occupations were open to them, Jews were motivated to take up money lending. This was said to show Jews were insolent, greedy, [[usury|usurers]], and subsequently lead to many negative stereotypes and propaganda. Natural tensions between creditors (typically Jews) and debtors (typically Christians) were added to social, political, religious, and economic strains. Peasants who were forced to pay their taxes to Jews could personify them as the people taking their earnings while remaining loyal to the lords on whose behalf Jews worked.
===Disabilities and restrictions===
[[Image:BritLibCottonNeroD1Fol183vPersecutedJews.jpg|thumb|right|250px|The yellow badge Jews were forced to wear can be seen in this marginal illustration from an English manuscript.]]
Jews were subject to a wide range of legal restrictions throughout the Middle Ages, some of which lasted until the end of the 19th century. Jews were excluded from many trades, the occupations varying with place and time, and determined by the influence of various non-Jewish competing interests. Often Jews were barred from all occupations but money-lending and peddling, with even these at times forbidden. The number of Jews permitted to reside in different places was limited; they were concentrated in [[ghettos]], and were not allowed to own land; they were subject to discriminatory taxes on entering cities or districts other than their own, were forced to swear special [[Oath More Judaico|Jewish Oaths]], and suffered a variety of other measures, including restrictions on dress.
===Clothing===
The [[Fourth Lateran Council]] in 1215 decreed that Jews and Moslems must wear distinguishing clothing.<ref>[http://www.myjewishlearning.com/history_community/Medieval/MedievalSocialTO/Clothing/JewishHat.htm Medieval Jewish History: An Encyclopedia. Edited by Norman Roth, Routledge]</ref> The most common distinguishing clothing was the [[Jewish hat]], which was already worn by many Jews as a self-identifying mark, but was now often made compulsory.<ref>Françoise Piponnier and Perrine Mane; ''Dress in the Middle Ages''; p. 138, Yale UP, 1997; ISBN 0300069065. See also Norman Roth, op cit. Also Schreckenburg p. 15 & passim.</ref> The [[Jewish badge]] was introduced in some places; it could be a coloured piece of cloth in the shape of a circle, strip, or the tablets of the law (in England), and was sewn onto the clothes.<ref>Schreckenburg, Heinz, ''The Jews in Christian Art'', p.15 & passim, 1996, Continuum, New York, ISBN 0826409369</ref> Elsewhere special colours of robe were specified. Implementation was in the hands of local rulers but by the following century laws had been enacted covering most of Europe. In many localities, members of Medieval society wore badges to distinguish their social status. Some badges (such as those worn by [[guild]] members) were prestigious, while others were worn by ostracised outcasts such as [[Leprosy|leper]]s, reformed [[heresy|heretics]] and [[Prostitution|prostitutes]]. As with all [[sumptuary law]]s, the degree to which these laws were followed and enforced varied greatly, and is hard to generalise. Sometimes Jews sought to evade the badges by paying what amounted to bribes in the form of temporary "exemptions" to kings, which were revoked and re-paid whenever the king needed to raise funds.{{Fact|date=October 2007}} By the end of the [[Middle Ages]] the hat seems to have become rare, but the badge lasted longer, and remained in some places until the eighteenth century.
===The Crusades===
{{See also|German Crusade, 1096|History of the Jews and the Crusades|Siege of Jerusalem (1099)|Letter of the Karaite elders of Ascalon}}
The [[Crusade]]s were a series of military campaigns sanctioned by the [[papacy]] that took place from the end of the [[11th century]] until the [[13th century]]. They began as endeavors to recapture [[Jerusalem]] from the Muslims but developed into territorial wars.
The mobs accompanying the first three Crusades, and particularly the [[People's Crusade]] accompanying the [[first Crusade]], attacked Jewish communities in Germany, France, and England, and killed many Jews. Entire communities, like those of [[Treves]], [[Speyer]], [[Worms, Germany|Worms]], [[Mayence]], and [[Cologne]], were murdered by armed mobs. About 12,000 Jews are said to have perished in the [[Rhineland]] cities alone between May and July, [[1096]]. Before the Crusades, Jews had practically a monopoly on the trade in Eastern products, but the closer connection between Europe and the East brought about by the Crusades raised up a class of Christian merchant traders, and from this time onward restrictions on the sale of goods by Jews became frequent.{{Fact|date=February 2007}} The religious zeal formented by the Crusades at times burned as fiercely against Jews as against Muslims, though attempts were made by bishops during the first Crusade and by the papacy during the [[second Crusade]] to stop Jews from being attacked. Both economically and socially the Crusades were disastrous for European Jews. They prepared the way for the anti-Jewish legislation of [[Pope Innocent III]], and formed the turning point in the [[medieval]] [[history of the Jews]].
[[Saint Louis University]] Professor [[Thomas Madden]], author of ''A Concise History of the Crusades'', claims the Jewish defenders of Jerusalem retreated to their synagogue to "prepare for death" once the Crusaders had breached the outer walls of the city during the [[Siege of Jerusalem (1099)|siege of 1099]].<ref name=hoover>[http://www.hoover.org/publications/uk/2994821.html CROSS PURPOSES: The Crusades] ([[Hoover Institute]] television show). The entire episode can be viewed with Realplayer or Window’s Media player.</ref> The chronicle of [[Ibn al-Qalanisi]] mentions the building was set fire while the Jews were still inside.<ref name=gibb>[[Hamilton Alexander Rosskeen Gibb|Gibb, H. A. R]]. ''The Damascus Chronicle of the Crusades: Extracted and Translated from the Chronicle of Ibn Al-Qalanisi''. Dover Publications, 2003 (ISBN 0486425193), pg. 48</ref> The Crusaders were supposedly reported as hoisting up their shields and singing “Christ We Adore Thee!” while they circled the fiery complex."<ref>Rausch, David. ''Legacy of Hatred: Why Christians Must Not Forget the Holocaust.'' Baker Pub Group, 1990 (ISBN 0801077583), pg. 27</ref> However, a contemporary Jewish letter written shortly after the siege does not mention the burning synagogue. But playing on the religious schism between the two sects of Judaism,<ref>Goitein, S.D. ''A Mediterranean Society: The Jewish Communities of the Arab World as Portrayed in the Documents of the Cairo Geniza. Vol. V: The Individual: Portrait of a Mediterranean Personality of the High Middle Ages as Reflected in the Cairo Geniza.'' University of California Press, 1988 (ISBN 0520056477), 358</ref> Arabist [[S.D. Goitein]] speculates the reason the incident is missing from the letter is because it was written by [[Karaite]] Jews and the synagogue belonged to the [[Rabbinite]] Jews.<ref>Kedar, Benjamin Z. "The Jerusalem Massacre of July 1099 in the Western Historiography of the Crusades." The Crusades. Vol. 3 (2004) (ISBN 075464099X), pp. 15-76, pg. 64</ref>
Following the siege, Jews captured from the [[dome of the rock]], along with native Christians, were made to clean the city of the slain.<ref name=goitein>Goitein, S.D. "Contemporary Letters on the Capture of Jerusalem by the Crusaders." Journal of Jewish Studies 3 (1952), pp. 162-177, pg 163</ref> Tancred took some Jews as [[prisoners of war]] and deported them to [[Apuleia]] in southern Italy. Several of these Jews did not make it to their final destination as “Many of them were […] thrown into the sea or beheaded on the way.”<ref name=goitein/> Numerous Jews and their holy books (including the [[Aleppo Codex]]) were held ransom by [[Raymond of Toulouse]].<ref>Goitein, "Contemporary Letters on the Capture of Jerusalem by the Crusaders," pg. 165</ref> The Karaite Jewish community of [[Ashkelon]] (Ascalon) reached out to their coreligionists in [[Alexandria]] to first pay for the holy books and then rescued pockets of Jews over several months.<ref name=goitein/> All that could be ransomed were liberated by the summer of 1100. The few who could not be rescued were either converted to Christianity or murdered.<ref>Goitein, "Contemporary Letters on the Capture of Jerusalem by the Crusaders", pg. 166</ref>
In the [[County of Toulouse]] (now part of southern France) Jews were well-received until the [[Albigensian Crusade]]. Toleration and favour shown to Jews was one of the main complaints of the Roman Church against the Counts of Toulouse. Following the Crusaders' successful wars against [[Raymond VI]] and [[Raymond VII]], the counts were required to discriminate against Jews like other Christian rulers. In [[1209]], stripped to the waist and barefoot, Raymond VI was obliged to swear that he would no longer allow Jews to hold public office. In [[1229]] his son Raymond VII, underwent a similar ceremony. Explicit provisions on the subject were included in the [[Treaty of Meaux]] (1229). By the next generation a new, zealously [[Catholic]], ruler was arresting and imprisoning Jews for no crime, raiding their houses, seizing their cash, and removing their religious books. They were then released only if they paid a new "tax". A historian has argued that organised and official persecution of the Jews became a normal feature of life in southern France only after the Albigensian Crusade because it was only then that the Church became powerful enough to insist that measures of discrimination be applied.<ref>Michael Costen, ''The Cathars and the Albigensian Crusade'', p 38</ref>
===The demonizing of Jews===
From around the 12th century through the 19th there were Christians who believed that some (or all) Jews possessed magical powers; some believed that they had gained these magical powers from making a deal with the [[devil]]. See also [[Judensau]], [[Judeophobia]].
===Blood libels===
{{Main articles|blood libel|list of blood libels against Jews}}
On many occasions, Jews were accused of a [[blood libel]], the supposed drinking of the blood of Christian children in mockery of the Christian [[Eucharist]]. (Early Christians had been accused of a similar practice based on pagan misunderstanding of the Eucharist ritual.){{Fact|date=February 2007}} According to the authors of these blood libels, the 'procedure' for the alleged sacrifice was something like this: a child who had not yet reached puberty was kidnapped and taken to a hidden place. The child would be tortured by Jews, and a crowd would gather at the place of execution (in some accounts the synagogue itself) and engage in a mock tribunal to try the child. The child would be presented to the tribunal naked and tied and eventually be condemned to death. In the end, the child would be crowned with thorns and tied or nailed to a wooden cross. The cross would be raised, and the blood dripping from the child's wounds would be caught in bowls or glasses and then drunk. Finally, the child would be killed with a thrust through the heart from a spear, sword, or dagger. Its dead body would be removed from the cross and concealed or disposed of, but in some instances rituals of [[black magic]] would be performed on it. This method, with some variations, can be found in all the alleged Christian descriptions of ritual murder by Jews.
The story of [[William of Norwich]] (d. 1144) is often cited as the first known accusation of [[ritual murder]] against Jews. The Jews of [[Norwich]], England were accused of murder after a Christian boy, William, was found dead. It was claimed that the Jews had tortured and crucified their victim. The legend of William of Norwich became a cult, and the child acquired the status of a holy martyr. Recent analysis has cast doubt on whether this was the first of the series of blood libel accusations but not on the contrived and antisemitic nature of the tale.<ref>Bennett, Gillian (2005), "Towards a revaluation of the legend of 'Saint' William of Norwich and its place in the blood libel legend". ''Folklore'', 116(2), pp 119-21.</ref>
During the Middle Ages blood libels were directed against Jews in many parts of Europe. The believers of these accusations reasoned that the Jews, having crucified Jesus, continued to thirst for pure and innocent blood and satisfied their thirst at the expense of innocent Christian children. Following this logic, such charges were typically made in Spring around the time of [[Passover]], which approximately coincides with the time of Jesus' death. <ref>Ben-Sasson, H.H., Editor; (1969). ''A History of The Jewish People''. Harvard University Press, Cambridge, Massachusetts. ISBN 0-674-39731-2 (paper).</ref>
The story of [[Little Saint Hugh of Lincoln]] (d. 1255) said that after the boy was dead, his body was removed from the cross and laid on a table. His belly was cut open and his [[Disembowelment|entrails]] removed for some [[occult]] purpose, such as a [[haruspex|divination ritual]]. The story of [[Simon of Trent]] (d. 1475) emphasized how the boy was held over a large bowl so all his blood could be collected.
===Host desecration===
[[Image:Descreationofhost.gif|thumb|right|150px|A 15th century German woodcut showing an alleged host desecration. In the first panel the hosts are stolen, in the second the hosts bleed when pierced by a Jew, in the third the Jews are arrested, and in the fourth they are burned alive.]]
Jews were sometimes falsely accused of desecrating consecrated [[Host (Holy Communion)|hosts]] in a reenactment of the [[Crucifixion]]; this crime was known as [[host desecration]] and carried the [[death penalty]].
===Expulsions from France and England===
{{see|History of the Jews in France}}
{{see|History of the Jews in England}}
The practice of expelling Jews accompanied by confiscation of their property, followed by temporary readmissions for [[ransom]], was utilized to enrich the French crown during 12th-14th centuries. The most notable such expulsions were: from [[Paris]] by [[Philip Augustus of France|Philip Augustus]] in 1182, from the entirety of France by [[Louis IX of France|Louis IX]] in 1254, by [[Charles IV of France|Charles IV]] in 1306, by [[Charles V of France|Charles V]] in 1322, by [[Charles VI of France|Charles VI]] in 1394.
To finance his war against [[Wales]] in 1276, [[Edward I of England]] taxed Jewish moneylenders. When the moneylenders could no longer pay the tax, they were accused of disloyalty. Already restricted to a limited number of occupations, Edward also abolished their "privilege" to lend money, restricted their movements and activities and forced Jews to wear a [[Yellow badge|yellow patch]]. The heads of Jewish households were then arrested with over 300 being taken to the [[Tower of London]] and executed. Others were killed in their homes. All Jews were banished from the country in [[1290]]<ref>By the [[Edict of Expulsion]]</ref>, when thousands were killed or drowned while fleeing. All money and property of the dispossessed Jews was confiscated. No known Jews were to be found in England until 1655, when [[Oliver Cromwell]] reversed the policy.
===The Black Death===
{{main|Black Death}}
As the [[Black Death]] [[epidemics]] devastated Europe in the mid-14th century, annihilating more than a half of the population, Jews were taken as [[scapegoat#Political/sociological scapegoating|scapegoats]]. Rumors spread that Jews caused the disease by deliberately [[well poisoning|poisoning wells]]. Hundreds of Jewish communities were destroyed by violence, in particular in the Iberian peninsula and in the Germanic Empire. In [[Provence]], 40 Jews were burnt in [[Toulon]] as soon as April 1348.<ref name="Black"> See Stéphane Barry and Norbert Gualde, ''La plus grande épidémie de l'histoire'' ("The greatest epidemics in history"), in ''[[L'Histoire]]'' magazine, n°310, June 2006, p.47 {{fr icon}} </ref> "Never mind that Jews were not immune from the ravages of the plague <!-- uncertainty about the plague being bubonic, although it is the most accepted hypothesis; irrelevant link, Black Death link more appropriate -->; they were tortured until they "confessed" to crimes that they could not possibly have committed. In one such case, a man named Agimet was ... coerced to say that Rabbi Peyret of [[Chambery]] (near [[Geneva]]) had ordered him to poison the wells in [[Venice]], [[Toulouse]], and elsewhere. In the aftermath of Agimet’s "confession," the Jews of [[Strasbourg]] were burned alive on February 14, 1349.<ref name=Hertzberg>[[Arthur Hertzberg|Hertzberg, Arthur]] and Hirt-Manheimer, Aron. ''Jews: The Essence and Character of a People'', HarperSanFrancisco, 1998, p.84. ISBN 0-06-063834-6</ref>
Although the [[Pope Clement VI]] tried to protect them by the [[July 6]], [[1348]] [[papal bull]] and another 1348 bull, several months later, 900 Jews were burnt in [[Strasbourg]], where the plague hadn't yet affected the city.<ref name="Black"/> Clement VI condemned the violence and said those who blamed the plague on the Jews (among whom were the [[flagellant]]s) had been "seduced by that liar, the Devil."
==Early modern period==
===Expulsions===
In 1492, [[Ferdinand II of Aragon]] and [[Isabella of Castile]] issued an [[Alhambra Decree|edict of expulsion]] of Jews from [[Spain]], giving Jews four months to either convert to Christianity or leave the country. Many Jews fled the country, some going to the [[Ottoman Empire]], some to the [[Land of Israel]], and other [[Mediterranean]] lands. Those who remained and converted to Christianity became subject to the [[Spanish Inquisition]], which was a judge of the sincerity of the conversion.
[[Portugal]] followed suit in December [[1496]]. However, those expelled could only leave the country in ships specified by the King. When those who chose to leave the country arrived at the port in Lisbon, they were met by clerics and soldiers who used force, coercion and promises to baptize them and prevent them from leaving the country. This episode technically ended the presence of Jews in Portugal. Afterwards, all converted Jews and their descendants would be referred to as [[New Christians]] or [[marranos]]. They were given a grace period of thirty years during which no inquiry into their faith would be allowed. This period was later extended until [[1534]]. However, a popular riot in [[1504]] resulted in the death of up to five thousand Jews, and the execution of the leaders of the riot by King [[Manuel I of Portugal|Manuel]]. Those labeled as New Christians would be under the surveillance of the [[Portuguese Inquisition]] (established in 1536) until 1821. Most would eventually leave the country during these three centuries, fleeing to the Netherlands or the Ottoman Empire, among other places (see [[History of the Jews in Portugal]]).
===Anti-Judaism and the Reformation===
[[Image:1543 On the Jews and Their Lies by Martin Luther.jpg|thumb|180px|Luther's 1543 pamphlet ''On the Jews and Their Lies'']]
{{main|Christianity and antisemitism}}
[[Martin Luther]], an [[Augustinian]] [[monasticism|monk]] and an [[ecclesiastical]] reformer whose teachings inspired the [[Protestant Reformation|Reformation]], wrote antagonistically about Jews in his book ''[[On the Jews and Their Lies (Martin Luther)|On the Jews and their Lies]]'', which describes the Jews in extremely harsh terms, excoriates them, and provides detailed recommendations for a [[pogrom]] against them and their permanent oppression and/or expulsion. According to [[Paul Johnson (writer)|Paul Johnson]], it "may be termed the first work of modern antisemitism, and a giant step forward on the road to [[the Holocaust]]."<ref name=Johnson>[[Paul Johnson (writer)|Johnson, Paul]]. ''A History of the Jews'', HarperCollins Publishers, 1987, p.242. ISBN 5-551-76858-9</ref>
In his final sermon shortly before his death, however, Luther preached "We want to treat them with Christian love and to pray for them, so that they might become converted and would receive the Lord."<ref name=Luther>[[Martin Luther|Luther, Martin]]. ''D. Martin Luthers Werke: kritische Gesamtausgabe'', Weimar: Hermann Böhlaus Nachfolger, 1920, Vol. 51, p. 195.</ref> Still, Luther's harsh comments about the Jews are seen by many as a continuation of medieval Christian antisemitism. In the [[twentieth century]], Luther's statements regarding the Jews were used by the [[Nazi]]s in their antisemitic [[propaganda]].
{{seealso|Martin Luther and the Jews|Martin Luther and Antisemitism}}
===Canonization of Simon of Trent===
[[Simon of Trent]] was a boy from the city of Trento, Italy who was found dead at the age of two, having been kidnapped, mutilated, and drained of blood. His disappearance was blamed on the leaders of the city's Jewish community, based on confessions extracted under torture. This case fueled the rampant antisemitism of the time. Simon was regarded as a saint, and was canonized by [[Pope Sixtus V]] in 1588.
===North America===
In the mid 1600s, [[Peter Stuyvesant]], the last Dutch Director-General of the colony of [[New Amsterdam]], sought to bolster the position of the [[Dutch Reformed Church]] by trying to reduce religious competition from denominations such as Jews, [[Lutheran]]s, Catholics and [[Quakers]]. He stated that Jews were "deceitful", "very repugnant", and "hateful enemies and blasphemers of the name of Christ". He warned in a subsequent letter that in "giving them liberty we cannot (then) refuse the Lutherans and Papists". However, religious plurality was already a legal-cultural tradition in New Amsterdam and in the [[Netherlands]]. His superiors at the [[Dutch West India Company]] in [[Amsterdam]] overruled him in all matters of intolerance.
===Seventeenth century===
During the mid-to-late 17th century the [[Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth]] was devastated by several conflicts, in which the Commonwealth lost over a third of its population (over 3 million people), and Jewish losses were counted in hundreds of thousands. First, the [[Chmielnicki Uprising]] when [[Bohdan Khmelnytsky]]'s [[Cossack]]s massacred tens of thousands of [[History of Jews in Poland|Jews]] in the eastern and southern areas he controlled (today's [[Ukraine]]). The precise number of dead may never be known, but the decrease of the Jewish population during that period is estimated at 100,000 to 200,000, which also includes emigration, deaths from diseases and ''[[slave trade|jasyr]]'' (captivity in the [[Ottoman Empire]]).<ref>"Bogdan Chmelnitzki leads Cossack uprising against Polish rule; 100,000 Jews are killed and hundreds of Jewish communities are destroyed." [http://www.cbsnews.com/htdocs/religion/judaism/timeline.html Judaism Timeline 1618-1770], ''[[CBS News]]''. Accessed May 13, 2007.</ref><ref>"... as many as 100,000 Jews were murdered throughout the Ukraine by Bogdan Chmielnicki's Cossack soldiers on the rampage." [[Martin Gilbert]]. ''Holocaust Journey: Traveling in Search of the Past'', Columbia University Press, 1999, ISBN 0231109652, p. 219.</ref>
===Eighteenth century===
{{Unreferencedsection|date=June 2007}}
In 1744, [[Frederick II of Prussia]] limited the number of Jews allowed to live in [[Breslau]] to only ten so-called "protected" Jewish families and encouraged a similar practice in other [[Prussia]]n cities. In 1750 he issued the ''Revidiertes General Privilegium und Reglement vor die Judenschaft'': the "protected" Jews had an alternative to "either abstain from marriage or leave Berlin" (quoting [[Simon Dubnow]]). In the same year, Archduchess of [[Austria]] [[Maria Theresa of Austria|Maria Theresa]] ordered Jews out of [[Bohemia]] but soon reversed her position, on the condition that Jews pay for their readmission every ten years. This [[extortion]] was known as ''malke-geld'' (queen's money). In 1752 she introduced the law limiting each Jewish family to one son. In 1782, [[Joseph II, Holy Roman Emperor|Joseph II]] abolished most of these persecution practices in his ''Toleranzpatent'', on the condition that [[Yiddish language|Yiddish]] and [[Hebrew language|Hebrew]] were eliminated from public records and that judicial autonomy was annulled. [[Moses Mendelssohn]] wrote that "Such a tolerance... is even more dangerous play in tolerance than open persecution."
In 1772, the empress of Russia [[Catherine II]] forced the Jews of the [[Pale of Settlement]] to stay in their [[shtetls]] and forbade them from returning to the towns that they occupied before the [[partition of Poland]].<ref>[http://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/vjw/Poland.html The Virtual Jewish History Tour By Rebecca Weiner]</ref>
{{Jews and Judaism (sidebar)}}
===Nineteenth century===
Historian [[Martin Gilbert]] writes that it was in the 19th century that the position of Jews worsened in Muslim countries.
There was a massacre of Jews in [[Baghdad]] in 1828.<ref name=Morris10>[[Benny Morris|Morris, Benny]]. ''Righteous Victims: A History of the Zionist-Arab Conflict, 1881-2001''. Vintage Books, 2001, pp. 10-11.</ref> In 1839, in the eastern Persian city of [[Meshed]], a mob burst into the Jewish Quarter, burned the synagogue, and destroyed the [[Sefer Torah|Torah scrolls]]. It was only by forcible conversion that a massacre was averted.<ref name=Gilbert179>[[Martin Gilbert|Gilbert, Martin]]. ''Dearest Auntie Fori. The Story of the Jewish People''. HarperCollins, 2002, pp. 179-182.</ref> There was another massacre in Barfurush in 1867.<ref name=Morris10/>
In the middle of the 19th century, [[J. J. Benjamin]] wrote about the life of [[Persian Jews]]: <blockquote>"…they are obliged to live in a separate part of town…; for they are considered as unclean creatures… Under the pretext of their being unclean, they are treated with the greatest severity and should they enter a street, inhabited by Mussulmans, they are pelted by the boys and mobs with stones and dirt… For the same reason, they are prohibited to go out when it rains; for it is said the rain would wash dirt off them, which would sully the feet of the Mussulmans… If a Jew is recognized as such in the streets, he is subjected to the greatest insults. The passers-by spit in his face, and sometimes beat him… unmercifully… If a Jew enters a shop for anything, he is forbidden to inspect the goods… Should his hand incautiously touch the goods, he must take them at any price the seller chooses to ask for them... Sometimes the Persians intrude into the dwellings of the Jews and take possession of whatever please them. Should the owner make the least opposition in defense of his property, he incurs the danger of atoning for it with his life... If... a Jew shows himself in the street during the three days of the Katel (Muharram)…, he is sure to be murdered."<ref>bernard Lewis. ''The Jews of Islam''. Princeton University Press, 1984, pp. 181–183</ref></blockquote>
In 1840, the [[History of the Jews in Syria|Jews of Damascus]] were falsely accused of having murdered a Christian monk and his Muslim servant and of having [[blood libel|used their blood]] to bake [[Matzo|Passover bread]]. A Jewish barber was tortured until he "confessed"; two other Jews who were arrested died under torture, while a third converted to Islam to save his life. Throughout the 1860s, the [[History of the Jews in Libya|Jews of Libya]] were subjected to what Gilbert calls punitive taxation. In 1864, around 500 Jews were killed in [[Marrakech]] and [[Fes, Morocco|Fez]] in [[Morocco]]. In 1869, 18 Jews were killed in [[Tunis]], and an Arab mob looted Jewish homes and stores, and burned synagogues, on [[Djerba|Jerba Island]]. In 1875, 20 Jews were killed by a mob in [[Demnat]], Morocco; elsewhere in Morocco, Jews were attacked and killed in the streets in broad daylight. In 1891, the leading Muslims in [[Jerusalem]] asked the Ottoman authorities in [[Constantinople]] to prohibit the entry of Jews arriving from [[Russia]]. In 1897, synagogues were ransacked and Jews were murdered in [[Tripolitania]].<ref name=Gilbert179/>
[[Benny Morris]] writes that one symbol of Jewish degradation was the phenomenon of stone-throwing at Jews by Muslim children. Morris quotes a 19th century traveler: "I have seen a little fellow of six years old, with a troop of fat toddlers of only three and four, teaching [them] to throw stones at a Jew, and one little urchin would, with the greatest coolness, waddle up to the man and literally spit upon his Jewish [[gaberdine]]. To all this the Jew is obliged to submit; it would be more than his life was worth to offer to strike a Mahommedan."<ref name=Morris10/>
In [[1850]], the [[Germany|German]] composer [[Richard Wagner]] published ''[[Das Judenthum in der Musik]]'' ("Jewishness in Music") under a [[pseudonym]] in the ''[[Neue Zeitschrift für Musik]]''. The essay began as an attack on Jewish composers, particularly Wagner's contemporaries (and rivals) [[Felix Mendelssohn]] and [[Giacomo Meyerbeer]], but expanded to accuse Jews of being a harmful and alien element in [[German culture]].
[[Image:18960415_antisemitic_political_cartoon_in_Sound_Money.jpg|thumb|left|Antisemitic political cartoon in the US presidential election campaign, 1896]]
During the [[American Civil War]], Major General [[Ulysses S. Grant]] issued an order (quickly rescinded by President [[Abraham Lincoln]]) expelling Jews from areas under his control:
<blockquote>The Jews, as a class violating every regulation of trade established by the Treasury Department and also department orders, are hereby expelled …within twenty-four hours from the receipt of this order.</blockquote>
Grant later issued an order "that no Jews are to be permitted to travel on the road southward." His aide, Colonel [[John V. DuBois]], ordered "all cotton speculators, Jews, and all vagabonds with no honest means of support", to leave the district. "The Israelites especially should be kept out…they are such an intolerable nuisance." Nevertheless, when he ran for President in the election of 1868, Grant was able to carry the Jewish vote and appointed several Jews.
Some Jewish traders were forced to relocate forty miles. In [[Paducah, Kentucky]], military officials gave the town's thirty Jewish families — all long-term residents, none of them speculators and at least two of them [[Union Army]] veterans — 24 hours to leave. A group of Paducah's Jewish merchants successfully appealed in person to Lincoln two days after the [[Emancipation Proclamation]] went into effect.
==Twentieth century==
In 1913, the [[Menahem Mendel Beilis|Beilis Trial]] in [[Russia]] showed that it was still quite possible to revive the blood libel accusation.
In the first half of the twentieth century, in the USA, Jews were discriminated against in employment, access to residential and resort areas, membership in clubs and organizations, and in tightened quotas on Jewish enrollment and teaching positions in colleges and universities. The [[Leo Frank]] lynching by a mob of prominent citizens in [[Marietta, Georgia|Marietta]], [[Georgia (U.S. state)|Georgia]] in 1915 turned the spotlight on antisemitism in the United States and led to the founding of the [[Anti-Defamation League]]. The case was also used to build support for the renewal of the [[Ku Klux Klan]] which had been inactive since 1870.
===Russia and Eastern Europe===
Antisemitism was commonly used as an instrument for personal conflicts in [[USSR|Soviet Russia]], starting from conflict between [[Joseph Stalin|Stalin]] and [[Leon Trotsky|Trotsky]] ("Jews are trotskists, trotskists are Jews") and continuing through numerous conspiracy theories spread by official propaganda. Departament IV of [[NKVD]] was called "Jewsekcia" for its activity in "cleansing" party structures from Jews. Antisemitism in the [[USSR]] reached its peak after 1948 during the campaign against [[Rootless cosmopolitan|"rootless cosmopolitan"]], when several hundred Yiddish-writing poets, writers, painters and sculptors were killed.
After the war, the [[Kielce pogrom]] and "[[March 1968 events]]" in communist [[Poland]] represented a further incidents of antisemitism in Europe. The common theme behind the anti-Jewish violence in the postwar Poland were [[blood libel]] rumours <ref>[http://books.google.com/books?id=4Iiw0KB31rgC&pg=PA233&ots=Se_CvAI3X6&dq=Cracow+Kupa+synagogue+ritual+murder&num=100&sig=0t5WKlHjavg6aVgoL1ertcsPn9U]</ref> <ref>[http://books.google.com/books?id=xZ5Ceq6l0M0C&pg=PA74&ots=VvcY2-LqLQ&dq=blood+libel+kielce&num=100&sig=JY3EykCZ-dp3x3HoBc1jM2vFzks]</ref> .
===Interbellum period===
[[Antisemitism in the United States]] reached its peak during the interwar period. The pioneer automobile manufacturer [[Henry Ford]] propagated antisemitic ideas in his newspaper ''[[The Dearborn Independent]]''. The radio speeches of [[Father Coughlin]] in the late 1930s attacked [[Franklin D. Roosevelt]]'s [[New Deal]] and the notion of a Jewish financial conspiracy.
In the 1940s, the [[aviator]] [[Charles Lindbergh]] and many prominent Americans led The [[America First Committee]] in opposing any involvement in the war against Fascism. During his July 1936 visit he wrote letters saying that there was “more intelligent leadership in Germany than is generally recognized.”
"While I still have my reservations, I have come away with great admiration for the German people. .. Hitler must have far more vision and character than I thought….With all the things we criticize he is undoubtedly a great man…. He is a fanatic in many ways and anyone can see there is fanaticism in Germany today…. On the other hand, Hitler has accomplished results (good and bad), which could hardly have been accomplished without some fanaticism."
America First avoided any appearance of antisemitism and voted to drop Henry Ford as a member for as much. Ford continued his good friendship with the prominent America First member Lindbergh. Lindbergh visited Ford in the summer of 1941. “One month later; Lindbergh gave a speech in Des Moines, Iowa in which he expressed the decidedly Ford-like view that, ‘The three most important groups which have been pressing this country towards war are the British, the Jews, and the Roosevelt Administration.’” In an expurgated portion of his published diaries Lindbergh wrote: “We must limit to a reasonable amount the Jewish influence….Whenever the Jewish percentage of the total population becomes too high, a reaction seems to invariably occur. It is too bad because a few Jews of the right type are, I believe, an asset to any country.”
The [[German American Bund]] held parades in [[New York City]] in the late 1930s which featured [[Nazi]] uniforms and flags featuring [[swastika]]s along side American flags. The zenith of the Bund's history occurred in 1939 at [[Madison Square Garden]]. Some 20,000 people heard Bund leader [[Fritz Kuhn]] criticize President [[Franklin Delano Roosevelt]] by repeatedly referring to him as “Frank D. Rosenfeld”, calling his [[New Deal]] the "Jew Deal", and espousing his belief in the existence of a [[Bolshevik]]-Jewish conspiracy in America. The New York district attorney prosecuted Kuhn. The US House Committee on Un-American Activities (HUAC) was very active in denying the Bund's ability to operate. With the start of the US involvement in [[World War II]] most of the Bund's members were placed in [[internment camp]]s, and some were deported at the end of the war.
Sometimes, during race riots, as in [[Detroit]] in 1943, Jewish businesses were targeted for looting and burning.
===Nazism===
[[Image:Nazi Anti-Semitic Propaganda by David Shankbone.jpg|thumb|left|Two common Anti-semitic depictions of Jews during Nazi Germany: on the left is the Capitalist/Communist global parasite depiction; on the right is the [[Wandering Jew]].]]
In [[Germany]], [[Nazism]] arose as a political movement incorporating antisemitic ideas. These were expressed by [[Adolf Hitler]] in his book ''[[Mein Kampf]]'' ([[German language|German]]: ''My Struggle''). The Nazi regime in Germany led eventually to the [[Holocaust]] and to the [[Second World War]].
==World War II==
Six million Jews, along with five million in other groups targeted by the Nazis, were killed.
[[Image:Selection Birkenau ramp.jpg|right|thumb|200px|"Selection" on the ''Judenrampe'', [[Auschwitz concentration camp|Auschwitz]], May/June 1944. To be sent to the right meant slave labor; to the left, the [[gas chamber]]s. This image shows the arrival of Hungarian Jews from [[Carpathian Ruthenia|Carpatho-Ruthenia]], many of them from the [[Berehove|Berehov]] ghetto. It was taken by Ernst Hofmann or Bernhard Walter of the SS. Courtesy of [[Yad Vashem]].<ref name=AuschwitzAlbum>[http://www1.yadvashem.org/exhibitions/album_auschwitz/home_auschwitz_album.html "The Auschwitz Album"], [[Yad Vashem]].</ref>]]
Of course, the [[Holocaust]] in Europe is one of the most prominent examples of antisemitism. Six million Jews, along with five million other "[[Untermenschen]]" targeted by the Nazis, were killed.<ref>Wolfgang Benz in Dimension des Volksmords: Die Zahl der Jüdischen Opfer des Nationalsozialismus (Munich: Deutscher Taschebuch Verlag, 1991). Israel Gutman, ''Encyclopedia of the Holocaust,'' Macmillan Reference Books; Reference edition (October 1, 1995)</ref><ref>[[Lucy Dawidowicz|Dawidowicz, Lucy]]. ''The War Against The Jews, 1933–1945''. New York : Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1975.</ref>
This is seen by many as the culmination of generations of antisemitism in Europe.
===Post World War II===
After the war, the [[Kielce pogrom]] in [[Poland]] represented a further incident of blood libel in Europe.
The cult of Simon of Trent was disbanded in 1965 by [[Pope Paul VI]], and the shrine erected to him was dismantled. He was removed from the calendar, and his future veneration was forbidden, though a handful of extremists still promote the narrative as a fact. In the 20th century, the [[Menahem Mendel Beilis|Beilis Trial]] in [[Russia]] and the [[Kielce pogrom]] represented incidents of blood libel in Europe. Unproven rumours of Jews killing Christians were used as justification for the killing of Jews by Christians.
===Late twentieth century===
During the early 1980s, isolationists on the far right made overtures to anti-war activists on the left to join forces against government policies in areas where they shared concerns,<ref name=berletzog>[[Chip Berlet|Berlet, Chip]]. [http://www.newint.org/issue372/zog.htm "ZOG Ate My Brains"], ''New Internationalist'', October 2004.</ref> mainly civil liberties, opposition to U.S. military intervention overseas, and opposition to U.S. support for Israel.<ref name=berletwoos>Berlet, Chip. [http://www.publiceye.org/rightwoo/rwooz9-01.html "Right woos Left"], ''Publiceye.org'', December 20, 1990; revised February 22, 1994, revised again 1999.</ref> <ref>The right-wing use of [[anti-Zionism]] as a cover for anti-Semitism can be seen in a 1981 issue of ''Spotlight'', published by the neo-Nazi [[Liberty Lobby]]: "A brazen attempt by influential "Israel-firsters" in the policy echelons of the Reagan administration to extend their control to the day-to-day espionage and covert-action operations of the CIA was the hidden source of the controversy and scandals that shook the U.S. intelligence establishment this summer. The dual loyalists ... have long wanted to grab a hand in the on-the-spot "field control" of the CIA's worldwide clandestine services. They want this control, not just for themselves, but on behalf of the [[Mossad]], Israel's terrorist secret police. (''Spotlight'', August 24, 1981, cited in Berlet, Chip. [http://www.publiceye.org/rightwoo/rwooz9-01.html "Right woos Left"], ''Publiceye.org'', December 20, 1990; revised February 22, 1994, revised again 1999.)</ref>
[[Image:Russian Birth Certificiate of Michael Lucas.JPG|thumb|left|A Soviet birth certificate from 1972 where the nationality is "Jewish"; the practice of labeling Jewish as a nationality has been discontinued.<ref>[http://www.jewishgen.org/databases/Belarus/brest.htm The Brest Ghetto Passport Archive], retrieved February 11, 2008</ref>.]]
As they interacted, some of the classic right-wing anti-Semitic [[scapegoat]]ing conspiracy theories began to seep into progressive circles, <ref name=berletwoos/> including stories about how a "[[New World Order (conspiracy)|New World Order]]", also called the "Shadow Government" or "The Octopus," <ref name=berletzog/> was manipulating world governments. Antisemitic [[conspiracism]]was "peddled aggressively" by right-wing groups. Some on the left adopted the rhetoric, which it has been argued, was made possible by the left's lack of knowledge of the history of [[fascism]] and its use of "scapegoating, [[Reductionism|reductionist]] and simplistic solutions, [[Demagogy|demagoguery]], and a conspiracy theory of history." <ref name=berletwoos/>
Toward the end of 1990, as the movement against the [[Gulf War]] began to build, a number of [[far-right]] and antisemitic groups sought out alliances with left-wing anti-war coalitions, who began to speak openly about a "[[Jewish lobby]]" that was encouraging the United States to invade the Middle East. This idea morphed into conspiracy theories about a "[[Zionist Occupation Government|Zionist-occupied government]]" (ZOG), which has been seen as the modern incarnation of the antisemitic hoax, ''[[The Protocols of the Elders of Zion]]''. <ref name=berletzog/> The antiwar movement as a whole overwhelmingly rejected these overtures by the political right.<ref name=berletwoos/>
In the late twentieth century, there were{{Who|date=August 2007}} allegations of antisemitism against certain prominent American politicians. In 1981 the [[US Senate|senator]] [[Ernest Hollings]] referred to fellow Democrat [[Howard Metzenbaum]] as the "Senator from [[B'nai Brith]]" on the floor of the Senate. In the context of the first US-Iraq war, on September 15, 1990 [[Pat Buchanan]] appeared on the [[McLaughlin Group]] and said that "there are only two groups that are beating the drums for war in the Middle East - the Israeli defense ministry and its 'amen corner' in the United States." He also said, "The Israelis want this war desperately because they want the United States to destroy the Iraqi war machine. They want us to finish them off. They don't care about our relations with the Arab world." When he delivered a keynote address at the 1992 [[Republican Party (United States)|Republican]] National Convention, known as the culture war speech, he described "a religious war going on in our country for the soul of America".
The [[Crown Heights riots]] of 1991 were a violent expression of tensions within a very poor urban community. They pitted [[African American]] residents against followers of [[Hassidic]] Judaism.
==Twenty-first century==
{{Expand-section|date=June 2008}}
The first years of the twenty-first century have seen an upsurge of antisemitism. Several authors argue that this is antisemitism of a new type, which they call [[new antisemitism]].
In the United States and in the context of the "Global [[War on Terrorism]]", there have been statements by both the [[Democratic Party (United States)|Democrat]] [[Ernest Hollings]] and the right-wing [[Republican Party (United States)|Republican]] Pat Buchanan which suggest that the [[George W. Bush]] Administration went to war in order to win Jewish supporters. This has some echoes of Lindbergh’s claim before World War II that a Jewish minority was pushing America into a war against its interests. Hollings wrote an editorial in the May 6, 2004 ''Charleston Post and Courier'', where he argued that Bush invaded Iraq possibly because "spreading democracy in the Mideast to secure Israel would take the Jewish vote from the Democrats."
[[Blood libel against Jews#In Arab and Muslim nations|Blood libel]] stories have appeared numerous times in the state-sponsored media of a number of [[Arab]] nations, on Arab television shows, and on websites.<ref>[http://memri.org/bin/articles.cgi?Page=archives&Area=sd&ID=SP105305 Iranian TV Blood Libel]</ref><ref>{{cite news
|author=Steven Stalinsky
|url=http://www.nysun.com/article/30846?page_no=2
|title=Passover and the Blood Libel
|work=The New York Sun
|publisher=The New York Sun, One SL, LLC
|page= Foreign, page 6
|date=2006-04-12
|accessdate=2007-01-14
}}</ref><ref>[http://weekly.ahram.org.eg/2003/619/focus.htm Al-Ahram Weekly Online, January 2-8, 2003 (Issue No. 619)]</ref>
In 2004, the UK Parliament set up an all-Parliamentary inquiry into antisemitism, which published its findings in 2006. The inquiry stated that "until recently, the prevailing opinion both within the Jewish community and beyond [had been] that antisemitism had receded to the point that it existed only on the margins of society." It found a reversal of this progress since 2000. It aimed to investigate the problem, identify the sources of contemporary antisemitism and make recommendations to improve the situation.<ref>{{cite web|title=Report of the All-Party Parliamentary Inquiry
into Antisemitism|url=http://thepcaa.org/Report.pdf|date=September 2006|access=14 February 2007|author=All-Party Parliamentary Group against Antisemitism (UK)}}</ref>
==See also==
*[[Jewish history]]
*[[Timeline of antisemitism]]
*[[Timeline of Jewish history]]
*[[History of ancient Israel and Judah]]
*[[History of antisemitism in the United States]]
*[[History of Israel]]
*[[History of Palestine]]
*[[History of the Jews in Russia and the Soviet Union]]
*[[History of the Jews in Poland]]
*[[Anti-Zionism]]
*[[Arab-Israeli conflict]]
*[[Righteous Among the Nations]]
*[[Antisemitism (resources)]]
*''[[From Swastika to Jim Crow]]''
==Further reading==
*''Anti-Semitism'', Keter Publishing House, Jerusalem, 1974. ISBN 0-7065-1327-4
*Elliot Rosenberg, ''But Were They Good for the Jews? Over 150 Historical Figures Viewed Fom a Jewish Perspective''. ISBN 1-55972-436-6
*Paul Johnson, ''A History of the Jews''. ISBN 0-06-015698-8
*Phyllis Chesler, ''The New Anti-Semitism''. ISBN 0-7879-6851-X
*Abraham Foxman, ''Never Again?: The Threat of the New Anti-Semitism''. ISBN 0-06-054246-2
*Joshua Rubenstein, ''Stalin's Secret Pogrom: The Postwar Inquisition of the Jewish Anti-Fascist Committee''. ISBN 0-300-08486-2
*Jeffrey Veidlinger, ''The Moscow State Yiddish Theater''. ISBN 0-253-33784-4
*David Berger (ed.), ''History and Hate: The Dimensions of Anti-Semitism''. ISBN 0-8276-0636-2
*Edward H. Flannery, ''The Anguish of the Jews: Twenty-Three Centuries of Antisemitism''. ISBN 0-8091-2702-4
*Irving M. Abella, Harold M. Troper, ''None is too many: Canada and the Jews of Europe, 1933-1948''. ISBN 0-88619-064-9
*[[S. Ansky]], translated by Joachim Neugroschel, ''The Enemy at His Pleasure: A Journey Through the Jewish Pale of Settlement During World War I''. ISBN 0-8050-5944-X
*Bernard Lewis, ''Semites and Anti-Semites: An Inquiry into Conflict and Prejudice''. ISBN 0-393-31839-7
*Raul Hilberg, ''The Destruction of European Jews'', Holmes & Meier Publishers, 1985. ISBN 0-8419-0910-5
*[[George Nafziger]] and Mark Walton, ''Islam at War'', Greenwood Publishers Group, 2003. ISBN 0-275-98101-0
==References==
{{Reflist}}
==External links==
*[http://www.flholocaustmuseum.org/history_wing/antisemitism/index.cfm Antisemitism through the Ages] Exposition at Florida Holocaust Museum
*[http://www.cdn-friends-icej.ca/antiholo/summanti.html Anti-Semitism: What Is It?]
*[http://www.us-israel.org/jsource/antisem.html Anti-Semitism & Responses]
*[http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/sbook1t.html#Anti-Semitism Internet Medieval Sourcebook: Anti-Semitism]
*[http://www.neveragain.org/time.htm Never Again: The Holocaust Timeline]
*[http://www.lib.umd.edu/SLSES/donors/eng_articles/ussr.html Yiddish in the USSR (by S. L. Shneiderman)]
*[http://www.music-lovers.co.il/russia/miscellaneous_files/ivri_pages/mikhoels.html Solomon Mikhoels]
*[http://www.mideastweb.org/timeline.htm MidEastWeb: Israel-Arab Conflict Timeline]
*[http://pnews.org/art/10art/ROOT.shtml Islamic Antisemitism And Its Nazi Roots]
*[http://christianactionforisrael.org/un/all.html United Nations and Israel]
*[http://www.cdn-friends-icej.ca/un/secret.html The U.N.'s Dirty Little Secret]
*[http://focusonjerusalem.com/antisemitisminun.html Anti-Semitism in the United Nations]
*[http://www.forgottenexodus.com/mizrahitimeline.htm The Forgotten Jewish Exodus: Mizrahi Timeline]
*[http://www.jimena-justice.org/ Jews indigenous to the Middle East and North Africa]
*[http://www.jcpa.org/phas.htm Jerusalem Center for Public Affairs: Post-Holocaust and Anti-Semitism]
*[http://sicsa.huji.ac.il/dem.html Materials for the International Conference The "Other" as Threat: Demonization and Antisemitism] Jerusalem, June 1995
*[http://motlc.wiesenthal.com/resources/education/historicalsurvey/ SWC Museum of Tolerance] Antisemitism: A Historical Survey
*[http://www.frontpagemag.com/Articles/ReadArticle.asp?ID=13496 Antisemitism in the UC Berkeley today]; [http://www.eastbayexpress.com/issues/2004-06-09/news/letters.html response to "Antisemitism in the UC Berkeley today"]
*[http://www.adl.org/Anti_semitism/anti-semitism_global_incidents_2006.asp Global Anti-Semitism: Selected Incidents Around the World in 2006]
*[http://www.aish.com/seminars/whythejews/ Why the Jews]
{{Antisemitism topics|state=collapsed}}
{{Jews and Judaism}}
[[Category:Antisemitism]]
[[Category:Jewish history]]
[[sr:Историјат антисемитизма]]