History of medicine
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All human societies have [[medicine|medical]] beliefs that provide explanations for [[childbirth|birth]], [[death]], and [[disease]]. Throughout history, illness has been attributed to [[witchcraft]], [[demons]], adverse [[astrology|astral influence]], or the will of the [[deity|gods]]. These ideas still retain some power, with [[faith healing]] and [[shrine]]s still used in some places, although the rise of scientific medicine over the past millennium has altered or replaced many of the old beliefs.
{{histOfScience}}
==General overview of the history of medicine ==
===Prehistoric medicine===
{{main|Prehistoric medicine}}
Although there is no actual record of when the use of plants for medicinal purposes ([[herbalism]]) first started, the first generally accepted use of plants as healing agents was depicted in the cave paintings discovered in the [[Lascaux]] caves in France, which have been [[Radiocarbon dating|radiocarbon dated]] to between 13,000 and 25,000 BC.{{Fact|date=June 2008}}
Over time and with trial and error, a small base of knowledge was acquired within early tribal communities. As this knowledge base expanded over the generations, tribal culture developed into specialized areas. These 'specialized jobs' became what are now known as healers or [[shaman]]s.
===Indian medicine===
{{Main|Ayurveda}}
In [[Mehrgarh]], [[Pakistan]], archeologists made the discovery that the people of [[Indus Valley Civilization]] from the early Harappan periods (c. [[3300 BC]]) had knowledge of medicine and [[dentistry]]. The physical anthropologist who carried out the examinations, Professor Andrea Cucina from the University of Missouri-Columbia, made the discovery when he was cleaning the teeth from one of the men. Later research in the same area found evidence of teeth having been drilled, dating back 9,000 years. <ref>[http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/sci/tech/4882968.stm BBC NEWS | Science/Nature | Stone age man used dentist drill<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref>
[[Ayurveda]] (the science of living), is the literate, scholarly system of medicine that originated over 2000 years ago in South Asia. Its two most famous texts belong to the schools of [[Charaka]] and [[Suśruta]]. While these writings display some limited continuities with very ancient medical ideas known from the religious literature called the [[Vedas]], historians have been able to demonstrate direct historical connections between early āyurveda and the early literature of the Buddhists and Jains. It seems that the earliest foundations of āyurveda were built on a synthesis of selected ancient herbal practices dating back to the early second millennium BC, together with a massive addition of theoretical conceptualizations, new [[nosology|nosologies]] and new therapies dating from about 400 BC onwards, and coming out of the communities of thinkers who included the Buddha and others.
* Zysk, Asceticism and Healing in Ancient India: Medicine in the Buddhist Monastery (OUP).
According to the compendium of [[Charaka]], the [[Charakasamhitā]], health and disease are not predetermined and life may be prolonged by human effort. The compendium of [[Suśruta]], the [[Suśrutasamhitā]] defines the purpose of medicine to cure the diseases of the sick, protect the healthy, and to prolong life. Both these ancient compendia include details of the examination, diagnosis, treatment, and prognosis of numerous ailments. The [[Suśrutasamhitā]] is notable for describing procedures on various forms of [[surgery]], including [[rhinoplasty]], the repair of torn ear lobes, perineal lithotomy, cataract surgery, and several other excisions and other surgical procedures.
The āyurvedic classics spoke of eight branches of medicine: kāyācikitsā ([[internal medicine]]), śalyacikitsā ([[surgery]] including [[anatomy]]), śālākyacikitsā ([[eye]], [[ear]], [[nose]], and [[throat]] diseases), kaumārabhṛtya ([[pediatrics]]), bhūtavidyā (spirit medicine), and agada tantra ([[toxicology]]), rasāyana
(science of rejuvenation), and vājīkaraṇa (aphrodesiacs, mainly for men).
Apart from learning these, the student of Āyurveda was expected to know ten arts that were indispensable in the preparation and application of his medicines: distillation, operative skills, cooking, horticulture, metallurgy, sugar manufacture, pharmacy, analysis and separation of minerals, compounding of metals, and preparation of alkalis. The teaching of various subjects was done during the instruction of relevant clinical subjects. For example, teaching of anatomy was a part of the teaching of surgery, [[embryology]] was a part of training in pediatrics and [[obstetrics]], and the knowledge of [[physiology]] and [[pathology]] was interwoven in the teaching of all the clinical disciplines.
At the closing of the initiation, the [[guru]] gave a solemn address to the students where the guru directed the students to a life of chastity, honesty, and [[vegetarianism]]. The student was to strive with all his being for the health of the sick. He was not to betray patients for his own advantage. He was to dress modestly and avoid strong drink. He was to be collected and self-controlled, measured in speech at all times. He was to constantly improve his knowledge and technical skill. In the home of the patient he was to be courteous and modest, directing all attention to the patient's welfare. He was not to divulge any knowledge about the patient and his family. If the patient was incurable, he was to keep this to himself if it was likely to harm the patient or others.
The normal length of the student's training appears to have been seven years. Before graduation, the student was to pass a test. But the physician was to continue to learn through texts, direct observation ([[pratyaksha]]), and through inference ([[anumāna]]). In addition, the [[vaidyas]] attended meetings where knowledge was exchanged. The [[physician]]s were also enjoined to gain knowledge of unusual remedies from hillsmen, herdsmen, and forest-dwellers.
* Dominik Wujastyk, The Roots of Ayurveda (Penguin, 2003).
===Egyptian medicine===
<!-- This section is linked from [[Ancient Egypt]] -->
{{main|Ancient Egyptian medicine}}
Medical information contained in the [[Edwin Smith Papyrus]]<ref>J. H. Breasted, ''The Edwin Smith Surgical Papyrus'', University of Chicago Press, 1930</ref> may date to a time as early as [[3000 BC]] <ref>[http://www.arabworldbooks.com/articles8.htm Medicine in Ancient Egypt 1<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref>. The earliest known [[surgery]] in Egypt was performed in [[History of ancient Egypt|Egypt]] around [[2800 BC|2750 BC]] (see [[surgery]]). [[Imhotep]] in the [[Third dynasty of Egypt|3rd dynasty]] is sometimes credited with being the founder of ancient Egyptian medicine and with being the original author of the Edwin Smith [[papyrus]], detailing cures, ailments and [[anatomical]] observations. The Edwin Smith papyrus is regarded as a copy of several earlier works and was written circa [[1600s BC|1600 BC]]. It is an ancient textbook on surgery almost completely devoid of magical thinking and describes in exquisite detail the ''examination, diagnosis, treatment,'' and ''prognosis'' of numerous ailments <ref>[http://www.britannica.com/eb/article?tocId=9032043&query=Edwin%20Smith%20papyrus&ct= Edwin Smith papyrus - Britannica Online Encyclopedia<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref>.
Conversely, the [[Ebers papyrus]]<ref>P. W. Bryan, ''The Papyrus Ebers'', Geoffrey Bles: London, 1930</ref> (c. [[16th century BC|1550 BC]]) is full of incantations and foul applications meant to turn away disease-causing demons, and other superstition. The Ebers papyrus also provides our earliest possible documentation of ancient awareness of [[tumor]]s, but ancient medical terminology being badly understood, cases pEbers 546 and 547 for instance may refer to simple swellings.
The Kahun Gynaecological Papyrus<ref>Griffith, F. Ll. ''The Petrie Papyri: Hieratic Papyri from Kahun and Gurob''</ref> treats women's complaints, problems with conception. Thirty four cases detailing diagnosis and treatment survive, some of them fragmentarily<ref>[http://www.reshafim.org.il/ad/egypt/timelines/topics/kahunpapyrus.htm The Kahun Gynaecological Papyrus]</ref>
Medical institutions, referred to as ''Houses of Life'' are known to have been established in [[ancient Egypt]] since as early as the [[First dynasty of Egypt|1st Dynasty]].<ref name=articles8c>[http://www.arabworldbooks.com/articles8c.htm ''Medicine in Ancient Egypt'' by Sameh M. Arab, MD]</ref> By the time of the [[Nineteenth dynasty of Egypt|19th Dynasty]] some workers enjoyed such benefits as [[medical insurance]], [[pensions]] and [[sick leave]].<ref name=articles8c />
The earliest known physician is also credited to [[History of ancient Egypt|ancient Egypt]]: [[Hesyre]], “Chief of Dentists and Physicians” for King [[Djoser]] in the [[27th century BC]].<ref name=articles8c /> Also, the earliest known woman physician, [[Peseshet]], practiced in [[Ancient Egypt]] at the time of the [[Fourth dynasty of Egypt|4th dynasty]]. Her title was “Lady Overseer of the Lady Physicians.” In addition to her supervisory role, Peseshet graduated midwives at an ancient Egyptian medical school in [[Sais]].<ref name=articles8c />
See also the article on ancient Egyptian medicine posted at [http://www.indiana.edu/~ancmed/egypt.HTM ''Indiana University: Medicine in Ancient Egypt''].
===Babylonian medicine===
:''Further information: [[Babylonia#Medicine|Babylonia - Medicine]]''
The oldest Babylonian texts on [[medicine]] date back to the [[Old Babylonian]] period in the first half of the [[2nd millennium BC]]. The most extensive Babylonian medical text, however, is the ''Diagnostic Handbook'' written by the physician Esagil-kin-apli of [[Borsippa]],<ref name=Stol-99/> during the reign of the [[List of Kings of Babylon|Babylonian king]] Adad-apla-iddina (1069-1046 BC).<ref>Marten Stol (1993), ''Epilepsy in Babylonia'', p. 55, [[Brill Publishers]], ISBN 9072371631.</ref>
Along with contemporary [[ancient Egyptian medicine]], the Babylonians introduced the concepts of [[diagnosis]], [[prognosis]], [[physical examination]], and [[prescription]]s. In addition, the ''Diagnostic Handbook'' introduced the methods of [[therapy]] and [[aetiology]] and the use of [[empiricism]], [[logic]] and [[rationality]] in diagnosis, prognosis and therapy. The text contains a list of medical [[symptom]]s and often detailed empirical [[observation]]s along with logical rules used in combining observed symptoms on the body of a [[patient]] with its diagnosis and prognosis.<ref>H. F. J. Horstmanshoff, Marten Stol, Cornelis Tilburg (2004), ''Magic and Rationality in Ancient Near Eastern and Graeco-Roman Medicine'', p. 97-98, [[Brill Publishers]], ISBN 9004136665.</ref>
The ''Diagnostic Handbook'' was based on a logical set of [[axiom]]s and assumptions, including the modern view that through the examination and [[inspection]] of the symptoms of a patient, it is possible to determine the patient's [[disease]], its aetiology and future development, and the chances of the patient's recovery. The symptoms and diseases of a patient were treated through therapeutic means such as [[bandage]]s, [[Cream (pharmaceutical)|cream]]s and [[pill]]s.<ref name=Stol-99>H. F. J. Horstmanshoff, Marten Stol, Cornelis Tilburg (2004), ''Magic and Rationality in Ancient Near Eastern and Graeco-Roman Medicine'', p. 99, [[Brill Publishers]], ISBN 9004136665.</ref>
===Persian medicine===
{{main|Ancient Iranian Medicine}}
{{see|Islamic medicine|Science and technology in Iran}}
The practice and study of medicine in [[Persia]] has a long and prolific history. Persia's position at the crossroads of the East and the West frequently placed it in the midst of developments in both ancient Greek and Indian medicine. Many contributions were added to this body of knowledge in both pre- and post-Islamic Iran as well.
The first generation of Persian physicians was trained at the [[Academy of Jundishapur]], where the teaching hospital has sometimes been claimed to have been invented. Rhazes, for example, became the first physician to systematically use alcohol in his practice as a physician.
The ''Comprehensive Book of Medicine'' (Large Comprehensive, Hawi, "al-Hawi" or "The Continence") was written by the Iranian chemist [[Rhazes]] (known also as [[Rhazes|Razi]]), the "Large Comprehensive" was the most sought after of all his compositions. In it, Rhazes recorded clinical cases of his own experience and provided very useful recordings of various diseases.
The "''Kitab fi al-jadari wa-al-hasbah''" by Rhazes, with its introduction on [[measles]] and [[smallpox]] was also very influential in [[Europe]].
The [[Mutazilite]] [[philosopher]] and [[physician]] [[Ibn Sina]] (also known as [[Avicenna]] in the western world) was another influential figure. His ''[[The Canon of Medicine]]'', sometimes considered the most famous book in the history of medicine, remained a standard text in Europe up until its [[Age of Enlightenment]].
===Chinese medicine===
{{main|Traditional Chinese medicine}}
China also developed a large body of traditional medicine. Much of the philosophy of [[traditional Chinese medicine]] derived from empirical observations of disease and illness by [[Taoist]] physicians and reflects the classical Chinese belief that individual human experiences express causative principles effective in the environment at all scales. These causative principles, whether material, essential, or mystical, correlate as the expression of the natural order of the universe.
During the golden age of his reign from 2696 to 2598 B.C, as a result of a dialogue with his minister Ch'i Pai, the [[Yellow Emperor]] is supposed by Chinese tradition to have composed his ''Neijing (內經) [[Suwen]] (素問)'' or ''Basic Questions of Internal Medicine''.
During the Han dynasty, Chang Chung-Ching, who was mayor of Chang-sha near the end of the second century A.D., wrote a ''Treatise on Typhoid Fever'', which contains the earliest known reference to ''[[Neijing Suwen]]''. The [[Jin Dynasty (265–420)|Jin Dynasty]] practitioner and advocate of [[acupuncture]] and [[moxibustion]], Huang-fu Mi (215-282 A.D), also quotes the [[Yellow Emperor]] in his
''Chia I Ching'', ca. 265 A.D. During the Tang dynasty, Wang Ping claimed to have located a copy of the originals of the '''Neijing Suwen''', which he expanded and edited substantially. This work was revisited by an imperial commission during the eleventh century A.D., and the result is our best extant representation of the foundational roots of traditional Chinese medicine.
===Hebrew medicine===
Most of our knowledge of ancient Hebrew medicine during the [[1st millennium BCE]] comes from the [[Torah]], i.e. the Five Books of [[Moses]], which contain various health related laws and rituals, such as isolating infected people (Leviticus 13:45-46), washing after handling a dead body (Numbers 19:11-19) and burying excrement away from camp (Deuteronomy 23:12-13). While the observance of these statutes would have and do lead to several health benefits, Jewish belief commands that these rituals and prohibitions be kept purely to fulfill the will of God with no ulterior motive. Max Neuberger, writing in his "History of Medicine" says"
:''"The commands concern prophylaxis and suppression of epidemics, suppression of venereal disease and prostitution, care of the skin, baths , food, housing and clothing, regulation of labour , sexual life , discipline of the people , etc. Many of these commands, such as Sabbath rest, circumcision, laws concerning food (interdiction of blood and pork), measures concerning menstruating and lying-in women and those suffering from gonorrhoea, isolation of lepers, and hygiene of the camp, are, in view of the conditions of the climate, surprisingly rational."''(Neuburger: History of Medicine, Oxford University Press, 1910, Vol. I, p. 38).
===Greco-Roman medicine===
{{main|Medicine in ancient Greece|Medicine in ancient Rome|Medical community of ancient Rome|Byzantine medicine|Medieval medicine}}
Since the discovery in 1991 of the frozen and preserved body of [[Ötzi the Iceman]] in the Austrian-Italian [[Alps]], it has been thought that the history of medicine moved further back in time. He was aged about 46 and had over 40 tattoos, most of them in locations where medical analysis also showed he had disease or pain such as arthritis. His death occurred in 3300 BC and his body, held in the museum in [[Bolzano]], is the oldest preserved European [[mummy]].
[[Image:HippocraticOath.jpg|thumb|200px|''[[Hippocratic Corpus]]'', is a collection of around seventy early medical works from [[ancient Greece]] strongly associated with the ancient Greek physician [[Hippocrates]] and his teachings.]]
As societies developed in Europe and Asia, belief systems were replaced with a different natural system. The [[Ancient Greece|Greeks]], from [[Hippocrates]], developed a humoral medicine system where treatment was to restore the balance of [[Classical element|humours]] within the body. ''[[Ancient Medicine]]'' is a treatise on medicine, written roughly [[400 BC]] by Hippocrates. Similar views were espoused in [[China]] and in [[India]]. (See [[Medicine in ancient Greece]] for more details.)<ref>[http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Medicine Medicine]</ref><ref>[http://www.mic.ki.se/West.html History of Western Biomedicine]</ref>
In Greece, through [[Galen]] until the [[Renaissance]] the main thrust of medicine was the maintenance of health by control of [[diet (nutrition)|diet]] and [[hygiene]]. [[Anatomy|Anatomical]] knowledge was limited and there were few surgical or other cures, [[physician]]s relied on a good relation with patients and dealt with minor ailments and soothing chronic conditions and could do little when epidemic diseases, growing out of [[urbanization]] and the [[domestication]] of animals, then raged across the world.
[[Hippocrates]], regarded as the father of modern medicine,<ref>[http://www.medicinaantiqua.org.uk/sa_hippint.html Hippocrates: The "Greek Miracle" in Medicine]</ref><ref>[http://www.geocities.com/trepanationz/hippocrates/ The Father of Modern Medicine: Hippocrates]</ref> and his followers were first to describe many diseases and medical conditions. He is given credit for the first description of [[clubbing]] of the fingers, an important diagnostic sign in chronic suppurative lung disease, [[lung cancer]] and [[Cyanotic heart defect|cyanotic heart disease]]. For this reason, clubbed fingers are sometimes referred to as "Hippocratic fingers".<ref name=schwartz> {{Harvnb|Schwartz|Richards|Goyal|2006}} </ref> Hippocrates was also the first physician to describe [[Hippocratic face]] in ''Prognosis''. [[Shakespeare]] famously alludes to this description when writing of [[Falstaff]]'s death in Act II, Scene iii. of ''[[Henry V (play)|Henry V]]''.<ref name=sing40> {{Harvnb|Singer|Underwood|1962|p=40}} </ref><ref name=margotta70> {{Harvnb|Margotta|1968|p=70}} </ref>
Hippocrates began to categorize illnesses as [[Acute (medical)|acute]], [[Chronic (medicine)|chronic]], [[Endemic (epidemiology)|endemic]] and [[epidemic]], and use terms such as, "exacerbation, [[relapse]], resolution, crisis, [[paroxysm]], peak, and [[convalescence]]."<ref name=garrison97> {{Harvnb|Garrison|1966|p=97}}</ref><ref name=mart90> {{Harvnb|Martí-Ibáñez|1961|p=90}} </ref> Another of Hippocrates's major contributions may be found in his descriptions of the symptomatology, physical findings, surgical treatment and prognosis of [[Empyema|thoracic empyema]], i.e. [[suppuration]] of the lining of the chest cavity. His teachings remain relevant to present-day students of [[Pulmonology|pulmonary medicine]] and surgery.<ref name=major> {{Harvnb|Major|1965}} </ref> Hippocrates was the first documented [[Cardiothoracic Surgery|chest surgeon]] and his findings are still valid.<ref name=major> {{Harvnb|Major|1965}} </ref>
[[Galen]] performed many audacious operations—including brain and eye [[surgery|surgeries]]— that were not tried again for almost two millennia. Later, in medieval Europe, Galen's writings on anatomy became the mainstay of the medieval physician's university curriculum along; but they suffered greatly from stasis and intellectual stagnation. In the 1530s, however, Belgian anatomist and physician [[Andreas Vesalius]] took on a project to translate many of Galen's Greek texts into Latin. Vesalius's most famous work, ''[[De humani corporis fabrica]]'', was greatly influenced by Galenic writing and form.<ref>Dear, Peter. ''Revolutionizing the Sciences: European Knowledge and Its Ambitions, 1500-1700.'' Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press (2001), 37-39.</ref> The works of [[Galen]] and [[Avicenna]], especially ''The Canon of Medicine'' which incorporated the teachings of both, were translated into [[Latin]], and the ''Canon'' remained the most authoritative text on anatomy in European medical education until the [[16th century]].
[[Ancient Rome|Romans]] invented numerous [[surgical instruments]], including the first instruments unique to women,<ref name=Rome>[http://www.healthsystem.virginia.edu/internet/library/wdc-lib/historical/artifacts/roman_surgical/ Surgical Instruments from Ancient Rome]</ref> as well as the surgical uses of [[forceps]], [[scalpel]], [[Cautery#History|cautery]], [[Scissors|cross-bladed scissors]], [[surgical needle]], [[Sound (medical instrument)|sound]], and [[Speculum (medical)|specula]].<ref name=Surgery>[http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/7137224.stm Roman period surgery set on show], [[BBC]]</ref><ref name=Chirurgia>[http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/secondary/SMIGRA*/Chirurgia.html Chirurgia], William Alexander Greenhill, M.D., Trinity College, Oxford </ref> Romans were also pioneers in the [[cataract surgery]]..<ref>[http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/health/7194352.stm The Romans carried out cataract ops], [[BBC]]</ref>
Medieval medicine was an evolving mixture of the [[science|scientific]] and the spiritual. In the early [[Middle Ages]], following the fall of the [[Roman Empire]], standard medical knowledge was based chiefly upon surviving Greek and Roman texts, preserved in monasteries and elsewhere. Ideas about the origin and cure of [[disease]] were not, however, purely [[secular]], but were also based on a [[spirituality|spiritual]] world view, in which factors such as destiny, sin, and astral influences played as great a part as any physical cause.
[[Oribasius]] was the greatest [[Byzantine Empire|Byzantine]] compiler of medical knowledge. Several of his works, along with many other [[Byzantine medicine|Byzantine physicians]], were translated into Latin, and eventually, during the [[Age of Enlightenment|Enlightenment]] and [[Age of Reason]], into English and French. The last great Byzantine Physician was [[Actuarius]], who lived in the early [[14th Century]] in [[Constantinople]].
Medicine was notably not one of the seven classical [[Artes liberales]], and was consequently looked upon more as a handicraft than as a science. Medicine did, nevertheless, establish itself as a faculty, along with [[law]] and [[theology]] in the first European [[Medieval university|Universities]] from the 12th century. [[Rogerius (physician)|Rogerius Salernitanus]] composed his ''Chirurgia'', laying the foundation for modern Western surgical manuals up to the modern time. The development of modern [[neurology]] began in the 16th century with [[Vesalius]], who described the anatomy of the brain and much else; he had little notion of function, thinking that it lay mainly in the [[ventricular system|ventricle]]s.<ref>[http://www.clinmedres.org/cgi/content/full/1/4/327 A Neurologist Looks at Mind and Brain: "The Enchanted Loom"]</ref>
===Islamic medicine===
[[Image:Cheshm manuscript.jpg|right|thumb|An [[Arabic]] manuscript, dated 1200 CE, titled ''Anatomy of the Eye'', authored by al-Mutadibih.]]
{{main|Islamic medicine}}
{{see|Ophthalmology in medieval Islam|Bimaristan|Unani}}
The [[Islamic Golden Age|Islamic civilization]] rose to primacy in medical science as Muslim [[physician]]s contributed significantly to the field of medicine, including [[anatomy]], [[ophthalmology]], [[pharmacology]], [[pharmacy]], [[physiology]], [[surgery]], and the [[pharmaceutical sciences]]. The Arabs further developed [[Ancient Greece|Greek]] and [[Ancient Rome|Roman]] medical practices. [[Galen]] and [[Hippocrates]] were pre-eminent authorities.<ref>[http://www.experiencefestival.com/a/Islamic_Golden_Age_-_Medicine/id/1433472 Islamic Golden Age - Medicine]</ref> The translation c.[[830]]-[[870]] of 129 works of ancient [[Greeks|Greek]] [[physician]] [[Galen]] into [[Arabic language|Arabic]] by [[Hunayn ibn Ishaq]] and his assistants, and in particular Galen's insistence on a rational systematic approach to medicine, set the template for [[Islamic medicine]], which rapidly spread throughout the [[Arab Empire]]. Muslim physicians set up some of the earliest dedicated [[hospital]]s, which later spread to Europe during the [[Crusade]]s, inspired by the hospitals in the Middle East.<ref name=Sarton>[[George Sarton]], ''Introduction to the History of Science''.<br>([[cf.]] Dr. A. Zahoor and Dr. Z. Haq (1997), [http://www.cyberistan.org/islamic/Introl1.html Quotations From Famous Historians of Science], Cyberistan.</ref>
[[Al-Kindi]] wrote ''[[De Gradibus]]'', in which he demonstrated the application of mathematics to medicine, particularly in the field of pharmacology. This includes the development of a mathematical scale to quantify the strength of [[drug]]s, and a system that would allow a doctor to determine in advance the most critical days of a patient's illness.<ref> Felix Klein-Frank (2001), ''Al-Kindi'', in [[Oliver Leaman]] and [[Hossein Nasr]], ''History of Islamic Philosophy'', p. 172. [[Routledge]], London.</ref> [[Rhazes|Razi]] (Rhazes) (865-925) recorded [[clinical]] cases of his own experience and provided very useful recordings of various [[disease]]s. His ''Comprehensive Book of Medicine'', which introduced [[measles]] and [[smallpox]], was very influential in Europe. In his ''Doubts about Galen'', Razi was also the first to prove both [[Galen]]'s theory of [[humorism]] and [[Aristotle]]'s theory of [[classical element]]s false using an experimental method.<ref>G. Stolyarov II (2002), "Rhazes: The Thinking Western Physician", ''The Rational Argumentator'', Issue VI.</ref>
[[Abu al-Qasim]] (Abulcasis), regarded as the father of modern [[surgery]],<ref>A. Martin-Araguz, C. Bustamante-Martinez, Ajo V. Fernandez-Armayor, J. M. Moreno-Martinez (2002). "Neuroscience in al-Andalus and its influence on medieval scholastic medicine", ''Revista de neurología'' '''34''' (9), p. 877-892.</ref> wrote the ''Kitab [[al-Tasrif]]'' ([[1000]]), a 30-volume medical [[encyclopedia]] which was taught at Muslim and European [[medical school]]s until the 17th century. He used numerous [[surgical instruments]], including the instruments unique to women,<ref name=Saad>Bashar Saad, Hassan Azaizeh, Omar Said (October 2005). "Tradition and Perspectives of Arab Herbal Medicine: A Review", ''Evidence-based Complementary and Alternative Medicine'' '''2''' (4), p. 475-479 [476]. [[Oxford University Press]].</ref><ref name=Rome/> as well as the surgical uses of [[catgut]] and [[forceps]], the [[Ligature (medicine)|ligature]], [[surgical needle]], [[scalpel]], [[curette]], [[retractor]], surgical [[spoon]], [[Sound (medical instrument)|sound]], surgical [[hook]], surgical [[rod]], and [[Speculum (medical)|specula]],<ref>Khaled al-Hadidi (1978), "The Role of Muslem Scholars in Oto-rhino-Laryngology", ''The Egyptian Journal of O.R.L.'' '''4''' (1), p. 1-15. ([[cf.]] [http://muslimheritage.com/topics/default.cfm?ArticleID=674 Ear, Nose and Throat Medical Practice in Muslim Heritage], Foundation for Science Technology and Civilization.)</ref> bone [[saw]],<ref>Paul Vallely, [http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_qn4158/is_20060311/ai_n16147544 How Islamic Inventors Changed the World], ''[[The Independent]]'', 11 March 2006.</ref> and [[plaster]].<ref>Zafarul-Islam Khan, [http://milligazette.com/Archives/15-1-2000/Art5.htm At The Threshhold Of A New Millennium – II], ''The Milli Gazette''.</ref>
[[Avicenna]], considered the father of modern medicine<ref>Cas Lek Cesk (1980). "The father of medicine, Avicenna, in our science and culture: Abu Ali ibn Sina (980-1037)", ''Becka J.'' '''119''' (1), p. 17-23.</ref> and one of the greatest thinkers and medical scholars in history,<ref name=Sarton/> wrote ''[[The Canon of Medicine]]'' (1020) and ''[[The Book of Healing]]'' ([[11th century]]), which remained standard textbooks in both Muslim and European [[University|universities]] until the 17th century. Avicenna's contributions include the introduction of systematic [[experiment]]ation and [[quantification]] into the study of [[physiology]],<ref>Katharine Park (March 1990). "''Avicenna in Renaissance Italy: The Canon and Medical Teaching in Italian Universities after 1500'' by Nancy G. Siraisi", ''The Journal of Modern History'' '''62''' (1), p. 169-170.</ref> the discovery of the contagious nature of [[infectious disease]]s, the introduction of [[quarantine]] to limit the spread of contagious diseases, the introduction of [[experimental medicine]] and [[clinical trial]]s,<ref>David W. Tschanz, MSPH, PhD (August 2003). "Arab Roots of European Medicine", ''Heart Views'' '''4''' (2).</ref> the first descriptions on [[bacteria]] and [[virus|viral]] [[organism]]s,<ref>[http://www.unani.com/avicenna%20story%203.htm The Canon of Medicine], The American Institute of Unani Medicine, 2003.</ref> the distinction of [[mediastinitis]] from [[pleurisy]], the contagious nature of [[phthisis]] and [[tuberculosis]], the distribution of [[disease]]s by [[water]] and [[soil]], and the first careful descriptions of [[skin]] troubles, [[sexually transmitted disease]]s, [[perversion]]s, and [[Nervous system|nervous]] [[ailment]]s,<ref name=Sarton/> as well the use of [[ice]] to treat [[fever]]s, and the separation of [[medicine]] from [[pharmacology]], which was important to the development of the [[pharmaceutical sciences]].<ref name=Saad/>
In 1021, [[Ibn al-Haytham]] (Alhacen) made important advances in [[eye surgery]], as he studied and correctly explained the process of [[sight]] and [[visual perception]] for the first time in his ''[[Book of Optics]]'' (1021).<ref name=Saad/>
In 1242, [[Ibn al-Nafis]] was the first to describe [[pulmonary circulation]] and [[coronary circulation]],<ref>Husain F. Nagamia (2003), "Ibn al-Nafīs: A Biographical Sketch of the Discoverer of Pulmonary and Coronary Circulation", ''Journal of the International Society for the History of Islamic Medicine'' '''1''', p. 22–28.</ref> which form the basis of the [[circulatory system]], for which he is considered the father of the theory of circulation.<ref>Chairman's Reflections (2004), "Traditional Medicine Among Gulf Arabs, Part II: Blood-letting", ''Heart Views'' '''5''' (2), p. 74-85 [80].</ref> He also described the earliest concept of [[metabolism]],<ref>Dr. Abu Shadi Al-Roubi (1982), "Ibn Al-Nafis as a philosopher", ''Symposium on Ibn al-Nafis'', Second International Conference on Islamic Medicine: Islamic Medical Organization, Kuwait ([[cf.]] [http://www.islamset.com/isc/nafis/drroubi.html Ibn al-Nafis As a Philosopher], ''Encyclopedia of Islamic World'').</ref> and developed new systems of [[physiology]] and [[psychology]] to replace the [[Avicenna|Avicennian]] and [[Galen]]ic systems, while discrediting many of their erroneous theories on the [[humorism|four humours]], [[Pulse|pulsation]],<ref>Nahyan A. G. Fancy (2006), "Pulmonary Transit and Bodily Resurrection: The Interaction of Medicine, Philosophy and Religion in the Works of Ibn al-Nafīs (d. 1288)", p. 3 & 6, ''Electronic Theses and Dissertations'', [[University of Notre Dame]].[http://etd.nd.edu/ETD-db/theses/available/etd-11292006-152615]</ref> [[bone]]s, [[muscle]]s, [[intestine]]s, [[Sensory system|sensory organs]], [[Bile|bilious]] [[Canal (anatomy)|canals]], [[esophagus]], [[stomach]], etc.<ref>Dr. Sulaiman Oataya (1982), "Ibn ul Nafis has dissected the human body", ''Symposium on Ibn al-Nafis'', Second International Conference on Islamic Medicine: Islamic Medical Organization, Kuwait ([[cf.]] [http://www.islamset.com/isc/nafis/index.html Ibn ul-Nafis has Dissected the Human Body], ''Encyclopedia of Islamic World'').</ref>
Ibn al-Lubudi (1210-1267) rejected the theory of four [[Humorism|humours]] supported by [[Galen]] and [[Hippocrates]], discovered that the [[body]] and its preservation depend exclusively upon [[blood]], rejected Galen's idea that women can produce [[sperm]], and discovered that the movement of [[arteries]] are not dependent upon the movement of the [[heart]], that the heart is the first organ to form in a [[fetus]]' body (rather than the [[brain]] as claimed by Hippocrates), and that the [[bone]]s forming the [[skull]] can grow into [[tumor]]s.<ref>L. Leclerc (1876), ''Histoire de la medecine Arabe'', vol. 2, p. 161, [[Paris]]. <br> ([[cf.]] Salah Zaimeche, [http://www.muslimheritage.com/topics/default.cfm?ArticleID=497 The Scholars of Aleppo: Al Mahassin, Al Urdi, Al-Lubudi, Al-Halabi], Foundation for Science Technology and Civilisation)</ref> [[Maimonides]], although a [[Jew]] himself, made various contributions to Islamic medicine in the 13th century.
The ''Tashrih al-badan'' (''Anatomy of the body'') of [[Mansur ibn Ilyas]] (c. 1390) contained comprehensive diagrams of the body's structural, [[Nervous system|nervous]] and [[circulatory system]]s.<ref>H. R. Turner (1997), p. 136—138.</ref> During the [[Black Death]] [[bubonic plague]] in 14th century [[al-Andalus]], Ibn Khatima and Ibn al-Khatib discovered that infecious diseases are caused by [[microorganism]]s which enter the human body.<ref>Ibrahim B. Syed, Ph.D. (2002). "Islamic Medicine: 1000 years ahead of its times", ''[[The Islamic Medical Association of North America|Journal of the Islamic Medical Association]]'' '''2''', p. 2-9.</ref> Other medical innovations first introduced by Muslim physicians include the discovery of the [[immune system]], the introduction of [[microbiology]], the use of [[animal testing]], and the combination of medicine with other [[science]]s (including [[agriculture]], [[botany]], [[chemistry]], and [[pharmacology]]),<ref name=Saad/> as well as the invention of the [[Injection (medicine)|injection]] [[syringe]] by Ammar ibn Ali al-Mawsili in 9th century [[Iraq]], the first [[drugstore]]s in [[Baghdad]] (754), the distinction between medicine and pharmacy by the 12th century, and the discovery of at least 2,000 medicinal and [[chemical substance]]s.<ref>S. Hadzovic (1997). "Pharmacy and the great contribution of Arab-Islamic science to its development", ''Med Arh.'' '''51''' (1-2), p. 47-50.</ref>
===European Medieval, Renaissance and Enlightenment medicine===
''see also'': [[Medieval medicine]]
In western Europe the collapse of Roman imperial authority led to a halt to the development of organised medical practice. Medicine became localised, with folk-medicine augmenting what remained of the medical knowledge of antiquity. Medical knowledge was preserved and practised in many [[christian monasticism|monastic]] institutions, which often had a [[hospital]] attached. Organised professional medicine re-emerged, with the foundation of the medical college of Salerno in Italy in the 11th century, which in co-operation with the monastery of [[Monte Cassino]], translated many [[Byzantine]] and Arabic works. In the twelfth century universities were founded in Italy and elsewhere, which soon developed schools of medicine. Gradually the reliance on the masters of the ancient world was augmented by the results of individual observation and experience. Surgical practice improved greatly during the medieval period. With the renaissance came an increase in experimental investigation, principally in dissection and examining bodies. The work of individuals like [[Andreas Vesalius]] and [[William Harvey]] challenged accepted folklore with scientific evidence. Understanding and diagnosis improved but with little direct benefit to health. Few effective drugs existed, beyond [[opium]] and [[quinine]], folklore cures and potentially poisonous metal-based compounds were popular treatments.
Important figures:
* [[Theodoric Borgognoni]], (1205-1296), one of the most significant surgeons of the medieval period, responsible for introducing and promoting important surgical advances including basic [[antiseptic]] practice and the use of [[anaesthetic]]s.
* [[Guy de Chauliac]], considered to be one of the earliest fathers of modern surgery, after the great Islamic surgeon, [[Abu al-Qasim|El Zahrawi]].
* [[Realdo Colombo]], anatomist and surgeon who contributed to understanding of lesser circulation.
* [[Michael Servetus]], considered to be the first European to ''discover'' the pulmonary circulation of the blood.
* [[Ambroise Paré]] suggested using ligatures instead of cauterisation and tested the [[bezoar]] stone.
* [[William Harvey]] describes blood circulation.
* [[John Hunter (surgeon)|John Hunter]], surgeon.
* [[Amato Lusitano]] described venous valves and guessed their function.
* [[Garcia de Orta]] first to describe [[Cholera]] and other tropical diseases and herbal treatments
* [[Percivall Pott]], surgeon.
* Sir [[Thomas Browne]] physician and medical neologist.
*[[Thomas Sydenham]] physician and so-called "English Hippocrates."
===Modern medicine===
Medicine was revolutionized in the 19th century and beyond by advances in [[chemistry]] and laboratory techniques and equipment, old ideas of infectious disease epidemiology were replaced with [[bacteriology]] and [[virology]].
[[Bacteria]] and [[microorganisms]] were first observed with a [[microscope]] by [[Antonie van Leeuwenhoek]] in 1676, initiating the scientific field [[microbiology]].<ref name=Brock>{{cite book | author = Madigan M, Martinko J (editors) | title = Brock Biology of Microorganisms | edition = 11th ed. | publisher = Prentice Hall | year = 2006 | isbn = 0-13-144329-1 }}</ref>
[[Ignaz Semmelweis]] (1818-1865) in [[1847]] dramatically reduced the death rate of new mothers from [[childbed fever]] by the simple expedient of requiring physicians to clean their hands before attending to women in [[childbirth]]. His discovery pre-dated the [[germ theory of disease]]. However, his discoveries were not appreciated by his contemporaries and came into general use only with discoveries of British surgeon [[Joseph Lister]], who in [[1865]] proved the principles of [[antisepsis]] in the treatment of wounds; However, medical conservatism on new breakthroughs in pre-existing science prevented them from being generally well received during the 19th century.
After [[Charles Darwin]]'s 1859 publication of ''[[The Origin of Species]]'', [[Gregor Mendel]] (1822-1884) published in 1865 his books on pea plants, which would be later known as [[Mendelian inheritance|Mendel's laws]]. Re-discovered at the turn of the century, they would form the basis of [[history of genetics|classical genetics]]. The 1953 discovery of the structure of [[DNA]] by [[James D. Watson|Watson]] and [[Francis Crick|Crick]] would open the door to [[History of molecular biology|molecular biology]] and modern genetics. During the late 19th century and the first part of the 20th century, several physicians, such as Nobel prize winner Alexis Carrel, supported [[eugenics]], a theory first formulated in 1865 by [[Francis Galton]]. Eugenics was discredited as a science after the [[Nazi Germany|Nazis]]' experiments in [[World War II]] became known; however, [[compulsory sterilization]] programs continued to be used in modern countries (including the US, Sweden or Peru) until much later.
Semmelweis's work was supported by the discoveries made by [[Louis Pasteur]]. Linking microorganisms with disease, Pasteur brought about a revolution in medicine. He also invented with [[Claude Bernard]] (1813-1878) the process of [[pasteurization]] still in use today. His experiments confirmed the germ theory. Claude Bernard aimed at establishing [[scientific method]] in medicine; he published ''An Introduction to the Study of Experimental Medicine'' in 1865. Beside this, Pasteur, along with [[Robert Koch]] (who was awarded the [[Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine|Nobel Prize]] in 1905), founded bacteriology. Koch was also famous for the discovery of the [[Mycobacterium tuberculosis|tubercle bacillus]] ([[1882]]) and the [[Vibrio cholerae|cholera bacillus]] ([[1883]]) and for his development of [[Koch's postulates]].
The participation of women in medical care (beyond serving as midwives, sitters and cleaning women) was brought about by the likes of [[Florence Nightingale]]. These women showed a previously male dominated profession the elemental role of nursing in order to lessen the aggravation of patient mortality which resulted from lack of hygiene and nutrition. Nightingale set up the St Thomas hospital, post-Crimea, in 1852. [[Elizabeth Blackwell (doctor)|Elizabeth Blackwell]] became the first woman to formally study, and subsequently practice, medicine in the United States.
It was in this era that actual cures were developed for certain endemic infectious diseases. However the decline in many of the most lethal diseases was more due to improvements in public health and nutrition than to medicine. It was not until the 20th century that the application of the [[scientific method]] to medical research began to produce multiple important developments in medicine, with great advances in [[pharmacology]] and surgery.
During the [[First World War]], [[Alexis Carrel]] and [[Henry Drysdale Dakin|Henry Dakin]] developed the Carrel-Dakin method of treating wounds with sutures, which prior to the development of widespread antibiotics, was a major medical progress.
The great war spurred the usage of Roentgen's X-ray, and the electrocardiograph, for the monitoring of internal bodily functions, However, this was overshadowed by the remarkable mass production of penicillum antibiotics, which resulted from government and public pressure.
[[Lunatic asylum]]s began to appear in the [[Industrial Era]]. [[Emil Kraepelin]] (1856-1926) introduced new medical categories of mental illness, which eventually came into psychiatric usage despite their basis in behavior rather than [[Biopsychiatry controversy|pathology or etiology]]. In the 1920s [[surrealism|surrealist]] opposition to psychiatry was expressed in a number of surrealist publications. In the 1930s several controversial medical practices were introduced including inducing seizures (by [[electroshock]], [[insulin]] or other drugs) or cutting parts of the brain apart ([[leucotomy]] or [[lobotomy]]). Both came into widespread use by psychiatry, but there were grave concerns and much opposition on grounds of basic morality, harmful effects, or misuse. In the 1950s new psychiatric drugs, notably the antipsychotic [[chlorpromazine]], were designed in laboratories and slowly came into preferred use. Although often accepted as an advance in some ways, there was some opposition, due to serious adverse effects such as [[tardive dyskinesia]]. Patients often opposed psychiatry and refused or stopped taking the drugs when not subject to psychiatric control. There was also increasing opposition to the use of psychiatric hospitals, and attempts to move people back into the community on a collaborative [[World Network of Users and Survivors of Psychiatry|user-led group]] approach ("therapeutic communities") not controlled by psychiatry. Campaigns against [[masturbation]] were done in the [[Victorian era]] and elsewhere. [[Lobotomy]] was used until the 1970s to treat [[schizophrenia]]. This was denounced by the [[anti-psychiatric]] movement in the 1960s and later.
The 20th century witnessed a shift from a master-apprentice paradigm of teaching of clinical medicine to a more "democratic" system of medical schools. With the advent of the [[evidence-based medicine]] and great advances of information technology the process of change is likely to evolve further, the collation of ideas, resulted in international global projects, such as the Human genome project; However, adversely, the conditions brought about the increasing threat of pandemic spread of mutating diseases, such as SARS, and the danger of the H5N1.
==Medical inventions==
===7000 BC—1000 AD===
{{Original research|date=February 2008}}
* c. 7000 BC, [[drill]] in [[Mehrgarh]]<ref name=BBC/>
* c. 7000 BC, [[bow drill]], in Mehrgarh
* c. 7000 BC, [[dental drill]], in Mehrgarh<ref name=BBC/>
* c. 7000 BC, [[surgery]], in Mehrgarh<ref name=BBC>[http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/sci/tech/4882968.stm Stone age man used dentist drill]. [[BBC News]].</ref>
* c. 7000 BC, [[dental surgery]], in Mehrgarh<ref name=BBC/>
* c. 2600 BC, [[suture]], by [[Imhotep]]
* c. 2600 BC, [[Cream (pharmaceutical)|pharmaceutical cream]], by Imhotep
* c. 500 BC, [[cosmetic surgery]], by [[Sushruta]]
* c. 500 BC, [[plastic surgery]], by Sushruta
* c. 400 BC, [[Hippocratic bench]], by [[Hippocrates]]
* c. 900 AD, injection [[syringe]], by [[Islamic medicine|Ammar ibn Ali al-Mawsili]]
* c. 1000, [[Ligature (medicine)|ligature]], by [[Abu al-Qasim al-Zahrawi|Abu al-Qasim]] (Abulcasis)
* c. 1000, [[forceps]], by Abu al-Qasim<ref>Ingrid Hehmeyer and Aliya Khan (2007). "Islam's forgotten contributions to medical science", ''Canadian Medical Association Journal'' '''176''' (10).</ref>
* c. 1000, [[plaster]], by Abu al-Qasim<ref>Zafarul-Islam Khan, [http://milligazette.com/Archives/15-1-2000/Art5.htm At The Threshhold (sic) Of A New Millennium – II], ''The Milli Gazette''.</ref>
* c. 1000, [[curette]], by Abu al-Qasim<ref name=Hadidi>Khaled al-Hadidi (1978), "The Role of Muslem Scholars in Oto-rhino-Laryngology", ''The Egyptian Journal of O.R.L.'' '''4''' (1), p. 1-15. ([[cf.]] [http://muslimheritage.com/topics/default.cfm?ArticleID=674 Ear, Nose and Throat Medical Practice in Muslim Heritage], Foundation for Science Technology and Civilization.)</ref>
* c. 1000, [[Retractor (medical)|retractor]], by Abu al-Qasim<ref name=Hadidi/>
* c. 1000, [[scalpel]], by Abu al-Qasim<ref name=Hadidi/>
* c. 1000, [[Sound (medical instrument)|sound]], by Abu al-Qasim<ref name=Hadidi/>
* c. 1000, [[surgical needle]], by Abu al-Qasim<ref name=Makki>A. I. Makki. "Needles & Pins", ''AlShindagah'' '''68''', January–February 2006.</ref>
* c. 1000, [[Surgical instruments|surgical]] [[catgut]], by Abu al-Qasim
* c. 1000, surgical [[hook]], by Abu al-Qasim<ref name=Hadidi/>
* c. 1000, surgical [[rod]], by Abu al-Qasim<ref name=Hadidi/>
* c. 1000, surgical [[spoon]], by Abu al-Qasim<ref name=Hadidi/>
===1000—present===
* c. 1020, [[thermometer]], by [[Avicenna]]<ref>[[Robert Briffault]] (1938). ''The Making of Humanity'', p. 191.</ref>
* c. 1020, [[steam distillation]], by Avicenna
* c. 1020, [[essential oil]], by Avicenna
* c. 1280, [[Glasses|spectacles]]
* 1540, [[artificial limb]], by [[Ambroise Paré]]
* 1714, [[mercury thermometer]], by [[Gabriel Fahrenheit]]
* 1775, [[bifocals|bifocal lenses]], by [[Benjamin Franklin]]
* 1792, [[ambulance]], by Jean Dominique Larrey
* 1796, [[vaccination]], by [[Edward Jenner]]
* 1816, [[stethoscope]], by [[René Laennec]]
* 1817, [[dentures|dental plate]], by Anthony Plantson
* 1827, [[endoscope]], by Pierre Segalas
* 1846, [[anesthetics]], by [[James Young Simpson|James Simpson]]
* 1851, [[ophthalmoscope]], by [[Hermann von Helmholtz]]
* 1853, [[hypodermic syringe]], by [[Alexander Wood]]
* 1865, [[antiseptic]], by [[Joseph Lister]]
* 1885, [[rabies|rabies vaccination]], chicken cholera vaccination and by [[Louis Pasteur]]
* 1887, [[contact lens]], by [[Adolf Fick]]
* 1895, [[X-ray]], by [[Wilhelm Roentgen]]
* 1903, [[electrocardiograph]], by [[Willem Einthoven]]
* 1905, [[sphygmomanometer]] by [[Nikolai Korotkov]]
* 1928, [[penicillin]], by [[Alexander Fleming]]
* 1931, [[electron microscope]] by [[Ernst Ruska]]
* 1938, [[penicillin]] as an [[antibiotic]], by [[Howard Florey]] and [[Ernst Chain]]
* 1957, [[artificial pacemaker]], by [[Clarence Lillehei]] and [[Earl Bakken]]
* 1967, [[heart transplant]], by [[Christian Barnard]]
* ≈1970?, [[MRI]] and [[fMRI]], by [[Paul Lauterbur]] and [[Peter Mansfield]] (among others?)
* 1973, [[CAT scan]], by [[Godfrey Hounsfield]] and [[Allan Cormack]]
* 1979, [[ultrasound scan]], by [[Ian Donald]]
* 1982, [[artificial heart]], by [[Robert Jarvik]]
;Source: Running Press Cyclopedia, second edition
==Special history of medicine==
* [[History of abortion]]
* [[History of alternative medicine]]
* [[History of anatomy]]
* [[History of brain imaging]]
* [[History of cancer chemotherapy]]
* [[History of cardiology]]
** [[History of invasive and interventional cardiology]]
* [[History of endocrinology]]
* [[History of immunology]]
* [[History of intersex surgery]]
* [[History of internal medicine]]
* [[History of legal medicine]]
* [[History of microbiology]]
* [[History of mental illness]]
* [[History of neurology]]
* [[History of ophthalmology]]
* [[History of oto-rhino-laryngology]]
* [[History of pharmacology]]
* [[History of physiology]]
* [[History of psychiatry]]
* [[History of surgery]]
* [[History of traditional Chinese medicine]]
* [[History of veterinary medicine]]
* [[Ophthalmology in medieval Islam|History of Islamic medieval ophthalmology]]
* [[Timeline of sexual orientation and medicine]]
==Museums and collections of health and medicine==
*[[The London Museums of Health & Medicine]]
*[[Osler Library of the History of Medicine]]
*[[National Library of Medicine]]
*[[Thackray Museum]] Leeds, in a former workhouse belonging to St James Hospital [http://www.thackraymuseum.org Thackray Museum]
*[[Wellcome Library]] History of Medicine
==See also==
*[[History of science]]
*[[History of technology]]
*[[Medicine]]
:*[[Alternative medicine]]
*[[Timeline of medicine and medical technology]]
* [[Women in medicine]]
* [[Introduction to virus]]
==Notes==
{{reflist|2}}
==Bibliography==
* {{cite book | title = The Greatest Benefit to Mankind: A Medical History of Humanity from Antiquity to the Present | last = Porter | first = R. | year = 1997 | publisher = Harper Collins | id = ISBN 0-00-215173-1 }}
* Rousseau, George S. (2003). ''Framing and Imagining Disease in Cultural History'' (Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan). [with Miranda Gill, David Haycock and Malte Herwig]. ISBN 1 – 4039 -1292 - 0
*{{cite book | title = The Popes and Science; the History of the Papal Relations to Science During the Middle Ages and Down to Our Own Time | last = [[James Joseph Walsh|Walsh, James J.]] | year = 1908, reprinted 2003 | publisher = Kessinger Publishing| id = ISBN 0-7661-3646-9}} from [[WorldCat]][http://www.worldcatlibraries.org/wcpa/top3mset/4933f63d715bdae2.html] [http://books.google.com/books?vid=02tZKPD5CJrIa31EgK&id=G57Y1rlQVP0C&pg=PT2&lpg=PT2&dq=%22the+popes+and+science%22 Review excerpts:]
==External links==
*[http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/10122a.htm History of Medicine] ; [http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/01457e.htm Anatomy] @ [http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/ 1917 Catholic Encyclopedia]
* [http://www.nlm.nih.gov/hmd/ History of Medicine], [[United States National Library of Medicine]]
* [http://www.imageofsurgery.com/Surgery_history_art.htm The history of medicine and surgery as portrayed by various artists]
*[http://www.jewishencyclopedia.com/view.jsp?artid=325&letter=M&search=medicine Medicine @ JewishEncyclopedia.com]
*[http://www.loc.gov/exhibits/vatican/medicine.html Exhibition of the Vatican Library's Medical Holdings @ The Library of Congress]
*[http://www.pupress.princeton.edu/titles/6573.html The Nazi War on Cancer], editorial. (Princeton University Press)
*[http://www.infobritain.co.uk/History_Of_Medicine.htm Info Britain - History of medicine in the UK]
*[http://library.wellcome.ac.uk/index.html Wellcome Library History of Medicine]
[[Category:History of medicine|*]]
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