History of music
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{{for|the academic ''study'' of '''history of music'''|Music history}}
'''[[Music]]''' is found in every known [[culture]], past and present, varying wildly between times and places. Scientists now believe that modern [[humans]] emerged from [[Africa]] 160,000 years ago. Around 50,000 years ago these humans began to disperse from Africa reaching all the habitable continents. Since all people of the world, including the most isolated tribal groups, have a form of music, scientists conclude that music must have been present in the ancestral population prior to the dispersal of humans around the world. Consequently music must have been in existence for at least 50,000 years and the first music must have been invented in Africa and then evolved to become a fundamental constituent of human life.<ref>[http://books.google.com/books?id=vYQEakqM4I0C&printsec=frontcover The origins of music Nils Lennart Wallin, Steven Brown, Björn Merker]ISBN 0262731436</ref>
A culture's music is influenced by all other aspects of that culture, including social and economic organization and experience, climate, and access to technology. The emotions and ideas that music expresses, the situations in which music is played and listened to, and the attitudes toward music players and composers all vary between regions and periods. "[[Music history]]" is the distinct subfield of [[musicology]] and [[history]] which studies music (particularly [[Art music|western art music]]) from a chronological perspective.
==Music history eras==
{{Musiceras}}
===Prehistoric music===
{{main|Prehistoric music}}
Prehistoric music, once more commonly called primitive music, is the name given to all music produced in [[Literate|preliterate]] cultures ([[prehistory]]), beginning somewhere in very late [[geological history]].
Traditional [[Native American music|Native American]] and [[Australian Aboriginal music]] could be called prehistoric, but the term is commonly used to refer to the music in ''Europe'' before the development of writing there. It is more common to call the "prehistoric" music of non-European continents – especially that which still survives – [[folk music|folk]], indigenous, or traditional music.
===Ancient music===
{{main|Ancient music}}
The prehistoric era is considered to have ended with the development of writing, and with it, by definition, prehistoric music. "Ancient music" is the name given to the music that followed.
The "oldest known song" was written in cuneiform, dating to 4,000 years ago from Ur. It was deciphered by Prof. Anne Draffkorn Kilmer (University of Calif. at Berkeley), and was demonstrated to be composed in harmonies of thirds, like ancient ''[[gymel]]'' (Kilmer, Crocker, Brown, ''Sounds from Silence'', 1976, Bit Enki, Berkeley, Calif., LCC 76-16729), and also was written using a [[Pythagorean tuning]] of the [[diatonic scale]].
Double pipes, such as used by the ancient Greeks, and ancient bagpipes, as well as a review of ancient drawings on vases and walls, etc., and ancient writings (such as in Aristotle, ''Problems,'' Book XIX.12) which described musical techniques of the time, indicate polyphony.
One pipe in the aulos pairs (double flutes) likely served as a [[Drone (music)|drone]] or "keynote," while the other played melodic passages.
Instruments, such as the seven holed flute and various types of stringed instruments have been recovered from the [[Indus valley civilization]] archaeological sites. [http://books.google.com/books?vid=ISBN8170173329&id=yySNDP9XVggC&pg=PA11&lpg=PA11&dq=seven+holed+flute+and+various+types+of+stringed+instruments&sig=0baqFLb6KItfPYLoCdFWFTCD8Sk]
[[Indian classical music]] (''marga'') can be found from the scriptures of the [[Hindu]] tradition, the [[Vedas]]. [[Samaveda]], one of the four vedas describes music at length.
The history of musical development in Iran [Persia] [[Persian music]], dates back to the prehistoric era. The great legendary king, Jamshid, is credited with the Invention of music. Music in Iran can be traced back to the days of the [[Elamite Empire]] (2,500-644 B.C). Fragmentary documents from various periods of the country's history establish that the ancient Persians possessed an elaborate musical culture. The [[Sassanian]] period (A.D. 226-651), in particular, has left us ample evidence pointing to the existence of a lively musical life in Persia. The names of some important musicians such as Barbod, Nakissa and Ramtin, and titles of some of their works have survived.
The term [[Early music]] era may also refer to contemporary but traditional or folk music, including [[Asian music]], [[Persian music]], [[music of India]], [[Jewish music]], [[Greek music]], [[Roman music]], the [[music of Mesopotamia]], the [[music of Egypt]], and [[Muslim music]].
===Early music===
{{History of European art music}}
{{main|Early music}}
Early music is a general term used to describe music in the European classical tradition from after the fall of the [[Roman Empire]], in [[476]] CE, until the end of the [[Baroque music|Baroque era]] in the middle of the [[18th century]]. Music within this enormous span of time was extremely diverse, encompassing multiple cultural traditions within a wide geographic area; many of the cultural groups out of which medieval Europe developed already had musical traditions, about which little is known. What unified these cultures in the Middle Ages was the [[Roman Catholic Church]], and its music served as the focal point for musical development for the first thousand years of this period. Very little non-Christian music from this period survived, due to its suppression by the Church and the absence of music notation; however, folk music of modern Europe probably has roots at least as far back as the Middle Ages.
==Western Art Music==
===Medieval music===
{{main|Medieval music}}
While musical life was undoubtedly rich in the early [[Medieval]] era, as attested by artistic depictions of instruments, writings about music, and other records, the only repertory of music which has survived from before 800 to the present day is the [[plainsong]] liturgical music of the [[Roman Catholic Church]], the largest part of which is called [[Gregorian chant]]. [[Pope Gregory I]], who gave his name to the musical repertory and may himself have been a composer, is usually claimed to be the originator of the musical portion of the liturgy in its present form, though the sources giving details on his contribution, date from more than a hundred years after his death. Many scholars believe that his reputation has been exaggerated by legend. Most of the chant repertory was composed anonymously in the centuries between the time of Gregory and [[Charlemagne]].
During the [[9th century]] several important developments took place. First, there was a major effort by the Church to unify the many chant traditions, and suppress many of them in favor of the Gregorian liturgy. Second, the earliest [[polyphony|polyphonic]] music was sung, a form of parallel singing known as [[organum]]. Third, and of greatest significance for music history, [[music notation|notation]] was reinvented after a lapse of about five hundred years, though it would be several more centuries before a system of pitch and rhythm notation evolved having the precision and flexibility that modern musicians take for granted.
Several schools of polyphony flourished in the period after [[1100]]: the [[St. Martial school]] of organum, the music of which was often characterized by a swiftly moving part over a single sustained line; the [[Notre Dame school]] of polyphony, which included the composers [[Léonin]] and [[Pérotin]], and which produced the first music for more than two parts around [[1200]]; the musical melting-pot of [[Santiago de Compostela]] in [[Galicia (Spain)|Galicia]], a pilgrimage destination and site where musicians from many traditions came together in the late Middle Ages, the music of whom survives in the [[Codex Calixtinus]]; and the English school, the music of which survives in the [[Worcester fragments|Worchester Fragments]] and the [[Old Hall Manuscript]]. Alongside these schools of sacred music a vibrant tradition of secular song developed, as exemplified in the music of the [[troubadour]]s, [[trouvère]]s and [[minnesinger|Minnesänger]]. Much of the later secular music of the early [[Renaissance]] evolved from the forms, ideas, and the musical aesthetic of the troubadours, courtly poets and itinerant musicians, whose culture was largely exterminated during the [[Albigensian Crusade]] in the early [[13th century]].
Forms of sacred music which developed during the late 13th century included the [[motet]], [[conductus]], [[discant]], and [[clausula]]e. One unusual development was the ''[[Geisslerlieder]]'', the music of wandering bands of [[flagellant]]s during two periods: the middle of the 13th century (until they were suppressed by the Church); and the period during and immediately following the [[Black Death]], around [[1350]], when their activities were vividly recorded and well-documented with notated music. Their music mixed folk song styles with penitential or apocalyptic texts.
The [[14th century]] in European music history is dominated by the style of the ''[[ars nova]]'', which by convention is grouped with the medieval era in music, even though it had much in common with early Renaissance ideals and [[aesthetics]]. Much of the surviving music of the time is secular, and tends to use the [[formes fixes]]: the [[ballade (musical form)|ballade]], the [[virelai]], the [[lai]], the [[rondeau]], which correspond to poetic forms of the same names. Most pieces in these forms are for one to three voices, likely with instrumental accompaniment: famous composers include [[Guillaume de Machaut]] and [[Francesco Landini]].
===Renaissance music===<!-- This section is linked from [[History of music]] -->
{{main|Renaissance music}}
The beginning of the Renaissance in music is not as clearly marked as the beginning of the Renaissance in the other arts, and unlike the Renaissance in the other arts, it did not begin in [[Italy]], but in northern Europe, specifically in the area currently comprising central and northern [[France]], the [[Netherlands]], and [[Belgium]]. The style of the [[Burgundian school|Burgundian]] composers, as the first generation of the [[Dutch School (music)|Franco-Flemish]] school is known, was at first a reaction against the excessive complexity and mannered style of the late [[14th century]] ''[[ars subtilior]]'', and contained clear, singable melody and balanced [[polyphony]] in all voices. The most famous composers of the Burgundian school in the mid-[[15th century]] are [[Guillaume Dufay]], [[Gilles Binchois]], and [[Antoine Busnois]].
By the middle of the [[15th century]], composers and singers from the [[Low Countries]] and adjacent areas began to overspread Europe, moving especially into Italy where they were employed by the papal chapel and the aristocratic patrons of the arts, such as the [[Medici]], the [[Este]] family in Ferrara, and the [[Sforza]] family in [[Milan]]. They carried their style with them: smooth polyphony which could be adapted for sacred or secular use as appropriate. Principal forms of sacred musical composition at the time were the [[mass (music)|mass]], the [[motet]], and the [[laude]]; secular forms included the [[chanson]], the [[frottola]], and later the [[madrigal (music)|madrigal]].
The invention of [[printing]] had an immense influence on the dissemination of musical styles, and along with the movement of the Franco-Flemish musicians throughout Europe, contributed to the establishment of the first truly international style in European music since the unification of Gregorian chant under Charlemagne seven hundred years before.
Composers of the middle generation of the Franco-Flemish school included [[Johannes Ockeghem]], who wrote music in a contrapuntally complex style, with varied texture and an elaborate use of [[canon (music)|canonical]] devices; [[Jacob Obrecht]], one of the most famous composers of masses in the last decades of the 15th century; and [[Josquin Desprez]], probably the most famous composer in Europe before [[Giovanni Pierluigi da Palestrina|Palestrina]], and who during the [[16th century]] was renowned as one of the greatest artists in any form.
Music in the generation after Josquin explored increasing complexity of [[counterpoint]]; possibly the most extreme expression of this tendency is in the music of [[Nicolas Gombert]], whose contrapuntal complexities influenced early instrumental music, such as the [[canzona]] and the [[ricercar]], ultimately culminating in [[Baroque music|Baroque]] [[fugue|fugal]] forms.
[[Image:Claudio Monteverdi 5.jpg|right|thumbnail|175px|Portrait of Renaissance composer [[Claudio Monteverdi]] in [[Venice]], [[1640]], by [[Domenico Fetti]].]]
By the middle of the [[16th century]], the international style began to break down, and several highly diverse stylistic trends became evident: a trend towards simplicity in sacred music, as directed by the [[Counter-Reformation]] [[Council of Trent]], and as exemplified in the austere perfection of the music of [[Giovanni Pierluigi da Palestrina]]; a trend towards complexity and [[chromaticism]] in the madrigal, which reached its extreme expression in the [[avant-garde]] style of the [[Ferrara School]] of [[Luzzasco Luzzaschi|Luzzaschi]], and the late century madrigalist [[Carlo Gesualdo]]; and the grandiose, sonorous music of the [[Venetian school]], which took advantage of the architecture of the Basilica [[San Marco di Venezia]] to create a music of [[polychoral|antiphonal]] contrasts. The music of the Venetian school can be seen on the cusp of the Renaissance and the Baroque eras, and included the development of [[orchestration]], ornamented instrumental parts, and [[basso continuo|continuo]] bass parts, all of which occurred within a span of several decades around [[1600]]. Famous composers in [[Venice]] included the Gabrielis, [[Andrea Gabrieli|Andrea]] and [[Giovanni Gabrieli|Giovanni]], as well as [[Claudio Monteverdi]], one of the most significant innovators at the end of the era.
Most parts of Europe had active, and well-differentiated, musical traditions by late in the century. In England, composers such as [[Thomas Tallis]] and [[William Byrd]] wrote sacred music in a style similar to that written on the continent, while an active group of home-grown madrigalists adapted the Italian form for English tastes: famous composers included [[Thomas Morley]], [[John Wilbye]] and [[Thomas Weelkes]]. [[Spain]] developed instrumental and vocal styles of its own, with [[Tomás Luis de Victoria]] writing refined music similar to that of Palestrina, and numerous other composers writing for a new instrument called the [[guitar]]. Germany cultivated polyphonic forms built on the [[Protestant]] [[chorale]]s, which replaced the Roman Catholic Gregorian Chant as a basis for sacred music, and imported wholesale the style of the Venetian school (the appearance of which defined the start of the Baroque era there). In addition, German composers wrote enormous amounts of [[organ (music)|organ]] music, establishing the basis for the later spectacular flowering of the Baroque organ style which culminated in the work of [[Johann Sebastian Bach|J.S. Bach]]. France developed a unique style of musical diction known as [[musique mesurée]], used in secular chansons, with composers such as [[Guillaume Costeley]] and [[Claude Le Jeune]] prominent in the movement.
One of the most revolutionary movements in the era took place in Florence in the [[1570s]] and [[1580s]], with the work of the [[Florentine Camerata]], who ironically had a reactionary intent: dissatisfied with what they saw as contemporary musical depravities, their goal was to restore the music of the ancient Greeks. Chief among them were [[Vincenzo Galilei]], the father of the astronomer, and [[Giulio Caccini]]. The fruits of their labors was a declamatory melodic singing style known as [[monody]], and a corresponding dramatic form consisting of staged, acted monody: a form known today as [[opera]]. The first operas, written around 1600, also define the end of the Renaissance and the beginning of the Baroque eras.
Music prior to 1600 was [[musical mode|modal]] rather than [[Tonality|tonal]]. Several theoretical developments late in the 16th century, such as the writings on scales on [[mode (music)|modes]] by [[Gioseffo Zarlino]] and [[Franchinus Gaffurius]], led directly to the development of common practice tonality. The major and minor scales began to predominate over the old church modes, a feature which was at first most obvious at cadential points in compositions, but gradually became pervasive. Music after 1600, beginning with the tonal music of the Baroque era, is often referred to as belonging to the [[common practice period]].
[[Image:Johann Sebastian Bach.jpg|right|thumbnail|175px|[[Johann Sebastian Bach]] is one of the most notable composers of the Baroque period]]
===Baroque music===<!-- This section is linked from [[History of music]] -->
{{main|Baroque music}}
Instrumental music became dominant in the Baroque, and most major music forms were defined. [[Counterpoint]] was one of the major forces in both the instrumental and the vocal music of the period. Although a strong religious musical tradition continued, secular music came to the fore with the development of the [[sonata (music)|sonata]], the [[concerto]], and the [[concerto grosso]].
[[Image:Clavecin flamand.png|right|thumbnail|180px|The [[harpsichord]] played a central role in a great deal of Baroque music.]]
Much Baroque music was designed for [[improvisation]], with a [[figured bass]] provided by the composer for the performer to flesh out and ornament. The keyboard, particularly the [[harpsichord]], was a dominant instrument, and the beginnings of [[well temperament]] opened up the possibilities of playing in all keys and of [[modulation (music)|modulation]]. Much Baroque music featured a [[basso continuo]] consisting of a keyboard, either harpsichord or organ (sometimes a [[lute]] instead), and a bass instrument, such as a [[viola da gamba]] or [[bassoon]]. The three outstanding composers of the period were [[Johann Sebastian Bach]], [[George Frideric Handel]], and [[Antonio Vivaldi]], but a host of other composers, some with huge output, were active in the period.
===Classical music era===<!-- This section is linked from [[History of music]] -->
[[Image:Wolfgang-amadeus-mozart 1.jpg|right|thumb|150px|[[Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart]]'s compositions characterized music of the classical era.]]
{{main|Classical period (music)}}
The music of the Classical period is characterized by [[homophonic texture]], or an obvious [[melody]] with [[accompaniment]]. These new melodies tended to be almost voice-like and singable, allowing composers at the time to actually replace singer(s) as the focus of the music. Instrumental music therefore quickly replaced [[opera]] and other sung forms (such as [[oratorio]]) as the favorite of the musical audience and the epitome of great composition. This is not to say that [[opera]] disappeared. Indeed, during the classical period, several composers began producing operas for the general public, in their native languages (previous operas were generally in Italian).
Along with the gradual displacement of the voice in favor of stronger, clearer melodies, counterpoint also typically became a decorative flourish, often used near the end of a work or for a single [[Movement (music)|movement]]. In its stead, simple patterns, such as arpeggios and, in piano music, [[Alberti bass]] (an accompaniment with a repeated pattern typically in the left hand) were used to liven the movement of the piece without creating a confusing additional voice. The now popular instrumental music was dominated by several well-defined forms: the [[sonata (music)|sonata]], the [[symphony]], and the [[concerto]], though none of these forms were specifically defined or taught at the time as they are now in the field of [[music theory]]. All three derive from [[sonata form]], which is used to refer both to the overlying form of an entire work and the structure of a single movement. Sonata form matured during the Classical era to become the primary form of instrumental compositions throughout the [[19th century]].
[[Image:Siegfried.jpg|right|thumbnail|150px|The title character from a [[19th century]] performance of [[Richard Wagner|Wagner]]'s [[opera]] ''[[Siegfried (opera)|Siegfried]]'']]
The early Classical period was ushered in by the [[Mannheim School]], which included such composers as [[Johann Stamitz]], [[Franz Xaver Richter]], [[Carl Stamitz]], and [[Christian Cannabich]]. It exerted a profound influence on [[Joseph Haydn]] and, through him, on all subsequent European music. [[Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart]] was the central figure of the Classical period, and his phenomenal and varied output in all genres defines our perception of the period. [[Ludwig van Beethoven]] and [[Franz Schubert]] were transitional composers, leading into the Romantic period, with their expansion of existing genres, forms, and even functions of music.
===Romantic music===<!-- This section is linked from [[History of music]] -->
{{main|Romantic music}}
In the Romantic period, music became more expressive and emotional, expanding to encompass literature, art, and philosophy. Famous early Romantic composers include [[Robert Schumann|Schumann]], [[Frédéric Chopin|Chopin]], [[Felix Mendelssohn|Mendelssohn]], [[Vincenzo Bellini|Bellini]], and [[Hector Berlioz|Berlioz]].
The late 19th century saw a dramatic expansion in the size of the [[orchestra]], and in the role of concerts as part of [[urban culture|urban]] society. Famous composers from the second half of the century include [[Johann Strauss II]], [[Johannes Brahms|Brahms]], [[Franz Liszt|Liszt]], [[Pyotr Ilyich Tchaikovsky|Tchaikovsky]], [[Giuseppe Verdi|Verdi]], and [[Richard Wagner|Wagner]].
Between 1890 and 1910, a third wave of composers including [[Antonín Dvořák|Dvořák]], [[Gustav Mahler|Mahler]], [[Richard Strauss]], [[Giacomo Puccini|Puccini]], and [[Jean Sibelius|Sibelius]] built on the work of middle Romantic composers to create even more complex – and often much longer – musical works. A prominent mark of late 19th century music is its nationalistic fervor, as exemplified by such figures as Dvořák, Sibelius, and [[Edvard Grieg|Grieg]]. Other prominent late-century figures include [[Camille Saint-Saëns|Saint-Saëns]], [[Gabriel Fauré|Fauré]], [[Sergei Rachmaninoff|Rachmaninoff]] and [[César Franck|Franck]].
===20th century music===
{{main|20th century music}}
The 20th Century saw a revolution in music listening as the radio gained popularity worldwide and new media and technologies were developed to record, capture, reproduce and distribute music. Because music was no longer limited to concerts and clubs, it became possible for music artists to quickly gain fame nationwide and sometimes worldwide. Conversely, audiences were able to be exposed to a wider range of music than ever before. Music performances became increasingly visual with the broadcast and recording of music videos and concerts. Music of all kinds also became increasingly portable. Headphones allowed people sitting next to each other to listen to entirely different performances or share the same performance.
20th Century music brought a new freedom and wide experimentation with new musical styles and forms that challenged the accepted rules of music of earlier periods. The invention of musical [[amplification]] and [[electronic instrument]]s, especially the [[synthesizer]], in the mid-20th century revolutionized popular music and accelerated the development of new forms of music.
:{{see also|Contemporary classical music}}
==Classical traditions==
{{main|Classical music}}
Classical music is a broad, somewhat imprecise term, referring to music produced in, or rooted in the traditions of art, ecclesiastical and concert music. A music is classical if it includes some of the following features: a learned tradition, support from the church or government, or greater cultural capital. Classical music is also described as complex, lasting, transcendent, and abstract.
In many cultures a classical tradition coexisted with traditional or popular music, occasionally for thousands of years, and with different levels of mutual borrowing with the parallel tradition.
===Europe===
{{main|Classical period (music)}}
'Classical European music' is a somewhat broad term, referring to music produced in or rooted in the traditions of European art, ecclesiastical, and concert music, particularly between 1000 and 1900. The central norms of this tradition developed between 1550 and 1825 centering on what is known as the [[common practice period]].
===Asia===
{{main|Asian music}}
Asian music covers the music cultures of [[Arabic music|Arabia]], [[Central Asian music|Central Asia]], [[East Asian music|East Asia]], [[South Asian music|South Asia]], and [[Southeast Asian music|Southeast Asia]].
:{{see also|Gagaku|Gamelan|Music of Korea#Classical music|Japanese music}}
===India===
{{main|Indian classical music}}
[[Image:Purandara.jpg|right|thumbnail|150px|[[Purandara Dasa]], the father of Carnatic music]]
The Indian music is one of the oldest musical traditions in the world.<ref>World Music: The Basics By Nidel Nidel, Richard O. Nidel (page 219)</ref> The [[Indus Valley civilization]] has sculptures which show dance<ref>World History: Societies of the Past By Charles Kahn (page 98)</ref> and old musical instruments, like the seven holed flute. Various types of stringed instruments and drums have been recovered from [[Harrappa]] and [[Mohenjo Daro]] by excavations carried out by Sir [[Mortimer Wheeler]].<ref>World History: Societies of the Past By Charles Kahn (page 11)</ref> The [[Rigveda]] has elements of present Indian music, with a musical notation to denote the metre and the mode of chanting.<ref>World Music: The Basics By Nidel Nidel, Richard O. Nidel (page 10)</ref> Early Indian musical tradition also speaks of three accents and vocal music known as "Samagan" (Sama meaning melody and Gan meaning to sing).<ref>The Music of India By Jamila Massey, Reginald Massey (page 13)</ref>
The classical music of India includes two major traditions of the southern [[Carnatic music]] and the northern [[Hindustani classical music]]. India's classical music tradition has a history spanning millennia and, developed over several eras, remains fundamental to the lives of Indians today as sources of religious inspiration, cultural expression and pure entertainment.
Indian classical music (marga) is monophonic, and based around a single melody line or [[raga]] rhythmically organized through [[Tala (music)|tala]]s. Carnatic music is largely devotional; the majority of the songs are addressed to the Hindu deities. There are a lot of songs emphasising love and other social issues. In contrast to Carnatic music, Hindustani music was not only influenced by ancient Hindu musical traditions, Vedic philosophy and native Indian sounds but also by the Persian performance practices of the Afghan Mughals.
The origins of Indian classical music can be found from the oldest of scriptures, part of the [[Hindu]] tradition, the [[Vedas]]. [[Samaveda]], one of the four vedas describes music at length.
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===China===
{{main|Chinese classical music}}
Chinese classical music is the traditional art or court music of China. It has a long history stretching for more than three thousand years. It has its own unique systems of musical notation, as well as musical tuning and pitch, musical instruments and styles or musical genres. Chinese music is pentatonic-diatonic, having a scale of twelve notes to an octave (5+7 = 12) as does European-influenced music.
===Middle East===
{{see also|Arab classical music|Andalusian classical music}}
===Persia===
[[Image:Sassanid Music Plate 7thcentury.jpg|thumb|right|Ancient Iranians attached great importance to music and poetry, as they still do today. 7th century plate depicts [[Sassanid]] era musicians. [[The British Museum]].]]
{{main|Persian music}}
[[Persian music]] is the music of [[Iran|Persia]] and Persian language countries: ''musiqi'', the science and art of music, and ''muzik'', the sound and performance of music (Sakata 1983). See: [[Music of Iran]], [[Music of Afghanistan]], [[Music of Tajikistan]], [[Music of Uzbekistan]].
===Greece===
{{main|Music of Greece}}
Greek written history extends far back into [[Ancient Greece]], and was a major part of ancient [[Greek theater]]. In ancient Greece, mixed-gender choruses performed for entertainment, celebration and spiritual reasons. Instruments included the double-reed [[aulos]] and the plucked [[string instrument]], the [[lyre]], especially the special kind called a [[kithara]].
Music was an important part of education in ancient Greece, and boys were taught music starting at age six. Greek musical literacy created a flowering of development; Greek [[music theory]] included the Greek [[musical mode]]s, eventually became the basis for Western [[religious music]] and [[european classical music|classical music]].
Later, influences from the [[Roman Empire]], [[Eastern Europe]] and the [[Byzantine Empire]] changed Greek music.
The connection of the music environment of Greece with that of the European Renaissance can be traced mainly in Crete until 1669, where its vivid urban music benefited from the creative assimilation with the venetian culture. The most important musical figure of Crete was Fragiskos Leondaritis (Francesco Leondariti or Londariti), organist and composer of sacred and secular music. Another key-figure of that era was Ieronimos o Tragodistis (Hieronymus the Chanter), a Cypriot student of Gios. Zarlino, who flourished around 1571 and, among others, proposed a system that enabled [[medieval]] Byzantine chant to correspont to the current contrapuntal practices via the [[cantus firmus]] paraphrase. In the [[18th century]] art music was mainly cultivated in [[Ionian Islands]], where from 1733 opera became the most distinctive music genre. This dynamic had as a consequence in [[19th century]], composers like [[Nikolaos Mantzaros]] (Niccolo Calichiopulo Manzaro, [[1795]] - [[1872]]), [[Spyridon Xyndas]] ([[1812]] - [[1896]]), Pavlos Karrer (Paolo [[Carrer]], [[1829]]-[[1896]]) and [[Spyros Samaras]] ([[1861]] - [[1917]]) to revitalize Greek art music.
Instrumental music was also cultivated in 19th century by composers, such as Dionysios Rodotheatos from Ithaca and Dimitris Lialios from Patras, both of them adopting the -with the broader sense-wagnerian novelties in the style and aesthetics. In the first decade of [[20th century]], the social and historical conditions enabled the revisiting of nationalism in music by the composers of the so-called 'National School'. The prevailing current for 'national music' was that of [[Manolis Kalomiris]], which eventually became wider accepted compared to that of Georgios Lambelet. 'National School' succeeded in concentrating under its aesthetic 'credo' composer with different backgrounds, such as Marios Varvoglis, Petros Petrides, Dimetrios Levidis, Aimilios Riadis or Antiohos Evagellatos. On the other hand, modernism made also its appearance with Nikos [[Skalkottas]], a student of Arn. [[Schoenberg]], being the most notable (and at the same time, neglected) representative. Dimitris [[Mitropoulos]] also contributed to the music literature of Greek [[modernism]] before committing himself to conducting. After the Second World War [[modernism]] began to prevail, with considerable difficulty, mainly because of the social and political conditions of the postwar period in Greece, as well as the dominance of the 'National School'. However, composers like Mihalis Adamis, Thodoros Antoniou, [[Iannis Xenakis]], Y.A. Papaioannou and Janni [[Christou]] succeeded in giving new perspectives to such aesthetic ways. In the maintime, a strong current of populism related to the political conditions especially after 1949, as well as to the brief change of taste of the urban class and the initiation of the touristic enterprise in 1960s, enabled the gradual promotion of the popular song as the prevalent form, which the last decades has regretably become synonymous to 'Greek music', as a whole.
==Samples==
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{{multi-listen start}}
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{{multi-listen item|filename=Handel - messiah - 44 hallelujah.ogg|title="Hallelujah" from ''Messiah''|description=The "Hallelujah" Chorus from [[Georg Frideric Handel]]'s ''[[Messiah (Handel)|Messiah]]'' is an example of Baroque vocal music.|format=[[Ogg]]}}
{{multi-listen end}}
{{listen|filename=Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart - Symphony 40 g-moll - 1. Molto allegro.ogg|title=Symphony No. 40, 1st mvt.|description=The opening movement of [[Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart|Mozart]]'s [[Symphony No. 40 (Mozart)|40th Symphony]] is in [[sonata form]].|format=[[Ogg]]}}
{{listen|filename=Richard Wagner - Tristan und Isolde - Vorspiel.ogg|title=Tristan und Isolde|description=The prelude to [[Richard Wagner]]'s ''[[Tristan und Isolde]]'' is an example of Romanticism.|format=[[Ogg]]}}
==Sources==
{{reflist}}
==Further reading==
* Lee, Yuan-Yuan and Shen, Sinyan. (1999). ''Chinese Musical Instruments (Chinese Music Monograph Series)''. Chinese Music Society of North America Press. ISBN 1-880464039
* Shen, Sinyan (1987), Acoustics of Ancient Chinese Bells, ''Scientific American'', 256, 94.
* Merker, Brown, Steven, eds. (2000). ''The Origins of Music''. The MIT Press. ISBN 0-262-23206-5.
* [[Gustave Reese|Reese, Gustave]] (1954). ''Music in the Renaissance''. New York, W.W. Norton & Co. ISBN 0-393-09530-4.
* Bangayan, Phil, Bonet, Giselle and [[Shuman Ghosemajumder|Ghosemajumder, Shuman]] (2002) ''[http://shumans.com/digital-music/ Digital Music Distribution]'' (History of the Recorded Music Industry), MIT Sloan School of Management.
* Hoppin, Richard H. (1978). ''Medieval Music''. New York, W.W. Norton & Co. ISBN 0-393-09090-6.
* Schwartz, Elliot and Godfrey, Daniel (1993). ''Music Since 1945''. United States, Simon & Schuster Macmillan. ISBN 0-02-873040-2
* Kilmer, Crocker, Brown, ''Sounds from Silence'', 1976, Bit Enki, Berkeley, Calif., LCC 76-16729.
* Helmholtz, ''Sensations of Tone'' Dover.
== External links ==
* [http://etext.lib.virginia.edu/DicHist/analytic/anaIII.html ''The Dictionary of the History of Ideas''] see Music and Science, Music as a Demonic Art, Music as a Divine Art
* [http://www.music.ed.ac.uk/euchmi/ Edinburgh University Collection of Historic Musical Instruments]
* [http://www.essentialsofmusic.com/ Essentials of Music] Classical Music eras, composers, glossary ''from Sony Music Entertainment''
* [http://www.oddmusic.com/resources/glossary.html Glossary of Musical Instruments & Styles] and [http://www.oddmusic.com/resources/quotes.html Quotes] from [http://www.oddmusic.com/ OddMusic.com]
* [http://scriptorium.lib.duke.edu/sheetmusic/ Historic American Sheet Music]
* [http://levysheetmusic.mse.jhu.edu/ Lester S. Levy Sheet Music Collection] popular American music, 1780-1960
* [http://www.si.edu/resource/faq/nmah/music.htm Musical History] from the [http://www.si.edu/ Smithsonian Institution], ''[http://www.si.edu/resource/faq/start.htm Encyclopedia Smithsonian]''
* [http://www.geocities.com/papandrew/ Music History Resources] at GeoCities.com
* [http://www.haven.k12.pa.us/Elementary/music/histories.html Music History Time Lines] ''from the Schuylkill Haven Elementary Center Music''
* [http://l.webring.com/hub?ring=musichistory The Music History Webring]
* [http://www.geocities.com/Vienna/Choir/8989/ The New Baroque and Renaissance Music Website] at GeoCities.com
* [http://www.usd.edu/smm/ National Music Museum] ''from the University of South Dakota''
* [http://www.music.ed.ac.uk/russell/ Russell Collection of Early Keyboard Instruments] from the University of Edinburgh
* [http://www.gracyk.com/portable.shtml Tim Gracyk's Phonographs and Old Records]
* [http://www.factmonster.com/ipka/A0885982.html U.S. popular music timeline]
{{Music portal}}
[[Category:Music history| ]]
[[Category:Musicology]]
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