History of radio 25522 226063475 2008-07-16T17:43:30Z Hertz1888 4088632 /* Hertz */ refining a wikilink {{For|the controversy about who invented radio|Invention of radio}} {{For|the programming of early radio stations|Old-time radio}} The pre-history and early '''history of [[radio]]''' is the history of [[technology]] that produced instruments that use radio waves. Later [[timeline of radio|radio history]] increasingly involves matters of programming and content. Various scientists proposed that [[Electromagnetism|electricity and magnetism]], both capable of causing attraction and repulsion of objects, were linked. In 1802 [[Gian Domenico Romagnosi]] suggested the relationship between electric current and magnetism, but his reports went unnoticed. In 1820 [[Hans Christian Ørsted]] performed a widely known experiment on man-made electric current and magnetism. He demonstrated that a wire carrying a current could deflect a magnetized [[compass]] needle. Ørsted's experiments discovered the relationship between [[electricity]] and [[magnetism]] in a very simple [[experiment]]. Ørsted's work influenced [[André-Marie Ampère]] to produce a theory of electromagnetism. In the history of radio and development of "[[wireless telegraphy]]", several people are claimed to have "invented the radio". The most commonly accepted claims are: *[[Jagadish Chandra Bose]] *[[Alexander Stepanovich Popov]] *[[Nikola Tesla]], who developed means to reliably produce [[radio frequency]] [[current]]s, publicly demonstrated the principles of radio, and [[radio transmission|transmitted]] long distance signals. In 1943 the [[US Supreme Court]] upheld Tesla's patent number U.S. Patent 645,576 in effect recognizing him as the [[inventor of radio]]. *[[Guglielmo Marconi]], who equipped ships with life-saving [[wireless communications]], conducted a reported transatlantic radio communications experiments in 1901 and established the first commercial transatlantic radio service in 1907. == Wireless prehistory (19th century) == In the late 19th century it was clear to various scientists and experimenters that wireless communication was possible. Various theoretical and experimental innovations led to the development of radio and the communication system we know today. Some early work was done by [[near field|local effects]] and [[experiment]]s of [[electromagnetic induction]]. Many understood that there was nothing similar to the "[[Aether (classical element)|ethereal]] telegraphy" <ref>"''[http://earlyradiohistory.us/1897edit.htm Wireless telegraphy]''". Scientific American, [[June 19]], [[1897]], page 386. Uses the term to connote "[[Electrical conduction|aether's conduction]]".</ref><ref>"''[http://earlyradiohistory.us/1901sla1.htm The Slaby system of wireless duplex telegraphy]''". Scientific American, [[March 9]], [[1901]], pages 146-147. Uses the term to connote "[[Electrical conduction|aether's conduction]]".</ref> and [[Radio-frequency induction|telegraphy by induction]]; the phenomena being wholly distinct. Wireless telegraphy was beginning to take hold and the practice of transmitting messages without wires was being developed. Many people worked on developing the devices and improvements. ===Faraday=== In 1831, [[Michael Faraday]] began a series of experiments in which he discovered [[electromagnetic induction]]. The relation was mathematically modelled by [[Faraday's law of induction|Faraday's law]], which subsequently became one of the four [[Maxwell's equations|Maxwell equations]]. Faraday proposed that electromagnetic forces extended into the empty space around the conductor, but did not complete his work involving that proposal. [[Image:James Clerk Maxwell.png|thumb|right|222px|[[James Clerk Maxwell]] was an experimenter with electromagnetic waves and developed the Maxwell equations.]] ===Maxwell=== Between 1861 and 1865, based on the earlier experimental work of Faraday and other scientists, [[James Clerk Maxwell]] developed his theory of electromagnetism, which predicted the existence of electromagnetic waves. In 1873 Maxwell described the theoretical basis of the propagation of electromagnetic waves in his paper to the [[Royal Society]], "''[[A Dynamical Theory of the Electromagnetic Field]]''." ===William Henry Ward=== In April 1872 [[William Henry Ward]] received {{US patent|126356}} for radio development. However, this patent did not refer to any known scientific theory of electromagnetism and could never have received and transmitted radio waves. ===Mahlon Loomis=== [[Mahlon Loomis]] of [[West Virginia]] has the oldest and most documented claim of inventing radio. Loomis received {{US patent|129971}} for a "wireless telegraph" in July 1872. This patent utilizes [[atmospheric electricity]] to eliminate the overhead wire used by the existing telegraph systems. It did not contain diagrams or specific methods and it did not refer to or incorporate any known scientific theory . It is substantially similar to [[William Henry Ward]]'s patent and could not have transmitted and received radio waves. ===Edison (1875) === Towards the end of 1875, while experimenting with the [[telegraph]], [[Thomas Edison]] noted a phenomenon that he termed "[[etheric force]]", announcing it to the press on [[November 28]]. He abandoned this research when [[Elihu Thomson]], among others, ridiculed the idea. The idea was not based on the electromagnetic waves described by Maxwell. ===David E. Hughes=== In 1878, [[David E. Hughes]] was the first to claim to have transmitted and received radio waves when he noticed that his [[metal detector|induction balance]] caused noise in the receiver of his homemade [[telephone]]. He demonstrated his discovery to the Royal Society in 1880 but was told it was merely [[Electromagnetic induction|induction]]. His aim was not to communicate by radio and his equipment was not designed to do so. ===Calzecchi-Onesti=== In 1884, [[Temistocle Calzecchi-Onesti]] at [[Fermo]] in Italy invented a primitive device that responded to radio waves. It consisted of a tube filled with [[iron]] filings, called a "[[coherer]]". This device was a critical discovery because it would later be developed to become the first practical radio [[Detector (radio)|detector]]. ===Edouard Branly=== Between 1884 and 1886, [[Edouard Branly]] of France produced an improved version of the [[coherer]]. === Edison (1885) === In 1885, Edison took out {{US patent|465971}} on a system of radio communication between ships (which later he sold to [[Guglielmo Marconi|Marconi]]). The patent, however, was not based on the transmission and reception of electromagnetic waves. ===Hertz=== Between 1886 and 1888, [[Heinrich Rudolf Hertz]] studied Maxwell's theory and validated it through experiment. He demonstrated the transmission and reception of the electromagnetic waves predicted by Maxwell and thus was the first person to intentionally transmit and receive radio. He discovered that the electromagnetic equations could be reformulated into a [[partial differential equation]] called the [[wave equation]]. Famously, he saw no practical use for his discovery. For more information see [[Invention of radio#SLF and UHF experimentation|Hertz's radio work]]. ===Stubblefield=== Claims have been made that [[Murray, Kentucky]] farmer [[Nathan Stubblefield]] developed radio between 1885 and 1892, before either Tesla or Marconi, but his devices seemed to have worked by [[Electromagnetic induction|induction]] transmission rather than [[Radio propagation|radio transmission]]. ===Landell de Moura=== Between 1893 and 1894, [[Roberto Landell de Moura]], a Brazilian priest and scientist, conducted experiments in wireless transmissions. He did not publicize his achievement until 1900, when he held a public demonstration of a wireless transmission of voice in São Paulo, Brazil on June 3. == Beginnings of radio== There are varying disputed claims about [[invention of radio|who invented radio]], which in the beginning was called "[[wireless telegraphy]]". The key invention for the beginning of "wireless transmission of data using the entire frequency spectrum", known as the [[spark-gap transmitter]], has been attributed to various men. Marconi equipped ships with lifesaving wireless communications and established the first transatlantic radio service. Tesla developed means to reliably produce radio frequency electrical currents, publicly demonstrated the principles of radio, and transmitted long distance signals. [[Image:NikolaTeslaLightbulb.jpg|thumb|right|222px|[[Nikola Tesla]] developed means to reliably produce radio frequencies, publicly demonstrated the principles of radio, and transmitted long distant signals. He holds the US patent for the invention of the radio, as defined as "wireless transmission of data".]] ===Nikola Tesla=== In 1891 Tesla began his research into radio. He later published an article, "''[[wikisource:The True Wireless|The True Wireless]]''", concerning this research.<ref>[http://www.tfcbooks.com/tesla/1919-05-00.htm "The True Wireless" by Nikola Tesla<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref> In 1892 he gave a lecture called "[[wikisource:Experiments with Alternate Currents of High Potential and High Frequency|Experiments with Alternate Currents of High Potential and High Frequency]]", in London (Available at Project Gutenberg).<ref>"[http://www.ieee-virtual-museum.org/collection/people.php?taid=&id=1234597&lid=1 Nikola Tesla]". ieee-virtual-museum.org</ref> In 1893, at [[St. Louis, Missouri]], Tesla gave a public demonstration of "[[wireless]]" radio communication. Addressing the ''[[Franklin Institute]]'' in [[Philadelphia]] and the ''[[National Electric Light Association]]'', he described in detail the principles of radio communication.<ref>"[[wikisource:On Light and Other High Frequency Phenomena|On Light and Other High Frequency Phenomena]]". Philadelphia/St. Louis; Franklin Institute in 1893.</ref> The apparatus that Tesla used contained all the elements that were incorporated into radio systems before the development of the "oscillation valve", the early [[vacuum tube]]. Tesla was the first to apply the [[Mechanism (science)|mechanism]] of [[electrical conduction]] to ''wireless practices''. Also, he initially used sensitive [[electromagnetic]] receivers,<ref> Corum, K. L., and J. F. Corum, "[http://www.teslasociety.com/teslarec.pdf Tesla's Colorado Springs Receivers (A Short Introduction)]".</ref> that were unlike the less responsive [[coherer]]s later used by Marconi and other early experimenters. Afterwards, the principle of radio communication (sending signals through space to [[Receiver (electronics)|receiver]]s) was publicized widely. Various scientists, inventors, and experimenters began to investigate wireless methods. He was re-awarded the patent rights, after holding them initially, for radio by the [[United States Supreme Court]] after his death in 1943. For more information see [[Invention of Radio#Tesla's wireless work|Tesla's wireless work]]. ===Oliver Lodge=== [[Oliver Lodge]] transmitted radio signals on [[August 14]], [[1894]] (one year after Tesla, five years after [[Heinrich Hertz]] and one year before Marconi) at a meeting of the [[British Association for the Advancement of Science]] at [[Oxford University]].<ref>[http://www.cfpf.org.uk/news/news_06.html#id2002-08-11_lodge_news Sir Oliver Lodge Invented Radio - Not Marconi]''".</ref> (In 1995, the [[Royal Society]] recognized this scientific breakthrough at a special ceremony at Oxford University. For more information, see ''Past Years: An Autobiography'', New York: [[Charles Scribner|Charles Scribner's Sons]], p231.) On [[19 August]] [[1894]] Lodge demonstrated the reception of [[Morse code]] signalling via radio waves using a "[[coherer]]". He improved [[Edouard Branly]]'s coherer radio wave detector by adding a "trembler" which dislodged clumped filings, thus restoring the device's sensitivity. <ref> Peter Rowlands (ed.) and J. Patrick Wilson (ed.) "Oliver Lodge and the Invention of Radio" ISBN 1-873694-02-4 </ref> In August 1898 he got {{US patent|609154}}, "Electric Telegraphy", that made wireless signals using [[Ruhmkorff coil]]s or [[Tesla coil]]s for the transmitter and a [[Branly]] coherer for the detector. This was key to the "[[syntonic]]" tuning concept. In 1912 Lodge sold the patent to Marconi. ===Jagdish Chandra Bose=== In November 1894, the [[Bengali people|Bengali]] [[Undivided India|Indian]] physicist, [[Jagdish Chandra Bose]], demonstrated publicly the use of radio waves in [[Kolkata|Calcutta]], but he was not interested in patenting his work.<ref>"[http://www.ieee-virtual-museum.org/collection/people.php?taid=&id=1234735&lid=1 Jagadish Chandra Bose]". ieee-virtual-museum.org.</ref> Bose ignited gunpowder and rang a bell at a distance using electromagnetic waves, proving that communication signals can be sent without using wires. He was thus the first to send and receive radio waves over a significant distance but did not commercially exploit this achievement. The 1895 public demonstration by Bose in [[Calcutta]] was before Marconi's wireless signalling experiment on [[Salisbury Plain]] in England in May 1897.<ref>"''[http://www.tuc.nrao.edu/~demerson/bose/bose.html The Work of Jagdish Chandra Bose: 100 years of mm-wave research]''". tuc.nrao.edu.</ref><ref>"''[http://www.ieee-virtual-museum.org/collection/people.php?taid=&id=1234735&lid=1 Jagadish Chandra Bose]''", ieee-virtual-museum.org.</ref> In 1896, the ''[[Daily Chronicle]]'' of England reported on his UHF experiments: "''The inventor (J.C. Bose) has transmitted signals to a distance of nearly a mile and herein lies the first and obvious and exceedingly valuable application of this new theoretical marvel.''" ===Alexander Popov=== [[Image:A-S-Popov.jpg|thumb|right|222px|Popov was the first man to demonstrate the practical applications of radio waves.]] In 1895, the Russian physicist [[Alexander Popov (physicist)|Alexander Popov]] built a [[coherer]]. On [[May 7]], [[1895]], Popov performed a public demonstration of transmission and reception of radio waves used for communication at the Russian Physical and Chemical Society, using his coherer:<ref>{{cite web|title =Early Radio Transmission Recognized as Milestone|work=[[IEEE]]|url=http://www.ieee.org/portal/site/tionline/menuitem.130a3558587d56e8fb2275875bac26c8/index.jsp?&pName=institute_level1_article&TheCat=1008&article=tionline/legacy/inst2005/may05/5w.fhistory.xml&|accessdate=July 16|accessyear=2006}}</ref> this day has since been celebrated in [[Russia]] as "[[Radio Day]]". He did not apply for a patent for this invention. Popov's early experiments were transmissions of only 600 yards. Popov was the first to develop a practical communication system based on the coherer, and is usually considered by the Russians to have been the inventor of radio.<ref>"[http://www.ieee.org/organizations/history_center/milestones_photos/popov.html Popov's Contribution to the Development of Wireless Communication, 1895]". IEEE History Center, IEEE Milestone.</ref><ref>"''[http://www.webstationone.com/fecha/popov.htm Russia's Popov: Did he "invent" radio]?''". The First Electronic Church of America.</ref> Around March 1896 Popov demonstrated in public the transmission of radio waves, between different campus buildings, to the [[Saint Petersburg]] Physical Society. (This was before the public demonstration of the Marconi system around September 1896). Per other accounts, however, Popov achieved these results only in December, 1897; that is, after publication of Marconi's patent.<ref>[http://www.oldradioclub.ru/raznoe/hystory/hystory_041.html Л.Н.Никольский. Кто "изобрел" радио?]</ref> In 1898 his signal was received 6 miles away, and in 1899 30 miles away. In 1900, Popov stated at the [[Congress of Russian Electrical Engineers]] that, <blockquote>"''the emission and reception of signals by Marconi by means of electric oscillations was nothing new, as in America [[Nikola Tesla]] did the same experiments in 1893''."<ref>"''The Guglielmo Marconi Case [http://www.mercury.gr/tesla/marcen.html Who is the True Inventor of Radio]''".</ref><ref>"''[http://www.wsone.com/fecha/electra.htm The Electronic Era]; When? Where? Who? How? Why?''". First Electronic Church Of America.</ref> </blockquote> Later Popov experimented with ship-to-shore communication. Popov died in 1905 and his claim was not pressed by the Russian government until 1945. ===Around 1895: 3-way near photofinish for first use of radio=== *In February 1893, Tesla delivers "On Light and Other High Frequency Phenomena" before the Franklin Institute in Philadelphia. *In 1895, Marconi receives a [[Telegraphy|telegraph]] message without wires a short distance (below a mile), but he ''did not send his voice'' over the airwaves. In March 1895, Popov transmitted radio waves between [[campus]] buildings in [[Saint Petersburg]], but did not apply for a [[patent]]. *In 1896, Tesla detected transmissions from his New York lab of [[low frequency]] (50,000 [[hertz|cycle per second]]) [[Continuous wave|undamped wave]]s with a receiver located at [[West Point]], "a distance of about 30 miles." <ref>"Nikola Tesla On His Work with Alternating Currents and Their Application to wireless Telegraphy, Telephony, and Transmission of Power", Leland I. Anderson, Twenty First Century Books, 2002, pp. 25-29.</ref> ===Ernest Rutherford=== The New Zealander [[Ernest Rutherford, 1st Baron Rutherford of Nelson]] was instrumental in the development of radio. In 1895 he was awarded an [[The Great Exhibition|Exhibition of 1851]] Science Research Scholarship to Cambridge. He arrived in England with a reputation as an innovator and inventor, and distinguished himself in several fields, initially by working out the electrical properties of solids and then using wireless waves as a method of signalling. Rutherford was encouraged in his work by [[Sir Robert Ball]], who had been scientific adviser to the body maintaining [[lighthouse]]s on the Irish coast; he wished to solve the difficult problem of a ship’s inability to detect a lighthouse in fog. Sensing fame and fortune, Rutherford increased the sensitivity of his apparatus until he could detect electromagnetic waves over a distance of several hundred meters. The commercial development, though, of wireless technology was left for others, as Rutherford continued purely scientific research. Thomson quickly realised that Rutherford was a researcher of exceptional ability and invited him to join in a study of the electrical conduction of gases. ===Marconi=== [[Image:Marconi.jpg|thumb|right|222px|[[Guglielmo Marconi]] was an electrical engineer and Nobel laureate known for the development of a practical wireless telegraphy system.]] In 1896, [[Guglielmo Marconi]] was awarded a patent for radio with [[United Kingdom|British]] [[Patent]] 12039, ''Improvements in Transmitting Electrical Impulses and Signals and in Apparatus There-for''. This was the initial patent for the radio, though it used various earlier techniques of various other experimenters (primarily Tesla) and resembled the instrument demonstrated by others (including Popov). During this time spark-gap wireless telegraphy was widely researched. In 1896, Bose went to London on a lecture tour and met Marconi, who was conducting wireless experiments for the British post office. In 1897, Marconi established the radio station at [[Niton, Isle of Wight]], [[England]]. In 1897, Tesla applied for two key radio patents in the USA. Those two patents were issued in early 1900. In 1898, Marconi opened a radio factory in Hall Street, [[Chelmsford, England]], employing around 50 people. In 1899, Bose announced his invention of the "iron-mercury-iron coherer with telephone detector" in a paper presented at Royal Society, London. ===Julio Cervera Baviera=== [[Image:Julio Cervera Baviera.jpg|thumb|150px|left|Julio Cervera Baviera]] Recent studies in [[Spain]] credit [[Julio Cervera Baviera]] as the inventor of the radio (in 1902).<ref>[http://www.unav.es/noticias/211005-06.html Noticias, Últimas noticias, El español Julio Cervera Baviera, y no Marconi, fue quien inventó la radio, según el profesor Ángel Faus . Universidad de Navarra<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref> <ref>[http://www.elmundo.es/elmundo/2005/10/19/comunicacion/1129722413.html Un estudio asegura que fue el español Cervera Baviera y no Marconi el inventor de la radio - comunicación - elmundo.es<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref> Cervera Baviera obtained patents in [[England]], [[Germany]], [[Belgium]], and Spain. In May-June 1899, Cervera had, with the blessing of the [[Spanish Army]], visited Marconi's radiotelegraphic installations on the [[English Channel]], and worked to develop his own system. He began collaborating with Marconi on resolving the problem of a wireless communication system, obtaining some [[patents]] by the end of [[1899]]. Cervera, who had worked with Marconi and his assistant [[George Kemp]] in 1899, resolved the difficulties of wireless telegraph and obtained his first patents prior to the end of that year. On March 22, 1902, Cervera founded the Spanish Wireless Telegraph and Telephone Corporation and brought to his corporation the patents he had obtained in Spain, Belgium, Germany and England.<ref>[http://www.unav.es/english/news/38.html News, Latest news, The Spaniard Julio Cervera Baviera, and not Marconi, was the inventor of the radio, according to professor Ángel Faus . University of Navarra<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref> He established the second and third regular radiotelegraph service in the history of the world in [[1901]] and [[1902]] by maintaining regular transmissions between [[Tarifa]] and [[Ceuta]] for three consecutive months, and between [[Javea]] ([[Cabo de la Nao]]) and [[Ibiza]] ([[Cabo Pelado]]). This is after Marconi established the radiotelegraphic service between the [[Isle of Wight]] and [[Bournemouth]] in [[1898]]. In [[1906]], Domenico Mazzotto wrote: "In Spain the [[Minister of War]] has applied the system perfected by the commander of military engineering, Julio Cervera Baviera (English patent No. 20084 (1899))."<ref>Domenico Mazzotto, ''Wireless Telegraphy and Telephony''. Translated by Selimo Romeo Bottone (Whittaker & Co., 1906), 217.</ref> Cervera thus achieved some success in this field, but his radiotelegraphic activities ceased suddenly, the reasons for which are unclear to this day.<ref>http://www.coit.es/foro/pub/ficheros/librosapendice_1_981ff066.pdf?PHPSESSID=c3606fd8d59137417f50e69e7d8f8566</ref> ===Turn of the century=== Around the [[turn of the century]], the [[Slaby-Arco wireless system]] was developed by [[Adolf Slaby]] and [[Georg von Arco]] (later incorporated into [[Telefunken]]). In 1900, [[Reginald Fessenden]] made a weak transmission of voice over the airwaves. Around [[1900]], Tesla opened the [[Wardenclyffe Tower]] facility and advertised services. In 1901, Marconi conducted the first successful transatlantic experimental radio communications. In 1903, Wardenclyffe Tower neared completion. Various theories exist on how Tesla intended to achieve the goals of this wireless system (reportedly, a 200 kW system). Tesla claimed that Wardenclyffe, as part of a World System of transmitters, would have allowed secure multichannel transceiving of information, universal navigation, time synchronization, and a global location system. In 1904, The [[United States Patent and Trademark Office|U.S. Patent Office]] reversed its decision, awarding Marconi a patent for the invention of radio, possibly influenced by Marconi's financial backers in the States, who included [[Thomas Edison]] and [[Andrew Carnegie]]. This also allowed the U.S. government (among others) to avoid having to pay the royalties that were being claimed by Tesla for use of his patents. For more information see [[Invention Of Radio#Marconi's radio work|Marconi's radio work]]. In 1907, Marconi established the first commercial transatlantic radio communications service, between [[Clifden]], [[Ireland]] and [[Glace Bay]], [[Dominion of Newfoundland|Newfoundland]]. ==Early radio telegraphy and telephony== [[Image:Donald Manson working as an employee of the Marconi Company.jpg|thumb|222px|Donald Manson working as an employee of the Marconi Company (England, 1906)]] ===British Marconi=== Using various [[patent]]s, the company called [[Marconi Company|British Marconi]] was established and began communication between [[coast radio station]]s and ships at sea. This company along with its subsidiary [[American Marconi]], had a stranglehold on ship to shore communication. It operated much the way [[American Telephone and Telegraph]] operated until 1983, owning all of its equipment and refusing to communicate with non-Marconi equipped ships. Many inventions improved the quality of radio, and amateurs experimented with uses of radio, thus the first seeds of broadcasting were planted. ===Reginald Fessenden=== The invention of amplitude-modulated (AM) radio, so that more than one station can send signals (as opposed to spark-gap radio, where one transmitter covers the entire bandwidth of the spectrum) is attributed to [[Reginald Fessenden]] and [[Lee de Forest]]. On [[Christmas Eve]] 1906, [[Reginald Fessenden]] used an [[Alexanderson alternator]] and rotary [[spark-gap transmitter]] to make the first radio audio broadcast, from [[Ocean Bluff-Brant Rock, Massachusetts|Brant Rock, Massachusetts]]. Ships at sea heard a broadcast that included Fessenden playing ''[[O Holy Night]]'' on the [[violin]] and reading a passage from the [[Bible]]. ===Karl Braun=== In 1909, [[Marconi]] and [[Karl Ferdinand Braun]] were awarded the [[Nobel Prize in Physics]] for "contributions to the development of wireless telegraphy". ===Charles David Herrold=== In April 1909 [[Charles David Herrold]], an electronics instructor in [[San Jose, California]] constructed a broadcasting station. It used [[spark gap]] technology, but modulated the carrier frequency with the human voice, and later music. The station "San Jose Calling" (there were no call letters), continued to eventually become today's [[KCBS (AM)|KCBS]] in San Francisco. Herrold, the son of a [[Santa Clara Valley]] farmer, coined the terms "narrowcasting" and "broadcasting", respectively to identify transmissions destined for a single receiver such as that on board a ship, and those transmissions destined for a general audience. (The term "broadcasting" had been used in farming to define the tossing of seed in all directions.) Charles Herrold did not claim to be the first to transmit the human voice, but he claimed to be the first to conduct "broadcasting". To help the radio signal to spread in all directions, he designed some [[omnidirectional antenna]]s, which he mounted on the rooftops of various buildings in San Jose. Herrold also claims to be the first broadcaster to accept [[advertising]] (he exchanged publicity for a local record store for records to play on his station), though this dubious honour usually is foisted on [[WEAF (AM)|WEAF]] (1922). [[Image:RMS Titanic sea trials April 2, 1912.jpg||thumb|right|222px|RMS Titanic (April 2, 1912).]] In 1912, the [[RMS Titanic|RMS ''Titanic'']] sank in the northern [[Atlantic Ocean]]. After this, wireless telegraphy using spark-gap transmitters quickly became universal on large ships. In 1913, the [[International Convention for the Safety of Life at Sea]] was convened and produced a treaty requiring shipboard radio stations to be manned 24 hours a day. A typical high-power spark gap was a rotating commutator with six to twelve contacts per wheel, nine inches to a foot wide, driven by about 2000 [[volt]]s DC. As the gaps made and broke contact, the radio wave was audible as a tone in a crystal set. The telegraph key often directly made and broke the 2000 volt supply. One side of the spark gap was directly connected to the antenna. Receivers with [[thermionic valve]]s became commonplace before spark-gap transmitters were replaced by continuous wave transmitters. ===Harold J. Power=== On [[March 8]], [[1916]], [[Harold Power]] with his radio company American Radio and Research Company (AMRAD), broadcast the first continuous broadcast in the world from [[Tufts University]] under the call sign 1XE (it lasted 3 hours). The company later became the first to broadcast on a daily schedule, and the first to broadcast radio dance programs, university professor lectures, the weather, and bedtime stories <ref>"North Hall." <u>Concise Encyclopedia of Tufts History.</u> Ed. Anne Sauer [http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/ptext?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A2000.04.0001%3Ahead%3D%23360]</ref>. ==Other innovators== Many scientists and [[inventor]]s contributed to the invention of wireless telegraphy and telephony. Individuals that helped to further the science include, among others: *[[Georg von Arco]]: European pioneer. *[[Edouard Branly]]: invention of the Branly coherer around 1890. *[[Temistocle Calzecchi-Onesti]]: constructed a tuning "tube". *[[Amos Dolbear]]: Earth transmission, {{US patent|350299}}. *[[Thomas Alva Edison]]: "Etheric Force" experiments 1875; {{US patent|465971}}, 1891. *[[Michael Faraday]]: discovered [[electromagnetic induction]]. *[[Reginald Fessenden]]: advanced "continuous" wave transmission. *[[Benjamin Franklin]]: First to experiment with an elevated conductor. *[[Hans Christian Ørsted]]: discovered that a magnetic field surrounds a wire carrying current. *[[Joseph Henry]]: transmitted radiant energy from a capacitor through a coil and detected it 100 feet away, December 1840. *[[Charles Herrold]]: advanced radio broadcasting. *[[David E. Hughes]]: early experiments with transmission and reception. *[[Mahlon Loomis]]: first to use the combination of an aerial wire and ground connection. *[[Guglielmo Marconi]]: commercialized radio. *[[James Clerk Maxwell]]: developed a set of [[Maxwell's equations|equations expressing the basic laws of electricity and magnetism]]. *[[Jozef Murgaš]]: extensive work in the late 1890s. *[[G. W. Pierce]]: circuits for [[crystal oscillator]]s for fixed-frequency operation. *[[William Henry Preece]]: early experiments in electromagnetism and wireless telephony. *[[Augusto Righi]]: continued Hertz’s experiments. *[[Harry Shoemaker]]: 1901 to 1905; 40 patents. *[[Adolphus Slaby]]: European pioneer. *[[John Stone Stone]]: 1901 to 1904; 70 patents. *[[Nathan Stubblefield]]: wireless telephony demonstrations around 1902; {{US patent|887357}}, 1908. *[[Nikola Tesla]]: 1891 to 1914; 27+ patents related to the transmission of electrical energy without wires. == Audio broadcasting (1919 to 1950s) == {{Seealso|Old-time radio}} ===Crystal sets=== <!-- Unsourced image removed: [[Image:NBS 120 Set.jpg|right|thumb|222px|In the 1920s, the [[Work of the United States Government|United States government publication]], "''Construction and Operation of a Simple Homemade Radio Receiving Outfit''", showed how almost any person handy with simple tools could a build an effective [[crystal radio]] receiver.]] --> The most common type of receiver before vacuum tubes was the [[crystal radio receiver|crystal set]], although some early radios used some type of amplification through electric current or battery. Inventions of the [[triode amplifier]], [[motor-generator]], and [[detector (radio)|detector]] enabled audio radio. The use of [[amplitude modulation]] ([[AM radio|AM]]), with which more than one station can simultaneously send signals (as opposed to spark-gap radio, where one transmitter covers the entire bandwidth of spectra) was pioneered by Fessenden and [[Lee de Forest]]. To this day there is a small but avid base of fans of this technology who study and practice the art and science of designing and making crystal sets as a hobby; the Boy Scouts of America have often undertaken such craft projects to introduce boys to electronics and radio, and quite a number of them having grown up remain staunch fans of a radio that 'runs on nothing, forever'. As the only energy available is that gathered by the antenna system, there are inherent limitations on how much sound even an ideal set could produce, but with only moderately decent antenna systems remarkable performance is possible with a superior set. ===The first vacuum tubes=== During the mid 1920s, amplifying [[vacuum tube]]s (or ''thermionic valves'' in the UK) revolutionized [[radio receiver]]s and [[transmitter]]s. [[John Ambrose Fleming]] developed an earlier tube known as an "oscillation valve" (it was a [[diode]]). [[Lee De Forest]] placed a screen, the "grid" electrode, between the filament and plate electrode. The Dutch engineer [[Hanso Schotanus à Steringa Idzerda]] made the first regular wireless broadcast for entertainment from his home in [[The Hague]] on [[6 November]] [[1919]]. He broadcast his popular program four nights per week until 1924 when he ran into financial troubles. On [[27 August]] [[1920]], regular wireless broadcasts for entertainment began in [[Argentina]], pioneered by the group around [[Enrique Telémaco Susini]], and [[spark gap]] telegraphy stopped. On [[31 August]] [[1920]] the first known radio news program was broadcast by station 8MK, the unlicensed predecessor of [[WWJ (AM)]] in [[Detroit, Michigan]]. In 1922 regular wireless broadcasts for entertainment began in the [[UK]] from the [[Guglielmo Marconi|Marconi]] Research Centre [[2MT]] at [[Writtle]] near [[Chelmsford, England]]. Early radios ran the entire power of the transmitter through a [[carbon microphone]]. In the 1920s, the [[Westinghouse Electric (1886)|Westinghouse company]] bought [[Lee De Forest]]'s and [[Edwin Armstrong]]'s patent. During the mid 1920s, Amplifying [[vacuum tube]]s (US)/[[thermionic valve]]s (UK) revolutionized [[radio receiver]]s and [[transmitter]]s. Westinghouse engineers developed a more modern vacuum tube. ===Licensed commercial public radio stations=== The question of the 'first' publicly-targeted licensed radio station in the U.S. has more than one answer and depends on semantics. Settlement of this 'first' question may hang largely upon what constitutes 'regular' programming. *It is commonly attributed to [[KDKA (AM)|KDKA]] in [[Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania]], which in October 1920 received its license and went on the air as the first US licensed commercial broadcasting station. (Their engineer [[Frank Conrad]] had been broadcasting from his own station since 1916.) Technically, KDKA was the first of several already-extant stations to receive a 'limited commercial' license. *On [[February 17]], [[1919]], station 9XM at the University of Wisconsin in Madison had already broadcast the first human speech to the public at large. That station is still on the air today as [[WHA (AM)|WHA]]. *9XM sent music over the air two years earlier, was originally licensed in 1914 and sent its first transmission in 1916. *On [[August 20]], [[1920]], at least two months before KDKA, [[E.W. Scripps]]'s WBL (now [[WWJ (AM)|WWJ]]) in [[Detroit]] started broadcasting. It has carried a regular schedule of programming to the present. *There is the history noted above of [[Charles David Herrold]]'s radio services (eventually [[KCBS (AM)|KCBS]]) going back to 1909. Broadcasting was not yet supported by [[advertising]] or [[listener sponsorship]]. The stations owned by manufacturers and department stores were established to sell radios and those owned by newspapers to sell newspapers and express the opinions of the owners. In the 1920s, Radio was first used to transmit pictures visible as television. During the early 1930s, [[single sideband]] (SSB) and [[frequency modulation]] (FM) were invented by amateur radio operators. By 1940, they were established commercial modes. Westinghouse was brought into the patent allies group, [[General Electric]], [[American Telephone and Telegraph]], and [[Radio Corporation of America]], and became a part owner of RCA. All radios made by GE and Westinghouse were sold under the RCA label 60% GE and 40% Westinghouse. ATT's [[Western Electric]] would build radio transmitters. The patent allies attempted to set up a monopoly, but they failed due to successful competition. Much to the dismay of the patent allies, several of the contracts for inventor's patents held clauses protecting "amateurs" and allowing them to use the patents. Whether the competing manufacturers were really amateurs was ignored by these competitors. These features arose: * Commercial ([[United States]]) or governmental (Europe) station networks * [[Federal Radio Commission]] * [[Federal Communications Commission]] * [[CCIR]] * Birth of the [[soap opera]] * Race towards shorter waves and FM ===Dates of first radio stations=== This is a listing of [[radio station]]s in broadcast networks. The earliest radio stations were simply radio telegraph systems which did not carry audio are not listed. The included first radio station encompass AM and FM stations; these include both commercial, public and nonprofit varieties found throughout the world. <small> ;Note: The first claimed audio transmission that could be termed to be from a broadcast station occurred on Christmas Eve in 1906, and was made by Reginald Fessenden.<br>Charles Herrold started broadcasting from a station in California in 1909 and was carrying audio by 1910. </small> ;Note: Some of the dates listed here may not be accurate. Feel free to make corrections to either of the lists. {{Col-begin|class=references-small}} {{Col-break}} ====USA and Canadian territory==== This list includes the [[United States of America]], the republic composed of 50 states, one federal district, and several insular territories, and the [[Canadian province]]s, which consists of ten provinces with three territories. {| cellspacing="0" border="1" bgcolor="white" class="wikitable sortable" |- !State!!Date |- | [[Alabama]]||1922 |- | [[Territory of Alaska]] ||1924 |- | [[Alberta]] ||1922 |- | [[Arizona]] ||1922 |- | [[Arkansas]] ||1920 |- | [[British Columbia]] ||1922 |- | [[California]] ||1921 |- | [[Colorado]] ||1921 |- | [[Connecticut]] ||1922 |- | [[Delaware]] ||1922 |- | [[Florida]] ||1921 |- | [[Georgia (U.S. state)|Georgia]] ||1922 |- | [[Guam]] ||1954 |- | [[Territory of Hawaii]] ||1922 |- | [[Idaho]] ||1922 |- | [[Illinois]] ||1921 |- | [[Indiana]] ||1921 |- | [[Iowa]] ||1922 |- | [[Kansas]] ||1922 |- | [[Kentucky]] ||1921 |- | [[Louisiana]] ||1922 |- | [[Maine]] ||1922 |- | [[Manitoba]] ||1922 |- | [[Maryland]] ||1922 |- | [[Massachusetts]] ||1920 |- | [[Michigan]] ||1920 |- | [[Minnesota]] ||1922 |- | [[Mississippi]] ||1925 [[#Notes and citations|3]] |- | [[Missouri]] ||1921 |- | [[Montana]] ||1922 |- | [[Nebraska]] ||1921 |- | [[Nevada]] ||1922 |- | [[New Brunswick]] ||1923 |- | [[New Hampshire]] ||1922 |- | [[New Jersey]] ||1921 |- | [[New Mexico]] ||1922 |- | [[New York]] ||1922 |- | [[Newfoundland and Labrador|Newfoundland]] ||1924 |- | [[North Carolina]] ||1922 |- | [[North Dakota]] ||1922 |- | [[Northwest Territories]] ||1958 |- | [[Nova Scotia]] ||1920 |- | [[Ohio]] ||1922 |- | [[Oklahoma]] ||1921 |- | [[Ontario]] ||1922 |- | [[Oregon]] ||1922 |- | [[Panama Canal Zone]] ||1923 |- | [[Pennsylvania]] ||1920 |- | [[Philippines]] ||1922 |- | [[Prince Edward Island]] ||1924 |- | [[Puerto Rico]] ||1922 |- | [[Quebec]] ||1920 |- | [[Rhode Island]] ||1922 |- | [[Saskatchewan]] ||1922 |- | [[South Carolina]] ||1930 [[#Notes and citations|4]] |- | [[South Dakota]] ||1922 |- | [[Tennessee]] ||1922 |- | [[Texas]] ||1920 |- | [[Utah]] ||1922 |- | [[Vermont]] ||1920 |- | [[Virginia]] ||1923 |- | [[Washington]] ||1920 |- | [[Washington, D.C.]] ||1923 |- | [[West Virginia]] ||1923 |- | [[Wisconsin]] ||1922 |- | [[Wyoming]] ||1930 [[# Notes and citations|5]] |- | [[Yukon Territory]] ||1923 |} {{Col-break}} {{Col-break}} {{Col-break}} ====Other countries==== This list includes [[countries]] outside of the United States of America and the Canadian provinces. {| cellspacing="0" border="1" bgcolor="white" class="wikitable sortable" |- !Country!!Date |- | [[The Netherlands]] ||1919 |- | [[Argentina]] ||1920 |- | [[British Malaya|Malaya]] ||1921 |- | [[Mexico]] ||1921 |- | [[New Zealand]] ||1921 |- | [[Russia]] ||1921 |- | [[Uruguay]] ||1921 |- | [[Ceylon]] ||1922 |- | [[France]] ||1922 |- | [[Switzerland]] ||1922 |- | [[Great Britain]] ||1922 |- | [[Chile]] ||1922 |- | [[Cuba]] ||1922 |- | [[Panama]] ||1922 |- | [[Venezuela]] ||1922 |- | [[Germany]]||1923 |- | [[Czechoslovakia]] ||1923 |- | [[China]] ||1923 |- | [[Australia]] ||1923 |- | [[Brazil]] ||1923 |- | [[Belgium]] ||1923 |- | [[Denmark]] ||1923 |- | [[Finland]] ||1923 |- | [[Italy]] ||1923 |- | [[Netherlands East Indies]] ||1923 [[#Notes and citations|5]] |- | [[South Africa]] ||1923 |- | [[Spain]] ||1923 |- | [[Sweden]] ||1923 |- | [[Austria]] ||1923 |- | [[Colombia]] ||1929 |- | [[Costa Rica]] ||1924 |- | [[Estonia]] ||1924 |- | [[Lithuania]] ||1924 |- | [[Luxembourg]] ||1924 |- | [[Serbia]] ||1924 |- | [[Poland]] ||1924 |- | [[Norway]] ||1924* |- | [[Afghanistan]] ||1925* |- | [[Egypt]] ||1925 |- | [[Japan]] ||1925 |- | [[Fiji]] ||1925* |- | [[Latvia]] ||1925 |- | [[Peru]] ||1925 |- | [[Portugal]] ||1925 |- | [[Romania]] ||1925 |- | [[Hungary]] ||1925 |- | [[Ireland]] ||1925 |- | [[Netherlands Antilles]] ||1925 |- | [[Croatia]] ||1926 |- | [[British Guiana]] ||1926 |- | [[Free City of Danzig]] ||1926 |- | [[Dominican Republic]] ||1926 |- | [[El Salvador]] ||1926 |- | [[Greece]] ||1926 |- | [[Guatemala]] ||1926 |- | [[Lithuania]] ||1926 |- | [[Algeria]] ||1927* |- | [[Basutoland]] ||1927 |- | [[Belgian Congo]] ||1927 |- | [[Bolivia]] ||1927 |- | [[Dutch New Guinea]] ||1927* |- | [[Greenland]] ||1927 |- | [[Haiti]] ||1927 |- | [[India]] ||1927 |- | [[Kenya]] ||1927 |- | [[Liberia]] ||1927 |- | [[Mauritius]] ||1927 |- | [[St. Helena]] ||1927* |- | [[Thailand|Siam]] ||1927 |- | [[Singapore]] ||1927 |- | [[Suriname]] ||1927* |- | [[Turkey]] ||1927 |- | [[French Indochina]] ||1927 |- | [[Honduras]] ||1928 |- | [[Hong Kong]] ||1928 |- | [[Morocco]] ||1928* |- | [[Western Samoa]] ||1928* |- | [[Bulgaria]] ||1929 |- | [[Falkland Islands]] ||1929 [[#Notes and citations|6]] |- | [[Mozambique]] ||1929 |- | [[North Yemen]] ||1929* |- | [[British Honduras]] ||1930s *?* |- | [[Bermuda]] ||1930 |- | [[Iceland]] ||1930* |- | [[Israel]] ||1930 |- | [[Tunisia]] ||1930* |- | [[Vatican City]] ||1931 [[#Notes and citations|7]] |- | [[Ethiopia]] ||1931 |- | [[Madagascar]] ||1931* |- | [[Nicaragua]] ||1931* |- | [[Nigeria]] ||1931 |- | [[Ecuador]] ||1931 |- | [[British Leeward Islands]] ||1932* |- | [[French West Africa]] ||1932* |- | [[Macau]] ||1932 |- | [[Saudi Arabia]] ||1932 |- | [[Southern Rhodesia]] ||1932 |- | [[British Windward Islands]] ||1934* |- | [[Mongolia]] ||1934 |- | [[Papua New Guinea]] ||1934 |- | [[Sierra Leone]] ||1934 |- | [[Andorra]] ||1935* |- | [[Gold Coast]] ||1935 |- | [[Malta]] ||1935 [[#Notes and citations|7]] |- | [[Paraguay]] ||1936 |- | [[Bahamas]] ||1936 [[#Notes and citations|8]]* |- | [[Iraq]] ||1936* |- | [[Gilbert and Ellice Islands]] ||1937 |- | [[Lebanon]] ||1937 |- | [[Albania]] ||1938 [[#Notes and citations|9]]* |- | [[Cyprus]] ||1938 |- | [[Jamaica]] ||1938 |- | [[Pitcairn Islands]] ||1938 |- | [[Trinidad and Tobago]] ||1938 |- | [[French Equatorial Africa]] ||1939 |- | [[Libya]] ||1939 |- | [[Aden]] ||1940 [[#Notes and citations|10]] |- | [[Bechuanaland]] ||1940 |- | [[British Somaliland]] ||1940 |- | [[Iran]] ||1940* |- | [[Anglo-Egyptian Sudan]] ||1940* |- | [[Bahrain]] ||1941 |- | [[Northern Rhodesia]] ||1941 |- | [[Seychelles]] ||1945 |- | [[Syria]] ||1945 |- | [[Brunei]] ||1947* |- | [[Spanish Guinea]] ||1947 |- | [[Transjordan]] ||1948 |- | [[Nepal]] ||1950 |- | [[Sao Tome and Principe]] ||1950 |- | [[Cape Verde Islands]] ||1951 |- | [[Kuwait]] ||1951 |- | [[Tanganyika]] ||1951 |- | [[Portuguese Timor]] ||1960 |- | [[Maldives]] ||1962 |- | [[Nauru]] ||1968 [[#Notes and citations|12]] |- | [[Qatar]] ||1968 [[#Notes and citations|13]] |- | [[South West Africa]] ||1969 [[#Notes and citations|14]] |- | [[Oman]] ||1970 |- | [[Bhutan]] ||1973 |} * * Date unconfirmed {{Col-end}} ===FM and television start=== In 1933, [[FM radio]] was patented by inventor [[Edwin Armstrong|Edwin H. Armstrong]]. FM uses [[frequency modulation]] of the radio wave to minimize [[White noise|static]] and [[Radio frequency interference|interference]] from electrical equipment and the atmosphere, in the audio program. In 1937, W1XOJ, the first experimental FM radio station, was granted a construction permit by the [[FCC]]. In the 1930s, standard analog television transmissions started in Europe, and then in the 1940s in North America. ===Marconi/Tesla priority dispute=== {{main|Invention of radio}} [[Image:USPTOradio.png|thumb|400px|Timeline of Marconi/Tesla dispute]] In 1943, [[Tesla patents|Tesla's patent]] (number ''645576'') was reinstated as holding priority in the "invention" of modern radio by the [[Supreme Court of the United States|U.S. Supreme Court]] shortly after Tesla's death. The validity of the patent was never in question in the case. This decision was based on the fact that prior art existed before the establishment of Marconi's patent. Ignoring Tesla's [[prior art]], the decision may have enabled the U.S. government to avoid having to pay damages that were being claimed by the Marconi Company for use of its patents during [[World War I]] (as, it is speculated, the government's initial reversal to grant Marconi the patent right in order to nullify any claims Tesla had for compensation). ===FM in Europe=== After [[World War II]], the [[FM radio]] broadcast was introduced in [[Germany]]. In 1948, a new wavelength plan was set up for Europe at a meeting in [[Copenhagen]]. Because of the recent war, Germany (which did not exist as a state and so was not invited) was only given a small number of [[Mediumwave|medium-wave]] frequencies, which are not very good for broadcasting. For this reason Germany began broadcasting on UKW ("Ultrakurzwelle", i.e. ultra short wave, nowadays called [[Very high frequency|VHF]]) which was not covered by the Copenhagen plan. After some [[amplitude modulation]] experience with VHF, it was realized that FM radio was a much better alternative for VHF radio than AM. Because of this history FM Radio is still referred to as "UKW Radio" in Germany. Other European nations followed a bit later, when the superior sound quality of FM and the ability to run many more local stations because of the more limited range of VHF broadcasts were realized. ==Later 20th century developments== In 1954 Regency introduced a pocket [[transistor]] radio, the [[Regency TR-1|TR-1]], powered by a "standard 22.5V Battery". In the early 1960s, [[VHF omnidirectional range|VOR]] systems finally became widespread for [[aircraft]] navigation; before that, aircraft used commercial AM radio stations for navigation. (AM stations are still marked on U.S. [[aviation]] charts). In 1960 [[Sony]] introduced their first transistorized radio, small enough to fit in a vest pocket, and able to be powered by a small battery. It was durable, because there were no tubes to burn out. Over the next twenty years, transistors displaced tubes almost completely except for very high power, or very high frequency, uses. ===Color television and digital=== *1963: Color television was commercially transmitted, and the first (radio) [[communication satellite]], [[Telstar]], was launched. *Late 1960s: The USA long-distance telephone network began to convert to a digital network, employing [[digital radio]]s for many of its links. *1970s: [[LORAN]] became the premier radio navigation system. Soon, the U.S. Navy experimented with [[satellite navigation]]. *1987: The [[Global Positioning System|GPS]] constellation of satellites was launched. *Early 1990s: [[amateur radio]] experimenters began to use personal computers with audio cards to process radio signals. *1994: The U.S. Army and [[DARPA]] launched an aggressive successful project to construct a [[software radio]] that could become a different radio on the fly by changing software. *Late 1990s: Digital transmissions began to be applied to [[broadcasting]]. ===Telex on radio=== [[Telegraphy]] did not go away on radio. Instead, the degree of automation increased. On land-lines in the 1930s, [[Teletypewriter]]s automated encoding, and were adapted to pulse-code dialing to automate routing, a service called [[teleprinter|telex]]. For thirty years, telex was the absolute cheapest form of long-distance communication, because up to 25 telex channels could occupy the same bandwidth as one voice channel. For business and government, it was an advantage that telex directly produced written documents. Telex systems were adapted to short-wave radio by sending tones over [[single sideband]]. [[ITU-T|CCITT]] R.44 (the most advanced pure-telex standard) incorporated character-level error detection and retransmission as well as automated encoding and routing. For many years, telex-on-radio (TOR) was the only reliable way to reach some third-world countries. TOR remains reliable, though less-expensive forms of e-mail are displacing it. Many national telecom companies historically ran nearly pure telex networks for their governments, and they ran many of these links over short wave radio. ==21st century development== ===Internet radio=== [[Internet radio]] consists of sending radio-style audio programming over streaming [[Internet]] connections: no radio transmitters need be involved at any point in the process. *''Early technology wars'': Push or pull, streaming media or multicast ===Digital audio broadcasting=== [[Digital audio broadcasting]] (DAB): appears to be set to grow in importance relative to FM radio for airborne broadcasts in several countries. ===Related articles=== * [[Digital audio broadcasting]] * [[XM Radio]] * [[Sirius Satellite Radio]] * [[Wireless LAN]]s * [[Personal area network]]s * [[Digital Radio Mondiale]] ==Legal issues with radio== When radio was first introduced in the 1930’s many predicted the end of records. Radio was a free medium for the public to hear music for which they would normally pay. While some companies saw radio as a new avenue for promotion, other feared it would cut into profits from record sales and live performances. Many companies had their major stars sign agreements that they would not appear on radio. <ref>[http://www.serci.org/docs/liebowitz.pdf liebowitz.dvi<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref><ref>[http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/pages/frontline/shows/music/inside/cron.html frontline: the way the music died: inside the music industry: chronology - technology and the music industry | PBS<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref> Indeed, the music recording industry had a severe drop in profits after the introduction of the radio. For a while, it appeared as though radio was a definite threat to the record industry. Radio ownership grew from 2 out of 5 homes in 1931 to 4 out of 5 homes in 1938. Meanwhile record sales fell from $75 million in 1929 to $26 million in 1938 (with a low point of $5 million in 1933). Although it should be noted that the economics of the situation were also affected by the fact this took place during the Great Depression.<ref>[http://www.edwardsamuels.com/copyright/beyond/articles/csusa6.htm Creativity Wants to be Paid<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref> The copyright owners of these songs were concerned that they would see no gain from the popularity of radio and the ‘free’ music it provided. Luckily, everything they needed to make this new medium work for them already existed in previous copyright law. The copyright holder for a song had control over all public performances ‘for profit.’ The problem now was proving that the radio industry, which was just figuring out for itself how to make money from advertising and currently offered free music to anyone with a receiver, was making a profit from the songs. The test case was against Bamberger Department Store in Newark, New Jersey in 1922. The store was broadcasting music throughout its store on the radio station WOR. No advertisements were heard, except for at the beginning of the broadcast which announced “L. Bamberger and Co., One of America’s Great Stores, Newark, New Jersey.” It was determined through this and previous cases (such as the lawsuit against Shanley’s Restaurant) that Bamberger was using the songs for commercial gain, thus making it a public performance for profit, which meant the copyright owners were due payment. With this ruling the [[American Society of Composers, Authors and Publishers]] (ASCAP) began collecting licensing fees from radio stations in 1923. The beginning sum was $230 for all music protected under ASCAP, but for larger stations the price soon ballooned up to $5,000. Edward Samuel’s reports in his book The Illustrated Story of Copyright that “radio and TV licensing represents the single greatest source of revenue for ASCAP and its composers […] and average member of ASCAP gets about $150-$200 per work per year, or about $5,000-$6,000 for all of a member’s compositions. Not long after the Bamberger ruling, ASCAP had to once again defend their right to charge fees in 1924. The Dill Radio Bill would have allowed radio stations to play music without paying and licensing fees to ASCAP or any other music-licensing corporations. The bill did not pass.<ref>[http://www.edwardsamuels.com/illustratedstory/isc2.htm Chapter Two<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref> == Exotic technologies == * [[Meteor scatter]] * [[Moon bounce]] <!-- Doesn't seem very useful == Television == * Nationwide networks * Satellite transmission --> ==See also== {{commonscat|Antique radios}} * [[Radio]] * [[Amateur radio history]] * [[History of science and technology]] * [[History of television]] * [[Timeline of radio]] * [[Birth of public radio broadcasting]] * [[Spark gap transmitter]] * [[:Category:Radio pioneers]] * [[:Category:Radio people]] {{Audio broadcasting}} ==Notes and Citations== # Broadcasts had also been available from Louisiana and Alabama since 1922. # Broadcasts were also available from North Carolina and Georgia. # Broadcasts were also available from Colorado since 1921. # Radio broadcasting in Java briefly ceased after a station was destroyed by lightning. # Broadcasts from Argentina had also been available as is the case today. # Radio broadcasting had also been received from Italy, since Vatican City lies within the vicinity of Rome as is the case today. # Radio broadcasts did exist in the Bahamas prior to 1936. Before then, they were received from the United States. # Also received radio broadcasts from nearby Yugoslavia. # Broadcasting in Aden ceased in 1946-1947 and again from 1948-1955. # Andorra also received radio broadcasts from Spain. # Radio broadcasts from the Trust Territory of the Pacific Islands had also been available. # Broadcasts had also been received from Saudi Arabia and Bahrain. # Broadcasts had previously been received from South Africa # Malta had also received radio broadcasts from Italy. The British adopted a radio service on the island to counter Fascist propaganda. ==Footnotes== {{reflist|2}} ==References== ===Primary sources=== <div class="references-small" style="-moz-column-count:2; column-count:2;"> * De Lee Forest. ''Father of Radio: The Autobiography of Lee de Forest'' (1950). * Gleason L. Archer Personal Papers (MS108), Suffolk University Archives, Suffolk University; Boston, MA. [http://www.suffolk.edu/files/Archives/MS108_findaid.pdf Gleason L. Archer Personal Papers (MS108) finding aid] * Kahn Frank J., ed. ''Documents of American Broadcasting,'' fourth edition (Prentice-Hall, Inc., 1984). * Lichty Lawrence W., and Topping Malachi C., eds. ''American Broadcasting: A Source Book on the History of Radio and Television'' (Hastings House, 1975). </div> ===Secondary sources=== <div class="references-small" style="-moz-column-count:2; column-count:2;"> * Aitkin, Hugh G. J. ''The Continuous Wave: Technology and the American Radio, 1900-1932'' (Princeton University Press, 1985). * Anderson, Leland. "''Nikola Tesla On His Work With Alternating Currents and Their Application to Wireless Telegraphy, Telephony, and Transmission of Power''", Sun Publishing Company, LC 92-60482, ISBN 0-9632652-0-2 (''ed''. [http://www.tfcbooks.com/tesla/nt_on_ac.htm excerpts available online]) * Anderson, Leland I. ''Priority in the Invention of Radio &mdash; [http://www.tfcbooks.com/mall/more/431pir.htm Tesla vs. Marconi]'', Antique Wireless Association monograph, 1980, examining the 1943 decision by the [[US Supreme Court]] holding the key Marconi patent invalid (9 pages). (21st Century Books) * Archer, Gleason L. Big Business and Radio (The American Historical Society, Inc., 1939) * Archer, Gleason L. History of Radio to 1926 (The American Historical Society, Inc., 1938). * Barnouw, Erik. ''The Golden Web'' (Oxford University Press, 1968); ''The Sponsor'' (1978); ''A Tower in Babel'' (1966). * Belrose, John S., "''[http://www.ieee.ca/millennium/radio/radio_differences.html Fessenden and Marconi: Their Differing Technologies and Transatlantic Experiments During the First Decade of this Century]''". International Conference on 100 Years of Radio (5-[[7 September]] [[1995]]). * Briggs, Asa. ''The BBC — the First Fifty Years'' (Oxford University Press, 1984). * Briggs, Asa. ''The History of Broadcasting in the United Kingdom'' (Oxford University Press, 1961). * Brodsky, Ira. "The History of Wireless: How Creative Minds Produced Technology for the Masses" (Telescope Books, 2008) * Butler, Lloyd (VK5BR), "''[http://www.qsl.net/vk5br/Before_Valve_Amp.pdf Before Valve Amplification] - Wireless Communication of an Early Era''" * Coe, Douglas and Kreigh Collins (ills), "''Marconi, pioneer of radio''". New York, J. Messner, Inc., 1943. LCCN 43010048 * Covert, Cathy and Stevens John L. ''Mass Media Between the Wars'' (Syracuse University Press, 1984). * Craig, Douglas B. ''Fireside Politics: Radio and Political Culture in the United States, 1920–1940'' (2005) * Crook, Tim. ''International Radio Journalism: History, Theory and Practice'' Routledge, 1998 *Douglas, Susan J., ''Listening in : radio and the American imagination : from Amos ’n’ Andy and Edward R. Murrow to Wolfman Jack and Howard Stern '', New York, N.Y. : Times Books, 1999. * Ewbank Henry and Lawton Sherman P. ''Broadcasting: Radio and Television'' (Harper & Brothers, 1952). * Garratt, G. R. M., "''The early history of radio : from Faraday to Marconi''", London, Institution of Electrical Engineers in association with the Science Museum, History of technology series, 1994. ISBN 0-85296-845-0 LCCN gb 94011611 * Geddes, Keith, "''Guglielmo Marconi, 1874-1937''". London : H.M.S.O., A Science Museum booklet, 1974. ISBN 0-11-290198-0 LCCN 75329825 (''ed''. Obtainable in the U.S.A. from Pendragon House Inc., Palo Alto, California.) * Gibson, George H. ''Public Broadcasting; The Role of the Federal Government, 1919-1976'' (Praeger Publishers, 1977). * Hancock, Harry Edgar, "''Wireless at sea; the first fifty years. A history of the progress and development of marine wireless communications written to commemorate the jubilee of the Marconi International Marine Communication Company limited''". Chelmsford, Eng., Marconi International Marine Communication Co., 1950. LCCN 51040529 /L * Jackaway, Gwenyth L. ''Media at War: Radio's Challenge to the Newspapers, 1924-1939'' Praeger Publishers, 1995 * Journal of the Franklin Institute. "''[http://earlyradiohistory.us/1897jfi.htm Notes and comments; Telegraphy without wires]''", Journal of the Franklin Institute, December, 1897, pages 463-464. * Katz, Randy H., "''[http://www.cs.berkeley.edu/~randy/Courses/CS39C.S97/radio/radio.html Look Ma, No Wires": Marconi and the Invention of Radio]''". History of Communications Infrastructures. * Lazarsfeld, Paul F. ''The People Look at Radio'' (University of North Carolina Press, 1946). * Maclaurin, W. Rupert. ''Invention and Innovation in the Radio Industry'' (The Macmillan Company, 1949). * Marconi's Wireless Telegraph Company, "''Year book of wireless telegraphy and telephony''", London : Published for the Marconi Press Agency Ltd., by the St. Catherine Press / Wireless Press. LCCN 14017875 sn 86035439 * Marincic, Aleksandar and Djuradj Budimir, "''[http://www.mwr.medianis.net/pdf/Vol7No2-05-AMarincic.pdf Tesla contribution to radio wave propagation]''". ([[PDF]]) * Masini, Giancarlo. "''Guglielmo Marconi''". Turin: Turinese typographical-publishing union, 1975. LCCN 77472455 (''ed''. Contains 32 tables outside of the text'') * Massie, Walter Wentworth, "''Wireless telegraphy and telephony popularly explained''". New York, Van Nostrand, 1908. * McChesney, Robert W. ''Telecommunications, Mass Media, and Democracy: The Battle for the Control of U.S. Broadcasting, 1928-1935'' Oxford University Press, 1994 * McCourt, Tom. 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''The Modern Stentors; Radio Broadcasting and the Federal Government 1920-1934'' (Greenwood Press, 1980). * Rubin, Julian "''[http://www.juliantrubin.com/bigten/marconiradioexperiments.html Guglielmo Marconi: The Invention of Radio]''". January 2006. * Rugh, William A. ''Arab Mass Media: Newspapers, Radio, and Television in Arab Politics'' Praeger, 2004 * Scannell, Paddy, and Cardiff, David. ''A Social History of British Broadcasting, Volume One, 1922-1939'' (Basil Blackwell, 1991). * Schramm Wilbur, ed. ''Mass Communications'' (University of Illinois Press, 1960). * Schwoch James. ''The American Radio Industry and Its Latin American Activities, 1900-1939'' (University of Illinois Press, 1990). * Seifer, Marc J., "''The Secret History of Wireless''". Kingston, Rhode Island. * Slater, Robert. ''This ... is CBS: A Chronicle of 60 Years'' (Prentice Hall, 1988). * Smith, F. Leslie, John W. Wright II, David H. Ostroff; ''Perspectives on Radio and Television: Telecommunication in the United States'' Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, 1998 * Sterling, Christopher H. ''Electronic Media, A Guide to Trends in Broadcasting and Newer Technologies 1920–1983'' (Praeger, 1984). * Sterling, Christopher, and Kittross John M. ''Stay Tuned: A Concise History of American Broadcasting'' (Wadsworth, 1978). * [[John Stone Stone|Stone, John Stone]]. "John Stone Stone on Nikola Tesla's Priority in Radio and Continuous-Wave Radiofrequency Apparatus". [http://www.tfcbooks.com/mall/more/436ntpr.htm Twenty First Century Books, 2005]. * Sungook Hong, "''Wireless: from Marconi's Black-box to the Audion''", Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 2001, ISBN 0-262-08298-5 * Waldron, Richard Arthur, "''Theory of guided electromagnetic waves''". London, New York, Van Nostrand Reinhold, 1970. ISBN 0-442-09167-2 LCCN 69019848 //r86 * Weightman, Gavin, "''Signor Marconi's magic box : the most remarkable invention of the 19th century & the amateur inventor whose genius sparked a revolution''" 1st Da Capo Press ed., Cambridge, MA : Da Capo Press, 2003. * White, Llewellyn. ''The American Radio'' (University of Chicago Press, 1947). * White, Thomas H. "''[http://earlyradiohistory.us/sec007.htm Pioneering U.S. Radio Activities (1897-1917)]''", United States Early Radio History. * Wunsch, A. David "''[http://www.mercurians.org/nov98/misreading.html Misreading the Supreme Court: A Puzzling Chapter in the History of Radio]''". Mercurians.org. </div> ==External links== * "''[http://www.tfcbooks.com/teslafaq/q&a_038.htm A Comparison of the Tesla and Marconi Low-Frequency Wireless Systems] ''". Twenty First Century Books, Breckenridge, Co. * [http://www.ieee.org/web/aboutus/history_center/swiss_marconi.html Marconi's Early Wireless Experiments, 1895] IEEE History Center * [http://www.zianet.com/sparks/sparkmakers2.html Sparks Telegraph Key Review] * [http://earlyradiohistory.us/ Early Radio History] * [http://www.esmartstart.com/_framed/250x/radiondistics/hertzian_radiation.htm Radio waves, the Hertzian Radiation: what it is and how it happens.] * [http://www.infoage.org Information on the development of Radio at [[Camp Evans]], NJ] * "''[http://inventors.about.com/od/rstartinventions/a/radio.htm The Invention of Radio]''". inventors.about.com. * [http://langaitis.zenonas-old.radios.fotopic.net/ Zenonas Langaitis — Old radios from Lithuania * (Europa, Baltic States, past USSR] *"''[http://library.thinkquest.org/27887/gather/history/radio.shtml The Invention of the Radio]''". Through the wires, a century of communication, library.thinkquest.org. * "[http://www.lostartsmedia.com/nikolatesla.html Presentation of the Edison Medal to Nikola Tesla]". Minutes of the Annual Meeting of the American Institute of Electrical Engineers. Held at the Engineering Society Building, New York City, Friday evening, [[May 18]], [[1917]]. *"''[http://www.marconi.com/Home/about_us/Our%20History/Publications%20Archive/GEC%20Publications%20Archive/GEC%20Journals/GEC%20Review/v11n1s/p37.pdf Guglielmo Marconi and Early Systems of Wireless Communication]''". Marconi.com. ([[PDF]] file) * ''[http://ns1763.ca/radio30/radio-first-30yrs.html Timeline of the First Thirty Years of Radio 1895 – 1925]; An important chapter in the Death of Distance''. Nova Scotia, Canada, [[March 14]], [[2006]]. * [http://ontarioplaques.com/Plaque_Toronto89.html Ontario Plaques - The Rogers Batteryless Radio] * Brazilian experimenter [http://paginas.terra.com.br/arte/landell_de_moura/english.htm Roberto Landell de Moura] * Portuguese Radio History: [http://telefonia.no.sapo.pt Telefonia Sem Fios - História da Rádio em Portugal] * [http://www.cybertelecom.org/notes/history_wireless.htm Cybertelecom :: Radio History (legal and regulatory)] {{Morse code}} [[Category:History of radio|*]] [[Category:Nikola Tesla]] [[de:Geschichte des Hörfunks]] [[fa:تاريخچه راديو]] [[fr:Histoire de la radio]] [[it:Cronologia della radio]] [[lv:Radio vēsture]] [[no:Radiohistorie]] [[sv:Radions historia]]