History of sociology 1575379 219822348 2008-06-17T00:55:29Z €pa 536436 /* Precursors and foundations */ more {{histOfScience}} :''This article is about history of the field of sociology. For a specific field of historical and sociological studies, see [[social history]].'' [[Sociology]] is a relatively new academic discipline among other [[social sciences]] including [[economics]], [[political science]], [[anthropology]], and [[psychology]]. The ideas behind it, however, have a long history and can trace their origins to a mixture of common human [[knowledge]], works of [[art]] and [[philosophy]]. ==Precursors and foundations== [[Image:Auguste Comte.jpg|thumb|left|[[Auguste Comte]]]] Sociological reasoning can be traced back to [[ancient Greece]] (cf. [[Xenophanes]]' remark: "''If horses would adore gods, these gods would resemble horses''"). Sociological observations are frequently to be found e.g. in the works of [[Herodotus]], [[Thucydides]], and [[Polybius]]. There is evidence of [[early Muslim sociology]] from the [[14th century]]: [[Ibn Khaldun]], in his ''[[Muqaddimah]]'' (later translated as ''Prolegomena'' in [[Latin]]), the introduction to a seven volume analysis of [[universal history]], was the first to advance [[social philosophy]] in formulating theories of [[Structural cohesion|social cohesion]] and [[social conflict]]. Sociology as a scientific discipline emerged in the early [[19th century]] as an academic response to the challenge of [[modernity]]: as the world is becoming smaller and more integrated, people's experience of the world is increasingly atomized and dispersed. Sociologists hoped not only to understand what held social groups together, but also to develop an "antidote" to [[social disintegration]] and [[exploitation]]. The term "sociologie" was first used by the French essayist [[Emmanuel Joseph Sieyès]] (1748-1836).<ref>''Des Manuscrits de Sieyès. 1773-1799'', Volumes I and II, published by Christine Fauré, Jacques Guilhaumou, Jacques Vallier et Françoise Weil, Paris, Champion, 1999 and 2007 See also and Jacques Guilhaumou, ''Sieyès et le non-dit de la sociologie : du mot à la chose, in Revue d’histoire des sciences humaines'', Numéro 15, novembre 2006 : Naissances de la science sociale.</ref> (from the Latin: ''socius'', "companion"; and the suffix ''-ology'', "the study of", from Greek λόγος, ''lógos'', "knowledge" <ref name="etymology">"Comte, Auguste" A Dictionary of Sociology (3rd Ed), John Scott & Gordon Marshall (eds), Oxford University Press, 2005, ISBN-10: 0198609868, ISBN-13: 978-0198609865</ref> <ref>"Sociology" in ''Dictionary of the Social Sciences'', Craig Calhoun (ed), Oxford University Press, 2002, ISBN-10: 0195123719, ISBN-13: 978-0195123715</ref>). The term was independently re-invented, and introduced as a neologism, by the [[France|French]] thinker [[Auguste Comte]] in 1838.<ref name="comte">''A Dictionary of Sociology'', Article: Comte, Auguste</ref> Comte had earlier used the term 'social physics', but that term had been appropriated by others, notably [[Adolphe Quetelet]]. Comte hoped to unify all studies of humankind--including history, psychology and economics. His own sociological scheme was typical of the [[19th century]]; he believed all human life had passed through the same distinct historical stages and that, if one could grasp this progress, one could prescribe the remedies for social ills. Sociology was to be the 'queen of positive sciences'.<ref name="comte"/> Thus, Comte has come to be viewed as the "Father of Sociology".<ref name="comte"/> "Classical" theorists of sociology from the late 19th and early 20th centuries include [[Ferdinand Tönnies]], [[Émile Durkheim]], [[Vilfredo Pareto]], [[Ludwig Gumplovicz]], and [[Max Weber]]. Like Comte, these figures did not consider themselves only "sociologists". Their works addressed [[religion]], [[education]], [[economics]], [[law]], [[psychology]], [[ethics]], [[philosophy]], and [[theology]], and their theories have been applied in a variety of academic disciplines. Their influence on sociology was foundational. ==Early works== <!--Add: Sentences on key works and themes of Compte and Marx here. Mention theme of Spencer's work.--> The first books with the term 'sociology' in the title were ''A Treatise on Sociology, Theoretical and Practical'' by the North-American laywer [[Henry Hughes]] and ''Sociology for the South, or the Failure of Free Society''<ref> [http://docsouth.unc.edu/southlit/fitzhughsoc/fitzhugh.html Sociology For The South Or The Failure of Free Society]</ref> by the American lawyer [[George Fitzhugh]]. Both books were published in 1854, in the context of the debate over slavery in the [[antebellum]] US. ''The Study of Sociology'' by the English philosopher [[Herbert Spencer]] appeared in 1874. [[Lester Frank Ward]], described by some as the father of American sociology, published ''Dynamic Sociology'' in 1883. ==Institutionalizing Sociology== [[Image:Emile_Durkheim.jpg|thumb|200px|[[Émile Durkheim]]]] The discipline was taught by its own name for the first time at the [[University of Kansas]] in [[Lawrence, Kansas|Lawrence]] in 1890 by Frank Blackmar, under the course title ''Elements of Sociology'' (the oldest continuing sociology course in America). The ''Department of History and Sociology'' at the University of Kansas was established in 1891 <ref>[http://www.ku.edu/%7Esocdept/about/ About Us - Sociology department],</ref><ref>[http://www.news.ku.edu/2005/June/June15/sociology.shtml KU News Release],</ref> and the first full fledged independent university department of sociology was established in 1892 at the [[University of Chicago]] by [[Albion W. Small]], who in 1895 founded the [[American Journal of Sociology]].<ref>[http://www.journals.uchicago.edu/AJS/home.html]</ref> The first European department of sociology was founded in 1895 at the [[University of Bordeaux]] by the French sociologist [[Émile Durkheim]]. In 1919 a sociology department was established in [[Germany]] at the [[Ludwig Maximilians University of Munich]] by [[Max Weber]] and in 1920 in [[Poland]] by [[Florian Znaniecki]]. The first sociology departments in the [[United Kingdom]] were founded after the [[Second World War]]. International cooperation in sociology began in 1893 when [[Rene Worms]] founded the small [[Institut International de Sociologie]], eclipsed by much larger [[International Sociological Association]] from [[1949]]. In 1905 the [[American Sociological Association]], the world's largest [[Voluntary association|association]] of professional sociologists, was founded, and [[Lester F. Ward]] was selected to serve as the first President of the new society. ==Positivism and anti-positivism== :''Main articles: [[Positivism]], [[Sociological positivism]], and [[Antipositivism]].'' Early theorists' approach to sociology, led by Comte, was to treat it in much the same manner as [[natural science]]s, applying the same methods and [[methodology]] used in the natural sciences to study social phenomena. The emphasis on [[empiricism]] and the [[scientific method]] sought to provide an incontestable foundation for any sociological claims or findings, and to distinguish sociology from less empirical fields such as [[philosophy]]. This methodological approach, called [[Sociological positivism|positivism]], became a source of contention between sociologists and other scientists, and eventually a point of divergence within the field itself. While most sciences evolved from [[determinism|deterministic]], [[Newtonian]] models to [[probability|probabilistic]] models which accept and even incorporate [[Uncertainty principle|uncertainty]], sociology began to cleave into those who believed in a deterministic approach (attributing variation to [[social structure|structure]], interactions, or other forces) and those who rejected the very possibility of [[explanation]] and [[prediction]]. One push away from positivism was philosophical and political, such as in the [[dialectical materialism]] based on Marx's theories. A second push away from scientific positivism was cultural, even sociological. As early as the 19th century, positivist and naturalist approaches to studying social life were questioned by scientists like [[Wilhelm Dilthey]] and [[Heinrich Rickert]], who argued that the natural world differs from the social world because of unique aspects of human society such as meanings, [[symbol]]s, [[rule]]s, [[Norm (sociology)|norm]]s, and [[Value (personal and cultural)|values]]. These elements of society inform human [[culture]]s. This view was further developed by Max Weber, who introduced [[antipositivism]] ([[humanistic sociology]]). According to this view, which is closely related to [[antinaturalism]], sociological research must concentrate on humans' cultural values (see also: [[French pragmatism]]. This has led to some controversy on how one can draw the line between [[Subjectivity|subjective]] and [[Objectivity (science)|objective]] research and has also influenced [[hermeneutical]] studies. Similar disputes, especially in the era of the [[Internet]], have led to variations in sociology such as [[public sociology]], which emphasizes the usefulness of sociological expertise to abstracted audiences. ==Twentieth century developments== During the [[interwar period]] sociology continued to expand in the [[United States]], but made much less progress in Europe, where it was attacked both by increasingly totalitarian governments and rejected by conservative universities. Meanwhile, in United States, the focus of sociology changed from [[macrosociology]] interested in [[evolution of societies]] towards [[microsociology]], eventually resulting in the development of the [[structural-functional theory]] by [[Talcott Parsons]] in the 1930s. Since [[World War II]] sociology has been revived in Europe, although during the [[Stalin]] and [[Mao]] eras it was suppressed in the [[communist]] countries. In the second half of the [[20th century]], sociology has been increasingly employed as a tool by governments and businesses. Sociologists made efforts to integrate macro- and microsociology and developed new types of [[quantitative research]] and [[qualitative research]] methods. In the late 20th century, some sociologists embraced [[postmodern]] and [[poststructuralism|poststructural]] philosophy. Others began to debate the nature of [[globalization]]. These developments have led to the reconceptualization of basic sociological categories and theories. For instance, inspired by the thought of [[Michel Foucault]], power may be studied as dispersed throughout society in a wide variety disciplinary cultural practices. In [[political sociology]], the power of the nation state may be seen as transforming due to the globalization of trade (and cultural exchanges) and the expanding influence of international organizations (Nash 2000:1-4). Throughout the development of sociology, controversies have raged about how to emphasize or integrate concerns with [[subjectivity]], [[objectivity (science)|objectivity]], [[intersubjectivity]] and practicality in theory and research. One outcome of such disputes has been the formation of multidimensional theories of society, such as [[critical theory]]. Another outcome has been the formation of [[public sociology]], which emphasizes the usefulness of sociological analysis to various social groups. Modern academic sociology is now largely characterised by an intradepartmental split by subject, whereby individual specialisms are encouraged. Thus teaching is now divided into 'sociologies' and lecturers will offer courses in subjects such as the [[sociology of science]], the [[Consumption (economics)|sociology of consumerism]], the [[sociology of the family]], etc. Universities often incorporate this with more broadly based courses focussing on Cultural Studies or providing an introduction to philosophy. Thus a sociology degree can vary widely in the subjects studied, even within a department. ==See also== [[Timeline of sociology]] ==References== {{Reflist}} *[[Gerhard Lensky]]. 1982. ''Human societies: An introduction to macrosociology'', McGraw Hill Company. * Nash, Kate. 2000. ''Contemporary Political Sociology: Globalization, Politics, and Power.'' Blackwell Publishers. ==Further reading== *Samuel William Bloom, ''The Word as Scalpel: A History of Medical Sociology'', Oxford University Press 2002 *Raymond Boudon ''A Critical Dictionary of Sociology''. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1989 *Deegan, Mary Jo, ed. ''Women in Sociology: A Bio-Bibliographical Sourcebook'', New York: Greenwood Press, 1991. *A. H. Halsey, ''A History of Sociology in Britain: Science, Literature, and Society'', Oxford University Press 2004 *Barbara Laslett (editor), [[Barrie Thorne]] (editor), ''Feminist Sociology: Life Histories of a Movement'', Rutgers University Press 1997 *Levine, Donald N. ''Visions of the Sociological Tradition,'' University Of Chicago Press, 1995: ISBN 0-226-47547-6 *T.N. Madan, ''Pathways : approaches to the study of society in India''. New Delhi: Oxford University Press, 1994 *Wiggershaus, Rolf, ''The Frankfurt School : its history, theories and political significance'', Polity Press, 1994. ISBN 0-7456-05346 ==External links== * [http://www.mdx.ac.uk/www/study/sshtim.htm History of Sociology] [[Category:History of social sciences|Sociology]] [[Category:Sociology]] <!-- interwiki --> [[bs:Historija sociologije]] [[cs:Dějiny sociologie]] [[de:Geschichte der Soziologie]] [[es:Historia de la Sociología]] [[fr:Histoire de la sociologie]] [[hr:Povijest sociologije]] [[he:היסטוריה של הסוציולוגיה]] [[pl:Historia socjologii]] [[ru:История социологии]] [[zh:社會學的歷史]]