History of the periodic table
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The [[periodic table]] is a tabular method of displaying the chemical elements. Although earlier precursors exist, its invention is generally credited to the Russian chemist [[Dmitri Mendeleev]] in 1869.<ref>[http://www.iupac.org/didac/Didac%20Eng/Didac01/Content/S01.htm IUPAC article on periodic table]</ref> The table is a visual representation of the '''periodic law''' which states that certain properties of [[chemical element|element]]s repeat ''periodically'' when arranged by [[atomic number]]. The table arranges elements into vertical columns (Groups) and horizontal rows (Periods) to display these commonalities.
==In the beginning==
People have known about basic [[chemical element]]s such as [[gold]], [[silver]], and [[copper]] from antiquity, as these can all be discovered in nature in native form and are relatively simple to mine with primitive tools.<ref>Scerri, E. R. (2006). ''The Periodic Table: Its Story and Its Significance''; New York City, New York; Oxford University Press.</ref>
[[Aristotle]], a philosopher, theorised that everything is made up of a mixture of one or more of four [[classical element|element]]s. They were [[earth (classical element)|earth]], [[water (classical element)|water]], [[air (classical element)|air]], and [[fire (classical element)|fire]]. This was more like the four [[states of matter]] (in the same order): [[solid]], [[liquid]], [[gas]], and [[Plasma (physics)|plasma]], though he also theorised that they change into new substances to form what we see.
[[Hennig Brand]] was the first person recorded to have discovered a new element. Brand was a bankrupt German merchant who was trying to discover the [[Philosopher's Stone]] — a mythical object that was supposed to turn inexpensive base [[metal]]s into gold. He experimented with distilling human urine until in [[1649]]<ref name="wou-hist">{{cite web |url=http://www.wou.edu/las/physci/ch412/perhist.htm |title= A Brief History of the Development of Periodic Table }}</ref> he finally obtained a glowing white substance which he named [[phosphorus]]. He kept his discovery secret, until [[1680]] when [[Robert Boyle]] rediscovered it and it became public.
By [[1869]]<ref name="wou-hist"/>, a total of 63<ref name="wou-hist"/> elements had been discovered. As the number of known elements grew, scientists began to recognize patterns in the way chemicals reacted and began to devise ways to classify the elements.
[[Image:Lavoisier.jpg|thumb|right|Antoine Laurent de Lavoisier]]
==Alexandre-Emile Béguyer de Chancourtois==
[[Alexandre-Emile Béguyer de Chancourtois]], a French geologist, was the first person to notice the periodicity of the elements — similar elements seem to occur at regular intervals when they are ordered by their atomic weights. He devised an early form of periodic table, which he called the '''telluric helix'''. With the elements arranged in a spiral on a cylinder by order of increasing atomic weight, de Chancourtois saw that elements with similar properties lined up vertically. His chart included some ions and compounds in addition to elements. His paper was published in [[1862]], but used geological rather than chemical terms and did not include a diagram; as a result, it received little attention until the work of [[Dmitri Mendeleev]].<ref> [http://www.annales.org/archives/x/chancourtois.html Annales des Mines history page].</ref>
==John Newlands==
[[John Newlands]] was an English chemist who in [[1865]] classified<ref>in a letter published in the Chemical News in February 1863, according to the [http://www.nndb.com/people/480/000103171/ Notable Names Data Base]</ref> the 56 elements that had been discovered at the time into 11 groups which were based on similar physical properties.
Newlands noted that many pairs of similar elements existed which differed by some multiple of eight in atomic weight. However, his ''law of octaves'', likening this periodicity of eights to the musical scale, was ridiculed by his contemporaries. It was not until the following century, with [[Gilbert N. Lewis]]' [[valence bond theory]] ([[1916]]) and [[Irving Langmuir]]'s octet theory of chemical bonding<ref>Irving Langmuir, “The Structure of Atoms and the Octet Theory of Valence”, Proceedings of the National Academy of Science, Vol. V, 252, Letters (1919) - online at [http://dbhs.wvusd.k12.ca.us/webdocs/Chem-History/Langmuir-1919.html]</ref><ref>Irving Langmuir, “The Arrangement of Electrons in Atoms and Molecules”, Journal of the American Chemical Society, Vol. 41, No, 6, pg. 868 (June 1919) - beginning and ending of the paper are transcribed online at [http://dbhs.wvusd.k12.ca.us/webdocs/Chem-History/Langmuir-1919b.html]; the middle is missing</ref>
([[1919]]) that the importance of the periodicity of eight would be accepted.
==The first periodic table==
[[Image:Дмитрий Иванович Менделеев 4.gif|thumb|right|Dmitri Ivanovich Mendeleyev]]
[[Dmitri Mendeleev]], also spelt Dmitry Mendeleyev, middle name ([[patronymic]]) Ivanovich, a [[Siberia]]n-born Russian chemist, was the first scientist to make a [[periodic table]] much like the one we use today. Mendeleev arranged the elements in a table ordered by [[atomic mass]]. It is sometimes said that he played "chemical solitaire" on long train rides using cards with various facts of known elements.<ref>''Physical Science'', Holt Rinehart & Winston (January 2004), page 302 ISBN 0-03-073168-2</ref> On [[March 6]], [[1869]], a formal presentation was made to the Russian Chemical Society, entitled ''The Dependence Between the Properties of the Atomic Weights of the Elements''. His table was published in an obscure Russian journal but quickly republished in a German journal, ''Zeitschrift für Chemie'' (Eng., "Chemistry Magazine"), in 1869. It stated:
# The [[chemical element|elements]], if arranged according to their [[atomic weight]]s, exhibit an apparent periodicity of properties.
# Elements which are similar as regards to their chemical properties have atomic weights which are either of nearly the same value (e.g., Pt, Ir, Os) or which increase regularly (e.g., K, Rb, Cs).
# The arrangement of the elements, or of groups of elements in the order of their atomic weights, corresponds to their so-called valencies, as well as, to some extent, to their distinctive chemical properties; as is apparent among other series in that of Li, Be, Ba, C, N, O, and Sn.
# The elements which are the most widely diffused have small atomic weights.
# The magnitude of the atomic weight determines the character of the element, just as the magnitude of the molecule determines the character of a compound body.
# We must expect the discovery of many yet unknown elements–for example, elements analogous to [[aluminium]] and [[silicon]]–whose atomic weight would be between 65 and 75.
# The atomic weight of an element may sometimes be amended by a knowledge of those of its contiguous elements. Thus the atomic weight of [[tellurium]] must lie between 123 and 126, and cannot be 128.
# Certain characteristic properties of elements can be foretold from their atomic weights.
'''Advantages'''
* Mendeleev predicted the discovery of other elements and left space for these new elements, namely eka-silicon ([[germanium]]), eka-aluminium ([[gallium]]), and eka-boron ([[scandium]]). Thus, there was no disturbance in the periodic table.
* He pointed out that some of the then current atomic weights were incorrect.
* He provided for variance from atomic weight order.
'''Disadvantages'''
* There was no place for the isotopes of the various elements.
* His table did not include any of the [[noble gas]]es, which hadn't been discovered. But these were added by Sir [[William Ramsay]] as Group 0, without any disturbance to the basic concept of the periodic table.
[[Image:Mendeleev Table 5th II.jpg|thumb|right|200px|This version of [[Mendeleev]]'s periodic table, from 1891 is lacking the [[noble gas]]es]]
Unknown to Mendeleev, [[Lothar Meyer]] was also working on a periodic table. In his work published in [[1864]], Meyer presented only 28 elements, classified not by [[atomic weight]] but by [[Valence (chemistry)|valence]] alone. Also, Meyer never came to the idea of predicting new elements and correcting atomic weights. Only a few months after Mendeleev published his periodic table of all known elements (and predicted several new elements to complete the table, plus some corrected atomic weights), Meyer published a virtually identical table. Some people consider Meyer and Mendeleev the cocreators of the periodic table, although most agree that Mendeleev's accurate prediction of the qualities of the undiscovered elements lands him the larger share of credit. In any case, at the time Mendeleev's predictions greatly impressed his contemporaries and were eventually found to be correct. An English chemist, [[William Odling]], also drew up a table that is remarkably similar to that of Mendeleev in 1864.
==Henry Moseley==
In [[1914]] [[Henry Moseley]] found a relationship between an element's [[X-ray]] wavelength and its [[atomic number]] and therefore resequenced the table by electronic charge rather than atomic weight. Before this discovery, atomic numbers were just sequential numbers based on an element's atomic weight. Moseley's discovery showed that atomic numbers had an experimentally measurable basis.
Moseley's research also showed that there were gaps in his table at atomic numbers 43 and 61 which are now known to be [[radioactive]] and not naturally occurring. Following in the footsteps of Dmitri Mendeleyev, Henry Moseley also predicted new elements.
==Glenn T. Seaborg==
During his Manhattan Project research in [[1943]] [[Glenn T. Seaborg]] experienced unexpected difficulty isolating [[Americium]] (95) and [[Curium]] (96). He began wondering if these elements more properly belonged to a different series which would explain why the expected chemical properties of the new elements were different. In [[1945]], he went against the advice of colleagues and proposed a significant change to Mendelev's table: the [[Actinoid|actinoid series]] (previously called the actinide series).
Seaborg's [[actinide concept]] of heavy element electronic structure, predicting that the actinides form a transition series analogous to the rare earth series of lanthanide elements, is now well accepted in the scientific community and included in all standard configurations of the periodic table. The actinide series are the second row of the f-block (5f series) and comprise the elements from Actinium to Lawrencium. Seaborg's subsequent elaborations of the actinide concept theorized a series of superheavy elements in a transactinide series comprising elements 104 through 121 and a superactinide series inclusive of elements 122 through 153.
==Curiosities==
* In 1998, a 35-by-65 foot periodic table at the [[Science Museum of Virginia]] was declared the '''world's largest periodic table''' by the [[Guinness Book of World Records]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.richmond.com/museums-galleries/6300 |title= Richmond in the Record Books |date= August 18, 2004 }} <!-- buried in last paragraph…can we find more contemporaneous news report?--></ref>
==See also==
*[[Prout's hypothesis]]
*[[History of chemistry]]
*[[Discoveries of the chemical elements]]
*[[Periodic table]]
==References==
<references/>
==External links==
*[http://www.webelements.com/ WebElements periodic table]
*[http://www.chemsoc.org/viselements/pages/history.html Development of the periodic table]
*[http://members.optushome.com.au/scottsofta/Pintro.htm Classification of the elements]
*[http://www.chemheritage.org/EducationalServices/chemach/ppt/ppt.html The path to the periodic table]
*[http://www.chem.ucla.edu/dept/Faculty/scerri/index.html Web page listing several scholarly and semi-popular articles on various aspects of the periodic system and underlying theoretical concepts. Some are dowloadable!]
[[Category:History of chemistry]]
[[Category:History of physics|Periodic table]]
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