Holism in science 1303219 222987063 2008-07-02T01:33:22Z Atemperman 66378 /* Opposing views */ The language sounds scientific; it doesn't sound scientifically '''Holism in science''', or '''Holistic science''', is an approach to [[research]] that emphasizes the study of [[complex systems]]. This practice is in contrast to a purely analytic tradition (sometimes called [[Reductionist science|reductionism]]) which purports to understand systems by dividing them into their smallest possible or discernible elements and understanding their elemental properties alone. The holism/reductionism dichotomy is often evident in conflicting interpretations of experimental findings and in setting priorities for future research. == Overview == Holism in science is an approach to [[research]] that emphasizes the study of [[complex systems]]. Two central aspects are: # the way of doing science, sometimes called "whole to parts," which focuses on observation of the specimen within its ecosystem first before breaking down to study any part of the specimen. # the idea that the scientist is not a passive observer of an external universe; that there is no 'objective truth,' but that the individual is in a reciprocal, participatory relationship with nature, and that the observer's contribution to the process is valuable. The term ''holistic science'' has been used as a category encompassing a number of scientific research fields (see some examples below). The term may not have a precise definition. Fields of scientific research considered potentially holistic do however have certain things in common. First, they are [[Interdisciplinarity|multidisciplinary]]. Second, they are concerned with the behavior of [[complex systems]]. Third, they recognize [[feedback]] within systems as a crucial element for understanding their behavior. The [[Santa Fe Institute]], a center of holistic scientific research in the United States, expresses it like this: :''The two dominant characteristics of the SFI research style are commitment to a multidisciplinary approach and an emphasis on the study of problems that involve complex interactions among their constituent parts.'' {{cite web | url=http://www.santafe.edu/research/indexResearchAreas.php | title=Santa Fe Institute's Research Topics | accessdate=January 22 | accessyear=2006}} == Topics in Holism in science == === Alternative to reductionism === Some advocates of [[holism]] refer to orthodox science as ''reductionist science'' or the ''reductionist paradigm'' or ''[[greedy reductionism]]''. This is a compact way to allude to a tendency of classical science towards the modular: that is, to break systems down into manageable parts for study. The holistic premise is that there is a possible qualitative difference between an entire system and its parts: that modularisation may fail. As applied to science, holists may generally assert that this difference can warrant the kind of rigorous scrutiny typical of scientific inquiry. The distinction of approach then lies not so much in the subjects chosen for study, but in the methods and assumptions used to study them. For example, in the field of [[quantum physics]], [[David Bohm]] pointed out that there is no scientific evidence to support the dominant view that the universe consists of a huge, finite number of minute particles, and offered in its stead a view of ''undivided wholeness''. Though considered by some as alternative, holistic methods are not generally at odds with the classical scientific method. Where holistic scientists come from a standard science background, holistic work in science tends to be, to varying degrees, a marriage of the two approaches. For example [[gestalt psychology]] grew out of early [[experimental psychology]]. When the terms are used constructively in the science context, holism and reductionism refer to how empirical evidence is interpreted, and not only to the methods used to produce such evidence. === Opposing views === Holistic science is [[controversy|controversial]]. One opposing view is that holistic science is "[[pseudoscience]]" because it does not rigorously follow the [[scientific method]] despite the use of a scientific-sounding language. Bunge (1983) and Lilienfeld et al (2003) state that proponents of pseudoscientific claims, especially in organic medicine, alternative medicine, naturopathy and mental health, often resort to the “mantra of holism” to explain negative findings or to immunise their claims against testing. Stenger (1999) states that "holistic healing is associated with the rejection of classical, Newtonian physics. Yet, holistic healing retains many ideas from eighteenth and nineteenth century physics. Its proponents are blissfully unaware that these ideas, especially superluminal holism, have been rejected by modern physics as well". Science journalist [[John Horgan]] has expressed this view in the book, ''The End of Science'' [[1996]]. He wrote that a certain pervasive model within holistic science, [[self-organized criticality]], for example, "is not really a theory at all. Like [[punctuated equilibrium]], self-organized criticality is merely a description, one of many, of the random fluctuations, the noise, permeating nature." By the theorists' own admissions, he said, such a model "can generate neither specific predictions about nature nor meaningful insights. What good is it, then?" == Applications of holism in science and engineering == Many scientific disciplines are affected by the holistic paradigm. Some of these are widely accepted parts of mainstream [[science]], while others are variously considered to be [[protoscience|protoscientific]] or even [[pseudoscience|pseudoscientific]]. === Cognitive science === The field of [[cognitive science]], or the study of mind and intelligence has some examples for holistic approaches. These include [[Unified Theory of Cognition]] ([[Allen Newell]], e.g. [[Soar (cognitive architecture)|Soar]], [[ACT-R]] as [[cognitive architecture|models]]) and many others, many of which rely on the concept of [[emergence]], i.e. the interplay of many entities make up a functioning whole. Another example is [[psychological nativism]], the study of the innate structure of the mind. Non-holistic functionalist approaches within cognitive science include e.g. the [[modularity of mind]] paradigm. Cognitive science need not concern only human cognition. Biologist [[Marc Bekoff]] has done holistic, interdisciplinary scientific research in animal cognition and has published a book about it (see below). === Quantum physics === Physicist [[David Bohm]] put forward an [[Bohm interpretation|interpretation]] of [[Quantum mechanics|quantum theory]] that reconciles it with an idea of the universe as an undivided whole, any division of which (e.g. into observer and observed) can only be arbitrary. Despite its elegant simplicity and distinct advantages, this holistic interpretation was given at best an ambivalent reception by mainstream scientists. Recently, however (from the 1990s to the present) Bohm's reputation in the field of quantum physics has grown, though many of his holistic ideas remain in dispute.[http://arxiv.org/abs/physics/0508184] === Engineering === In [[engineering]], the holistic approach can be considered "natural" because one of main engineering tasks is to design systems not existing yet. Therefore, conceptual design begins from a general idea which is successively specialized [[top-down]]. This process is stopped when the specified details are [[component]]s available on the [[marked]]. From the general and pragmatic, [[goal-oriented]] ([[teleology|teleological]]) [[systemics]] perspective, the holistic and reductionist science approaches can be considered complementary <ref>[http://www.google.com/gwt/n?u=http%3A%2F%2Ferg4146.casaccia.enea.it%2Fwwwerg26701%2FGad-toga.htm TOGA meta-theory], Adam Maria Gadomski, 1993, Italian Research Agency [[ENEA]]</ref>. === Other examples === * ''[[Ecology]]'', or ''ecological science'', i.e. studying the ecology at levels ranging from populations, communities, and ecosystems up to the biosphere as a whole. * The study of ''[[climate change]]'' in the wider context of [[Earth science]] (and [[Earth system science]] in particular) can be considered holistic science, as the climate (and the Earth itself) constitutes a complex system to which the scientific method cannot be applied using current technology. The first scientist to seriously propose this was [[James Lovelock]]. [http://today.reuters.com/news/articlenews.aspx?type=scienceNews&storyID=2006-11-28T151248Z_01_L28841108_RTRUKOC_0_US-EARTH-FEVER.xml&src=112806_1245_ARTICLE_PROMO_also_on_reuters] (URL accessed on 28 November 2006) * [[Princeton University]] hosts a holistic science project entitled "Global Consciousness Project" that uses a network of physical random number generators to register events of global significance, testing the hypothesis that there is a collective human consciousness at work in the world. [http://noosphere.princeton.edu/] * [[Johann Wolfgang von Goethe]]'s 1810 book ''Zur Farbenlehre'' (''[[Theory of Colors]]'') not only parted radically with the dominant [[Isaac Newton|Newtonian]] [[optics|optical]] theories of his time, but also with the entire [[Age of Enlightenment|Enlightenment]] [[methodology]] of reductive science. Although the theory was not received well by scientists, Goethe &mdash; considered one of the most important intellectual figures in modern Europe &mdash; thought of his color theory as his greatest accomplishment. Holistic theorists and scientists such as [[Rupert Sheldrake]] still refer to the Goethe's color-theory as an inspiring example of holistic science. The introduction to the book lays out Goethe's unique [[philosophy of science]]. * In [[system dynamics]] modeling, a field that originated at [[MIT]], a holistic controlling paradigm organizes scientific method, but uses the results of reductionist science to define static relationships between variables in a modeling procedure that permits simulation of the dynamics of the system under study. As mentioned above, [[feedback]] is a crucial tool for understanding system dynamics. [http://www.albany.edu/cpr/sds/] * Another example of how holistic and reductionist science can be mutually supportive and cooperative is [[free choice profiling]]. == The study of holism in science == === Writers on holistic science === A text often referred to by writers on holistic science (and by all who recognize the existence of scientific [[paradigm]]s) is ''[[The Structure of Scientific Revolutions]]'' by [[Thomas Kuhn]]. While this book does not address holistic science directly, it is relevant because, in it Kuhn originally coined the term "scientific paradigm" and introduced the concept of opposing, or even warring, paradigms in science. The following have written influential books which treat non-reductionist or holistic science: * [[Rachel Carson]] ecologist, biologist and author of ''Silent Spring'' * [[Teilhard de Chardin]] (1881-1955), French paleontologist, biologist, philosopher * [[David Bohm]] (1917-1992), American quantum physicist * [[Francisco Varela]] (1946-2001), Chilean biologist * [[Rupert Sheldrake]], biologist and prolific author * [[Mae-Wan Ho]], biologist * [[Richard Lewontin]] biologist * [[Richard Levins]], biologist * [[Stephen Wolfram]], author of ''[[A New Kind of Science]]'' * [[Ken Wilber]], American philosopher, psychologist and author of ''The Marriage of Sense and Soul: Integrating Science and Religion'' * [[Fred Alan Wolf]], American physicist, author of ''Taking the Quantum Leap'' * [[Marc Bekoff]], American biologist and cognitive ethologist, author of ''Species of Mind'' (with philosopher [[Colin Allen]]) * [[F. David Peat]], physicist and writer, founder of the [[Pari Center for New Learning]] * [[Murray Gell-Mann]], physicist and Nobel laureate, wrote ''The Quark and the Jaguar, Adventures in the Simple and the Complex'' on [[complexity]] * [[Henri Bortoft]], physicist who did postgraduate research on the problem of wholeness in quantum physics with David Bohm, wrote ''The Wholeness of Nature: Goethe's Way Toward a Science of Conscious Participation in Nature'' on [[Goethean science]] * [[Kenneth E. Boulding]], economist and system scientist * [[Willis Harman]], former President of the [[Institute of Noetic Sciences]] * [[Humberto Maturana]], Chilean biologist and philosopher * [[Ilya Prigogine]], Belgian physicist, chemist, and writer, 1977 Nobel laureate in chemistry * [[Tim Reid]], Dialectical Materialist Maoist Philosopher, wrote ''Forward With Revolutionary * [[Jan Smuts]], Author of ''Holism And Evolution'' * Laurence W. Evans, Author of ''Nature's Holism'' that looks at holism through the coevolutionary process * [[Lynn McTaggart]], Author, Journalist and Science Researcher === Holistic science in academe === Perhaps due to the inherent multidisciplinary nature of holistic science, academic institutions have been slow to come forward with degree programs for it. Those that have done so include [[Schumacher College]] in the UK, which offers an MSc degree program in Holistic Science. Several universities have set up centers dedicated to one or more scientific fields where holistic approaches are common. These include the [[University of Michigan]]'s [[Center for the Study of Complex Systems]], [[Princeton University]]'s [[Global Consciousness Project]], [[Rice University]]'s [[Cognitive Sciences Program]], the [[London Metropolitan University]]'s [[Centre for Postsecular Studies]], and the [[Hang Seng Centre for Cognitive Studies]] in [[Sheffield]]. There are also several non-university academic institutions and societies that are dedicated to holistic science or open to holistic ideas. For example, [[Santa Fe Institute]] (a major center of holistic scientific research in the U.S.), the [[Scientific and Medical Network]] (in Europe), the [[Pari Center for New Learning]] (in Italy), and the [[System Dynamics Society]] in [[Albany, New York]]. The [[VERITAS Research Program]], affiliated with the [[University of Arizona]], uses holistic approaches to test the existence of an [[afterlife]]. There is also the [[Institute of Noetic Sciences]] in [[Petaluma, California]]. [[Brazil]] has its [[Willis Harman House]] in [[São Paulo]]. == See also == '''Articles related to holism''' * [[Cognitive science]] * [[Complexity theory]] * [[Holism]] * [[Holistic health]] * [[Philosophy of biology]] * [[Scientific reductionism]] * [[Systems thinking]] * [[Antireductionism]] '''Articles related to classification of scientific endeavors''' * [[Cartesian anxiety]] * [[Demarcation problem]] * [[Hard science]] * [[Philosophy of science]] * [[Pseudoscience]] * [[Science wars]] == Bibliography == * Paul Davies and John Gribbin. ''The Matter Myth: Dramatic Discoveries That Challenge Our Understanding of Physical Reality'', 1992, Simon & Schuster, ISBN 0-671-72841-5 * Henri Bortoft. ''The Wholeness of Nature: Goethe's Way Toward a Science of Participation in Nature'', 1996, Lindisfarne Books, ISBN 0-940262-79-7 * Humberto R. Maturana and Francisco Varela. ''The Tree of Knowledge: The Biological Roots of Human Understanding'', 1992, Shambhala, ISBN 0-87773-642-1 * Ilya Prigogine & Isabelle Stengers, Order out of Chaos: Man's new dialogue with nature, 1984, Flamingo, ISBN 0-00-654115-1 * [http://www.geocities.com/northsheep/holiscience.html Article "What is the Proper Relationship of Holistic and Reductionist Science?" by Karl North] * [http://www.foodandhealing.com/article-wholismscience.htm Article "The Fine Line: (W)holism and Science" by Annemarie Colbin, Ph.D.] * [http://www.khaldea.com/articles/ni2.shtml Article "A New Image of Cosmos & Anthropos: From Ancient Wisdom to a Philosophy of Wholeness" by Michael R. Meyer] * Excerpts from [http://www.eclipse.co.uk/moordent/holistic.htm Holistic Science — towards a second Renaissance] by R.J.C. Wilding (unpublished book in process) * Article "[http://web.ukonline.co.uk/mr.king/writings/essays/essaysukc/csasukc0.html Concerning the Spiritual in Art and Science]" by Mike King (available on-line) * Article "[http://www.resurgence.org/resurgence/issues/goodwin216.htm Patterns of Wholeness: Introducing Holistic Science]" by Brian Goodwin, from the journal [http://www.resurgence.org/index.htm Resurgence] * Article "[http://www.resurgence.org/resurgence/issues/goodwin201.htm From Control to Participation]" by Brian Goodwin, from the journal [http://www.resurgence.org/index.htm Resurgence] * [http://www.public.asu.edu/~kirkwood/sysdyn/SDRes.htm System Dynamics Resource Page] at [[Arizona State University]], hosted by [[Craig W. Kirkwood]] * [http://www.arch.ksu.edu/seamon/book%20chapters/goethe_intro.htm Introduction] to ''Goethe's Way of Science: A Phenomenology of Nature'', edited by David Seamon and Arthur Zajonc. State University of New York Press, 1998 ==References== {{Reflist}} 2. Bunge.M., Demarcating Science from Pseudoscience. Fundamenta Scientiae, 1982, Vo. 3, No. 3/4, pg. 369-88 3. Lilienfeld,S.O. et al. (Eds.): Science and Pseudoscience in Clinical Psychology. New York / London 2003 4. [http://arxiv.org/abs/physics/0508184 Olival Freire Jr., ''Science and exile:] David Bohm, the hot times of the Cold War, and his struggle for a new interpretation of quantum mechanics'' (Online article) 5. [http://www.albany.edu/cpr/sds/index.html Definition of System Dynamics and Systems Thinking], on System Dynamics Society homepage 6. Stenger.V.J., (1999) The Physics of 'Alternative Medicine'. The Scientific Review of Alternative Medicine Spring/Summer 1999 Volume 3 ~ Number 1 {{Refimprove|date=August 2007}} == External links == {{Self-published|date=March 2008}} * [http://natureinstitute.org/ The Nature Institute] * [http://www.santafe.edu Santa Fe Institute] * [http://www.isss.org International Society for the System Sciences] * [http://www.schumachercollege.org Schumacher College] * [http://www.cscs.umich.edu/ Center for the Study of Complex Systems] at the [[University of Michigan]] * [http://www.ruf.rice.edu/~cognsci/ Rice Cognitive Sciences Program] * [http://www.scimednet.org The Scientific and Medical Network] * [http://noosphere.princeton.edu/ Princeton University Global Consciousness Project] * [http://www.jnani.org/postsecular/index.htm Centre for Postsecular Studies] at the [[London Metropolitan University]] * [http://www.albany.edu/cpr/sds/index.html The System Dynamics Society] * [http://veritas.arizona.edu/ VERITAS Research Program] * [http://home.pacific.net.sg/~topchoice CAHRC Research In Quantum Number Theory] * [http://www.noetic.org Institute of Noetic Sciences website] {{Systems}} [[Category:Complex systems theory]] [[Category:Holism|Science]] [[Category:Interdisciplinary fields]] [[Category:Systems theory]] [[it:Scienza olistica]]