Homosexuality
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'''Homosexuality''' refers to [[human sexual behavior|sexual behavior]] with or [[same-sex attraction|attraction]] to people of the same sex, or to a [[homosexual orientation]]. As a [[sexual orientation]], homosexuality refers to "an enduring pattern of or disposition to experience sexual, affectional, or romantic attractions primarily to" people of the same sex; "it also refers to an individual’s sense of personal and social identity based on those attractions, behaviors expressing them, and membership in a community of others who share them."<ref name="apahelp">{{citation |url=http://www.apahelpcenter.org/articles/article.php?id=31 |title=Sexual Orientation and Homosexuality |periodical=[[American Psychological Association|APA]]HelpCenter.org |accessdate=[[2007-09-07]]}}</ref><ref name="brief">[http://www.courtinfo.ca.gov/courts/supreme/highprofile/documents/Amer_Psychological_Assn_Amicus_Curiae_Brief.pdf APA California Amicus Brief Please fix this cite<!-- Bot generated title --> and remove this comment when done.]</ref> The exact proportion of the population that is homosexual is difficult to estimate reliably,<ref name="levay">LeVay, Simon (1996). ''Queer Science: The Use and Abuse of Research into Homosexuality.'' Cambridge: The MIT Press ISBN 0-262-12199-9 </ref> but studies place it at 2–7%.<ref name = ACSF1992>ACSF Investigators (1992). AIDS and sexual behaviour in France. ''Nature, 360,'' 407–409.</ref><ref name = Billy1993>Billy, J. O. G., Tanfer, K., Grady, W. R., & Klepinger, D. H. (1993). The sexual behavior of men in the United States. ''Family Planning Perspectives, 25,'' 52–60.</ref><ref name = Binson1995>Binson, D., Michaels, S., Stall, R., Coates, T. J., Gagnon, & Catania, J. A. (1995). Prevalence and social distribution of men who have sex with men: United States and its urban centers. ''Journal of Sex Research, 32,'' 245–254.</ref><ref name = Bogaert2004>Bogaert, A. F. (2004). The prevalence of male homosexuality: The effect of fraternal birth order and variation in family size. ''Journal of Theoretical Biology, 230,'' 33–37.</ref><ref name = Fay1989>Fay, R. E., Turner, C. F., Klassen, A. D., & Gagnon, J. H. (1989). Prevalence and patterns of same-gender sexual contact among men. ''Science, 243,'' 338–348.</ref><ref name = Johnson1992>Johnson, A. M., Wadsworth, J., Wellings, K., Bradshaw, S., & Field, J. (1992). Sexual lifestyles and HIV risk. ''Nature, 360,'' 410–412.</ref><ref name = Laumann1994>Laumann, E. O., Gagnon, J. H., Michael, R. T., & Michaels, S. (1994). ''The social organization of sexuality: Sexual practices in the United States.'' Chicago: University of Chicago Press.</ref><ref name = Sell1995>Sell, R. L., Wells, J. A., & Wypij, D. (1995). The prevalence of homosexual behavior in the United States, the United Kingdom and France: Results of national population-based samples. ''Archives of Sexual Behavior, 24,'' 235–248.</ref><ref name = Wellings1994>Wellings, K., Field, J., Johnson, A., & Wadsworth, J. (1994). ''Sexual behavior in Britain: The national survey of sexual attitudes and lifestyles.'' London, UK: Penguin Books.</ref>
Sexual orientation is also distinguished from other aspects of sexuality, "including [[sex|biological sex]] (the anatomical, physiological, and genetic characteristics associated with being male or female), [[gender identity]] (the psychological sense of being male, female or [[third gender|other]]), and [[gender role|social gender role]] (adherence to cultural norms defining feminine and masculine behavior)."<ref name="brief"/>
Etymologically, the word ''homosexual'' is a [[Ancient Greek|Greek]] and [[Latin]] hybrid with ''homos'' (often confused with the later Latin meaning of "man", as in ''[[Homo sapiens]]'') deriving from the Greek word for ''same'', thus connoting sexual acts and affections between members of the same sex, including [[lesbian]]ism.<ref name="uwaterloo">{{citation |title=Etymology of Homosexuality |accessdate=[[2007-09-07]] |url=http://www.drama.uwaterloo.ca/Gross%20Indecency/homosexuality_word.shtml |periodical=University of Waterloo}}</ref><ref> See [[Men who have sex with men]] and [[Women who have sex with women]]</ref> In a narrow sense, ''gay'' refers to male homosexuality, but it often is used in its broadest sense, especially in media headlines and reports, to refer to homosexuality in general. ''[[Lesbian]],'' however, always denotes female homosexuality.
There is much evidence of both acceptance and repression of homosexual behavior throughout recorded history. In the last few decades, there has been a trend towards increased visibility, recognition, and legal rights for homosexuals, including marriage and civil unions, parenting rights, and equal access to health care.
Homosexual behavior occurs among numerous non-human animals and particularly among social animals.<ref name="The Gay Animal Kingdom">[http://www.seedmagazine.com/news/2006/06/the_gay_animal_kingdom.php?page=all&p=y Seed: The Gay Animal Kingdom<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref>
== Overview ==
Homosexuality has been a feature of human culture since earliest history (see [[#History|History]] section below). Generally and most famously in [[Homosexuality in ancient Greece|ancient Greece]], certain forms of erotic attraction and sexual pleasure between males were often an ingrained, accepted part of the cultural norm. Particular sexual activities (such as [[anal sex]] in some cultures, or [[oral sex]] in others), however, were disapproved of, even as other aspects were admired. In cultures under the sway of [[Abrahamic religions]], the [[Sodomy law#History|law]] and the [[Homosexuality and Christianity#History of Christianity and homosexuality|church]] established [[sodomy]] as a transgression against divine law, a "[[crime against nature]]" practiced by choice, and subject to severe penalties, up to [[capital punishment]]—often inflicted by means of fire so as to purify the unholy action. The condemnation of penetrative sex between males, however, predates Christian dogma, as it was frequent in Ancient Greece, whence the theme of action "against nature," traceable to [[Plato]], originated.<ref>."... sow illegitimate and bastard seed in courtesans, or sterile seed in males in defiance of nature." Plato in THE LAWS (Book VIII p.841 edition of Stephanus) or p.340, edition of Penguin Books, 1972.</ref>
In the last two decades of the nineteenth century, a different view began to predominate in [[Medicine|medical]] and [[Psychiatry|psychiatric]] circles, judging such behavior as indicative of a type of person with a defined and relatively stable [[sexual orientation]]. [[Karl-Maria Kertbeny]] coined the term ''homosexual'' in 1869 in a pamphlet arguing against a [[Kingdom of Prussia|Prussian]] anti-sodomy law.<ref>Feray, Jean-Claude; Herzer, Manfred (1990). "Homosexual Studies and Politics in the 19th Century: Karl Maria Kertbeny". Journal of Homosexuality, Vol. 19, No. 1.</ref><ref name="gayhistory">{{citation |url=http://www.gayhistory.com/rev2/events/kertbeny.htm |title=Biography: Karl Maria Kertbeny |accessdate=[[2007-09-07]] |periodical=GayHistory.com}}</ref> [[Richard Freiherr von Krafft-Ebing|Richard von Krafft-Ebing]]'s 1886 book ''[[Psychopathia Sexualis (book)|Psychopathia Sexualis]]'' elaborated on the concept.<ref name="gayhistory"/>
In 1897, British physician [[Havelock Ellis]] published similar views in his influential book ''[[Sexual Inversion]]''.<ref name="sexualinversion">{{citation |title=Sexual Inversion |first=Havelock |last=Ellis |first2=John Addington |last2=Symonds |year=1975 |publisher=Arno Press |isbn=0405073631}} (reprint)</ref> Although medical texts like these (written partly in Latin to obscure the sexual details) were not widely read by the general public, they did lead to the rise of [[Magnus Hirschfeld]]'s [[Scientific Humanitarian Committee]], which campaigned from 1897 to 1933 against [[Paragraph 175|anti-sodomy laws in Germany]], as well as a much more informal, unpublicized movement among British intellectuals and writers, led by such figures as [[Edward Carpenter]] and [[John Addington Symonds]].
In the course of the twentieth century, homosexuality became a subject of considerable study and debate in Western societies, especially after the modern [[gay rights movement]] began in 1969. Once viewed by authorities as a [[pathology]] or [[mental illness]] to be cured, homosexuality is now more often investigated as part of a larger impetus to understand the [[Biology and sexual orientation|biology]], [[psychology]], [[politics]], [[genetics]], [[history]] and cultural variations of sexual practice and identity. The [[Homosexuality laws of the world|legal and social status]] of people who engage in homosexual acts or identify as [[gay]] or [[lesbian]] varies enormously across the world and in places remains hotly contested in political and religious debate.
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== Etymology and usage ==
{{main|Terminology of homosexuality}}
[[Image:Hyakinthos.jpg|thumb|''[[Anemoi#West wind|Zephyrus]] and [[Hyacinth (mythology)|Hyacinthus]]''<br /> [[Attica|Attic]] [[Red-figure pottery|red-figure]] cup from [[Tarquinia]], 480 BC ([[Boston Museum of Fine Arts]])]]
The adjective ''homosexual'' describes behavior, relationships, people, orientation etc. The adjectival form literally means "same sex", being a [[Hybrid word|hybrid]] formed from the [[Greek language|Greek]] prefix ''homo-'' ("same"), and the Latin root ''sex''. Many modern style guides in the [[U.S.]] recommend against using ''homosexual'' as a noun, instead using ''gay man'' or ''lesbian''.<ref name="glaad">[http://www.glaad.org/media/guide/offensive.php Media Reference Guide] (citing AP, NY Times, Washington Post style guides), [[GLAAD]]. Retrieved 2007-05-10.</ref> Similarly, some recommend completely avoiding usage of ''homosexual'' as having a negative and discredited clinical history and because the word only refers to one's sexual behavior, and not to romantic feelings.<ref name="glaad" /> ''Gay'' and ''lesbian'' are the most common alternatives. The first letters are frequently combined to create the [[Acronym and initialism|initialism]] [[LGBT]] (sometimes written as GLBT), in which ''B'' and ''T'' refer to [[Bisexuality|bisexuals]] and [[transgender]] people. These style guides are not always followed by mainstream media sources.<ref>See, for example, [http://entertainment.timesonline.co.uk/tol/arts_and_entertainment/tv_and_radio/article2814158.ece You calling me a poof?] The Times; [http://www.theherald.co.uk/news/news/display.var.1966466.0.Scottish_hate_crime_laws_extended_to_homosexuals_and_disabled.php Scottish Hate Crime Laws extended to Homosexuals and Disabled] The Herald, January 2008; and [http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/england/manchester/4160891.stm Council praised for 'gay' policy] BBC news (see third paragraph)</ref>
The first known appearance of ''homosexual'' in print is found in an 1869 German pamphlet by the Austrian-born novelist [[Karl-Maria Kertbeny]], published anonymously.<ref name="gayhistory2">{{citation |url=http://www.gayhistory.com/rev2/events/1869b.htm |title=Kertbeny Coins "Homosexual" |accessdate=[[2007-09-07]] |periodical=GayHistory.com }}</ref> The prevalence of the concept owes much to the work of the German psychiatrist [[Richard Freiherr von Krafft-Ebing]] and his 1886 work ''[[Psychopathia Sexualis (book)|Psychopathia Sexualis]]''.<ref name="psexualis">{{citation |url=http://www.kino.com/psychopathia/history.html |title=Psychopathia Sexualis |accessdate=[[2007-09-07]] |periodical=Kino.com}}</ref> As such, the current use of the term has its roots in the broader 19th century tradition of personality taxonomy. These continue to influence the development of the modern concept of [[sexual orientation]], gaining associations with [[romantic love]] and [[Sexual identity|identity]] in addition to its original, exclusively sexual meaning.
Although early writers also used the adjective ''homosexual'' to refer to any single-sex context (such as an all-girls' school), today the term is used exclusively in reference to sexual attraction and activity. The term ''[[homosocial]]'' is now used to describe single-sex contexts that are not specifically sexual. There is also a word referring to same-sex love, ''[[homophilia]]''. Other terms include ''[[men who have sex with men]]'' or ''MSM'' (used in the medical community when specifically discussing sexual activity), ''[[Homoeroticism|homoerotic]]'' (referring to works of art), ''[[Bi-curious|heteroflexible]]'' (referring to a person who identifies as heterosexual, but occasionally engages in same-sex sexual activities), and ''[[metrosexual]]'' (referring to a non-gay man with stereotypically gay tastes in food, fashion, and design). Pejorative terms in English include ''[[queer]]'', ''[[faggot]]'', ''[[fairy]]'', ''[[poof]]'', and ''[[homo]]''. Beginning in the 1990s, some of these have been "reclaimed" as positive words by gay men and lesbians, as in the usage of [[queer studies]], [[queer theory]], and even the popular American television program ''[[Queer Eye for the Straight Guy]]''. As with [[ethnic slur]]s and [[racial slur]]s, however, the misuse of these terms can still be highly offensive; the range of acceptable use depends on the context and speaker. Conversely, ''gay'', a word originally embraced by homosexual men and women as a positive, affirmative term (as in [[gay liberation]] and [[gay rights]]), has come into widespread [[Gay#Pejorative non-sexualized usage|pejorative use]] among young people.
== History ==
{{main|LGBT history|Timeline of LGBT history}}
The lives of many historical figures, including [[Socrates]], [[Alexander the Great]], [[George Gordon Byron, 6th Baron Byron|Lord Byron]], [[Edward II of England|Edward II]], [[Hadrian]], [[Julius Caesar]], [[Michelangelo]], [[Donatello]], [[Leonardo DaVinci]], and [[Christopher Marlowe]] included or were centered upon love and sexual relationships with people of their own sex. Terms such as ''[[gay]]'' or ''[[bisexual]]'' have been often applied to them; some, such as [[Michel Foucault]], regard this as risking the anachronistic introduction of a contemporary [[social construction|construction]] of sexuality foreign to their times,<ref name=foucault>{{cite book |title=The History of Sexuality |first=Michel |last=Foucault |authorlink=Michel Foucault |year=1986 |publisher=Pantheon Books |isbn=0394417755}}</ref> though others challenge this.<ref>Thomas K. Hubbard, Review of David M. Halperin, ''How to Do the History of Homosexuality.'' in Bryn Mawr Classical Review 2003.09.22</ref>
A common thread of constructionist argument is that no one in antiquity or the Middle Ages experienced homosexuality as an exclusive, permanent, or defining mode of sexuality. John Boswell has countered this argument by citing ancient Greek writings by Plato,<ref name="boswell1">{{citation |first=John |last=Boswell |url=http://www.press.uchicago.edu/cgi-bin/hfs.cgi/00/231.ctl |title=Christianity, Social Tolerance, and Homosexuality: Gay People in Western Europe from the Beginning of the Christian Era to the Fourteenth Century |publisher=University of Chicago Press |year=1980 |isbn=978-0-226-06711-7}}</ref> which describe individuals exhibiting exclusive homosexuality.
===Africa===
Though often ignored or suppressed by European explorers and colonialists, homosexual expression in native Africa was also present and took a variety of forms. Anthropologists [[Stephen O. Murray|Stephen Murray]] and [[Will Roscoe]] reported that women in [[Lesotho]] engaged in socially sanctioned "long term, erotic relationships," named ''motsoalle.''<ref name=murrayroscoe>{{cite book|title= Boy Wives and Female Husbands: Studies of African Homosexualities |last= Murray |first= Stephen (ed.) |authorlink= Stephen O. Murray |coauthors= [[Will Roscoe|Roscoe, Will]] (ed.) |year= 1998 |publisher= [[St. Martin's Press]] |location= New York |isbn= 0312238290 }}</ref> [[E. E. Evans-Pritchard]] also recorded that male [[Azande]] warriors (in the northern [[Democratic Republic of the Congo|Congo]]) routinely took on boy-wives between the ages of twelve and twenty, who helped with household tasks and participated in intercrural sex with their older husbands. The practice had died out by the early 20th century, after Europeans had gained control of African countries, but was recounted to Evans-Pritchard by the elders he spoke to.<ref name=evanspritchard>[[E. E. Evans-Pritchard|Evans-Pritchard, E. E.]] (December, 1970). Sexual Inversion among the Azande. American Anthropologist, New Series, 72(6), 1428-1434.</ref>
=== Americas ===
[[Image:Catlin - Dance to the berdache.jpg|thumb|''Dance to the Berdache''<br />[[Sac and Fox Nation]] ceremonial dance to celebrate the two-spirit person. George Catlin (1796-1872); Smithsonian Institution, Washington, DC]]
Among [[indigenous peoples of the Americas]] prior to European colonization, the most common form of same-sex sexuality seems to center around the figure of the [[Two-Spirit]] individual. Such people seem to have been recognized by the majority of tribes, each of which had its particular term for the role. Typically the two-spirit individual was recognized early in life, was given a choice by the parents to follow the path, and if the child accepted the role then the child was raised in the appropriate manner, learning the customs of the gender it had chosen. Two-spirit individuals were commonly [[Shamanism|shamans]] and were revered as having powers beyond those of ordinary shamans. Their sexual life would be with the ordinary tribe members of the same sex. Male two-spirit people were prized as wives because of their greater strength and ability to work.
[[Image:Balboamurder.jpg|thumb|250px|right|Balboa setting his [[war dog]]s upon Indian practitioners of male love in 1513; New York Public Library]]
Homosexual and [[transgender]] individuals were also common among other pre-[[Spanish colonization of the Americas|conquest]] civilizations in [[Latin America]], such as the [[Aztec]]s, [[Mayan]]s, Quechas, [[Moche]]s, [[Zapotecs]], and the [[Tupinambá]] of Brazil.<ref name="glbtqlatinamerica">{{citation |first=Ben |last=Pablo |year=2004 |url=http://www.glbtq.com/social-sciences/latin_america_colonial.html |title=Latin America: Colonial] |periodical=[[glbtq.com]] |accessdate=[[2007-08-01]]}}</ref><ref name="glbtqmex">{{cite encyclopedia |last= Murray |first= Stephen |authorlink= Stephen O. Murray |editor= Claude J. Summers |encyclopedia= glbtq: An Encyclopedia of Gay, Lesbian, Bisexual, Transgender, and Queer Culture |title= Mexico |url= http://www.glbtq.com/social-sciences/mexico.html |accessdate= 2007-08-01 |edition= |date= |year= 2004 |publisher= [[glbtq.com|glbtq, Inc.]] |location= |id= |doi= |pages= }}</ref>
The Spanish conquerors were horrified to discover "sodomy" openly practiced among native peoples, and attempted to crush it out by subjecting the ''[[berdache]]s'' (as the Spanish called them) under their rule to severe penalties, including public execution and burning. In a famous example of cruelty against homosexuals, in 1513 the [[conquistador]] [[Vasco Núñez de Balboa]] <blockquote>discovered that the village of Quarequa [in modern-day Panama] was stained by the foulest vice. The king’s brother and a number of other courtiers were dressed as women, and according to the accounts of the neighbours shared the same passion. Vasco ordered forty of them to be torn to pieces by dogs. The Spaniards commonly used their dogs in fighting against these naked people, and the dogs threw themselves upon them as though they were wild boars on timid deer.<ref name="coello">Mártir de Anglería, Pedro. (1530). ''[http://www.udel.edu/LAS/Vol3-2Coello.html#Introduction Décadas del Mundo Nuevo]''. Quoted by Coello de la Rosa, Alexandre. "Good Indians", "Bad Indians", "What Christians?": The Dark Side of the New World in Gonzalo Fernández de Oviedo y Valdés (1478-1557), ''Delaware Review of Latin American Studies'', Vol. 3, No. 2, 2002.</ref></blockquote>
=== East Asia ===
[[Image:Voyeuriste.jpg|thumb|220px|left|A woman spying on a pair of male lovers, [[Qing Dynasty]]. Chinese Sexual Culture Museum in Tongli, Suzhou, China.]]
In [[East Asia]], same-sex love has been referred to since the earliest recorded history. Early European travelers were taken aback by its widespread acceptance and open display. None of the East Asian countries today have specific legal prohibitions against homosexuality or homosexual behavior.
[[Homosexuality in China]], known as the ''pleasures of the bitten peach,'' ''the cut sleeve,'' or ''the southern custom,'' has been recorded since approximately 600 BCE. These euphemistic terms were used to describe behaviors, but not identities (recently some fashionable young Chinese tend to euphemistically use the term "brokeback," 斷背 ''duanbei'' to refer to male homosexuals, from the success of director [[Ang Lee]]'s film ''[[Brokeback Mountain]]'').<ref name="jongo">{{citation |url=http://news.jongo.com/articles/07/0820/30157/MzAxNTcoluZIoia.html |title=Most frequently used new coinages in daily Chinese |date=[[20 August]], [[2007]] |accessdate=[[2007-09-07]] |periodical=Jongo News}}</ref> The relationships were marked by differences in age and social position. However, the instances of same-sex affection and sexual interactions described in the classical novel ''[[Dream of the Red Chamber]]'' seem as familiar to observers in the present as do equivalent stories of romances between heterosexuals during the same period.
This same-sex love culture gave rise to strong traditions of painting and literature documenting and celebrating such relationships.
Similarly, in [[Thailand]], ''[[Kathoey]]'', or "ladyboys," have been a feature of Thai society for many centuries, and Thai kings had male as well as female lovers. While ''Kathoey'' may encompass simple [[effeminacy]] or [[transvestite|transvestism]], it most commonly is treated in [[Thai culture]] as a [[third gender]]. They are generally accepted by society, and Thailand has never had legal prohibitions against homosexuality or homosexual behavior.
=== Europe ===
{{Further|[[Homosexuality in ancient Greece]], [[Homosexuality in ancient Rome]]}}
The earliest Western documents (in the form of literary works, art objects, as well as [[Greek mythology|mythographic materials]]) concerning same-sex relationships are derived from [[Pederasty in ancient Greece|ancient Greece]]. They depict a world in which relationships with women and relationships with youths were the essential foundation of a normal man's love life. Same-sex relationships were a social institution variously constructed over time and from one city to another. The formal practice, an erotic yet often restrained relationship between a free adult male and a free adolescent, was valued for its pedagogic benefits and as a means of population control, though occasionally blamed for causing disorder. [[Plato]] praised its benefits in his early writings,<ref name=plato1>[[Plato]], [[Phaedrus]] in the ''[[Symposium]]''</ref> but in his late works proposed its prohibition.<ref name=plato2>Plato, Laws, 636D & 835E</ref>
[[Image:Warren Cup BM GR 1999.4-26.1 n1.jpg|thumb|Roman man and youth in bed, middle of the 1st century [[Anno Domini|AD]]. Found in Bittir (?), near [[Jerusalem]]]]
In [[Ancient Rome]] the situation was reversed. Though the young male body remained a focus of male sexual attention, free boys were off limits as sexual partners<!--, while the carnal aspect of relations with slaves or freed youths took the place of pedagogy....?! I hardly believe it could replace the art and science of teaching. Please find the right word (did you mean "pederasty"?) and then reinstate this clause.-->. All the emperors with the exception of [[Claudius]] took male lovers. The Hellenophile emperor [[Hadrian]] is renowned for his relationship with [[Antinous]], but the Christian emperor [[Theodosius I]] decreed a law on [[August 6]], [[390]], condemning passive males to be burned at the stake. [[Justinian I|Justinian]], towards the end of his reign, expanded the proscription to the active partner as well (in 558), warning that such conduct can lead to the destruction of cities through the "wrath of God". Notwithstanding these regulations, taxes on [[brothels]] of boys available for homosexual sex continued to be collected until the end of the reign of [[Anastasius I (emperor)|Anastasius I]] in 518.
During the [[Renaissance]], rich cities in northern Italy, [[Florence]] and [[Venice]] in particular, were renowned for their widespread practice of same-sex love, engaged in by a considerable part of the male population and constructed along the classical pattern of Greece and Rome.<ref>Rocke, Michael, (1996), ''Forbidden Friendships: Homosexuality and male Culture in Renaissance Florence'', ISBN 0-195122-92-5</ref><ref>Ruggiero, Guido, (1985), ''The Boundaries of Eros'', ISBN 0-195034-65-1</ref> But even as many of the male population were engaging in same-sex relationships, the authorities, under the aegis of the [[Officers of the Night]] court, were prosecuting, fining, and imprisoning a good portion of that population. The eclipse of this period of relative artistic and erotic freedom was precipitated by the rise to power of the moralizing monk [[Girolamo Savonarola]]. In northern Europe the artistic discourse on sodomy was turned against its proponents by artists such as [[Rembrandt Harmenszoon van Rijn|Rembrandt]], who in his ''Rape of Ganymede'' no longer depicted [[Ganymede (mythology)|Ganymede]] as a willing youth, but as a squalling baby attacked by a rapacious bird of prey.
The relationships of socially prominent figures, such as King James I and the Duke of Buckingham, served to highlight the issue, including in anonymously authored street pamphlets: "The world is chang'd I know not how, For men Kiss Men, not Women now;...Of J. the First and Buckingham: He, true it is, his Wives Embraces fled, To slabber his lov'd Ganimede;" (''Mundus Foppensis, or The Fop Display'd'', 1691.)
''Love Letters Between a Certain Late Nobleman and the Famous Mr. Wilson'' was published in 1723 in England and was presumed to be a novel by some modern scholars. The 1749 edition of [[John Cleland]]'s popular novel ''[[Fanny Hill]]'' includes a homosexual scene, but this was removed in its 1750 edition. Also in 1749, the earliest extended and serious defense of homosexuality in English, ''Ancient and Modern Pederasty Investigated and Exemplified'', written by [[Thomas Cannon]], was published, but was suppressed almost immediately. It includes the passage, "Unnatural Desire is a Contradiction in Terms; downright Nonsense. Desire is an amatory Impulse of the inmost human Parts."<ref>Gladfelder, Hal (May 2006) ''In Search of Lost Texts: Thomas Cannon's 'Ancient and Modern Pederasty Investigated and Exemplified"'', Institute of Historical Research </ref> Around 1785 [[Jeremy Bentham]] wrote another defense, but this was not published until 1978.<ref> Journal of Homosexuality (ISSN 0091-8369) Volume: 3 Issue: 4 , Volume: 4 Issue: 1 </ref> Executions for sodomy continued in the Netherlands until 1803, and in England until 1835.
Between 1864 and 1880 [[Karl Heinrich Ulrichs]] published a series of twelve tracts, which he collectively titled ''Research on the Riddle of Man-Manly Love.'' In 1867 he became the first self-proclaimed homosexual person to speak out publicly in defense of homosexuality when he pleaded at the Congress of German Jurists in Munich for a resolution urging the repeal of anti-homosexual laws.
Sir [[Richard Francis Burton]]'s ''Terminal Essay, Part IV/D'' appendix in his translation of ''The Book of the Thousand Nights and a Night'' (1885–86) provided an effusive overview of homosexuality in the Middle East and tropics. ''Sexual Inversion'' by [[Havelock Ellis]], published in 1896, challenged theories that homosexuality was abnormal, as well as stereotypes, and insisted on the ubiquity of homosexuality and its association with intellectual and artistic achievement. Appendix A included ''A Problem in Greek Ethics'' by [[John Addington Symonds]], which had been privately distributed in 1883. Beginning in 1894 with ''Homogenic Love'', Socialist activist and poet [[Edward Carpenter]] wrote a string of pro-homosexual articles and pamphlets, and "came out" in 1916 in his book ''My Days and Dreams''.
In 1900, [[Elisar von Kupffer]] published an anthology of homosexual literature from antiquity to his own time, ''[[Lieblingminne und Freundesliebe in der Weltliteratur]]''. His aim was to broaden the public perspective of homosexuality beyond it being viewed simply as a medical or biological issue, but also as an ethical and cultural one.
=== Middle East, South and Central Asia ===
{{Refimprovesect|date=June 2008}}
[[Image:Samarkand A group of musicians playing for a bacha dancing boy.jpg|thumb|''Dance of a [[bacchá]] (dancing boy)''<br /> [[Samarkand]], (ca 1905 - 1915), photo [[Sergei Mikhailovich Prokudin-Gorskii]]. [[Library of Congress]], Washington, DC.]]
{{Further|[[Homosexuality and Islam]]}}
Among many [[Middle East]]ern Muslim cultures egalitarian or age-structured homosexual practices were, and remain, widespread and thinly veiled. The prevailing pattern of same-sex relationships in the temperate and sub-tropical zone stretching from Northern India to the Western Sahara is one in which the relationships were—and are—either gender-structured or age-structured or both. In recent years, egalitarian relationships modeled on the western pattern have become more frequent, though they remain rare. Same-sex intercourse officially carries the death penalty in several Muslim nations: Saudi Arabia, Iran, [[Mauritania]], northern [[Nigeria]], [[Sudan]], and [[Yemen]]. <ref>[http://www.ilga.org/news_results.asp?LanguageID=1&FileID=1111&ZoneID=7&FileCategory=50 ILGA:7 countries still put people to death for same-sex acts] </ref>
A tradition of art and literature sprang up constructing Middle Eastern homosexuality. Muslim—often [[Sufi]]—poets in medieval [[Arab]] lands and in [[Iran|Persia]] wrote odes to the beautiful wine boys who served them in the taverns. In many areas the practice survived into modern times, as documented by [[Richard Francis Burton]], [[André Gide]], and others.
In Persia homosexuality and homoerotic expressions were tolerated in numerous public places, from monasteries and seminaries to taverns, military camps, bathhouses, and coffee houses. In the early [[Safavids|Safavid]] era (1501–1723), male houses of prostitution (''amrad khane'') were legally recognized and paid taxes. Persian poets, such as [[Saadi|Sa’di]] (d. 1291), [[Hafez]] (d. 1389), and [[Jami]] (d. 1492), wrote poems replete with homoerotic allusions. The two most commonly documented forms were commercial sex with [[transgender]] young males or males enacting transgender roles exemplified by the [[köçek]]s and the [[bacchá]]s, and [[Sufi]] spiritual practices in which the practitioner admired the form of a beautiful boy in order to enter ecstatic states and glimpse the beauty of god. Some crossed over from the idealized chaste form of the practice to one in which the desire is consummated{{Fact|date=March 2008}}.
In the [[Turkic languages|Turkic]]-speaking areas, one manifestation of this same-sex love was the [[bacchá]], adolescent or adolescent-seeming male entertainers and sex workers{{Fact|date=March 2008}}. In other areas male love continues to surface despite efforts to keep it quiet{{Fact|date=March 2008}}.
Today, governments in the Middle East often ignore, deny the existence of, or criminalize homosexuality. Iranian President [[Mahmoud Ahmadinejad]], during his famous 2007 [[Mahmoud Ahmadinejad#U.S. Visit and speech at Columbia University|speech at Columbia University]], asserted that there were no gay people in Iran. Gay people do live in Iran, but most keep their sexuality a secret for fear of government sanction or rejection by their families.<ref>{{cite news |first= Nazila|last= Fathi|title= Despite Denials, Gays Insist They Exist, if Quietly, in Iran|url= http://www.nytimes.com/2007/09/30/world/middleeast/30gays.html?_r=1&hp&oref=slogin|publisher= New York Times|date=2007-09-30|accessdate=2007-10-01}}</ref>
=== South Pacific ===
In many societies of [[Melanesia]], especially in [[Papua New Guinea]], same-sex relationships were, until the middle of the last century, an integral part of the culture. The [[Etoro]] and Marind-anim for example, even viewed heterosexuality as sinful and celebrated homosexuality instead. In many traditional Melanesian cultures a pre-pubertal boy would be paired with an older adolescent who would become his mentor and who would "inseminate" him (orally, anally, or topically, depending on the tribe) over a number of years in order for the younger to also reach puberty. Many Melanesian societies, however, have become hostile towards same-sex relationships since the introduction of [[Christianity]] by [[European ethnic groups|European]] [[missionaries]].<ref name="melanesia">{{citation |title=Ritualized Homosexuality in Melanesia |first=Gilbert H. |last=Herdt |year=1984 |publisher=University of California Press |isbn=0520080963 |page=128-136}}</ref>
== Demographics ==
{{main|Demographics of sexual orientation}}
Measuring the prevalence of homosexuality presents a number of difficulties:
* Survey data regarding stigmatized or deeply personal feelings or activities are often inaccurate. Participants often avoid answers which they feel society, the survey-takers, or they themselves dislike.{{Fact|date=June 2008}}
* The research must measure some characteristic that may or may not be defining of sexual orientation. The class of people with same-sex desires may be larger than the class of people who act on those desires, which in turn may be larger than the class of people who self-identify as gay/lesbian/bisexual.<ref name="black">"Demographics of the Gay and Lesbian Population in the United States: Evidence from Available Systematic Data Sources", Dan Black, Gary Gates, Seth Sanders, Lowell Taylor, Demography, Vol. 37, No. 2 (May, 2000), pp. 139-154 (available on JSTOR).</ref>
* In studies measuring sexual activity, respondents may have different ideas about what constitutes a "sexual act."{{Fact|date=June 2008}}
Reliable data as to the size of the gay and lesbian population is of value in informing public policy.<ref name="black">"Demographics of the Gay and Lesbian Population in the United States: Evidence from Available Systematic Data Sources", Dan Black, Gary Gates, Seth Sanders, Lowell Taylor, Demography, Vol. 37, No. 2 (May, 2000), pp. 139-154 (available on JSTOR).</ref> For example, demographics would help in calculating the costs and benefits of [[domestic partnership benefits]], of the impact of legalizing [[gay adoption]], and of the impact of the U.S. military's [[Don't Ask Don't Tell]] policy.<ref name="black" /> Further, knowledge of the size of the "gay and lesbian population holds promise for helping social scientists understand a wide array of important questions—questions about the general nature of labor market choices, accumulation of human capital, specialization within households, discrimination, and decisions about geographic location."<ref name="black" />
Estimates of the incidence of exclusive homosexuality range from >1% to 10% of the population, usually finding there are slightly more gay men than lesbians.<ref>S. Hite, The Hite Report on Male Sexuality, New York, A. Knopf, 1991.</ref><ref>S. S. et C. L. Janus, The Janus Report on Sexual Behavior, New York, John Wiley & Sons, 1993.</ref><ref name="kinseymale">Alfred C. Kinsey, ''Sexual Behavior in the Human Male'', 1948, ISBN 0-7216-5445-2(o.p.), ISBN 0-253-33412-8(reprint).</ref>
Estimates also vary from one country to another. A 1992 study reported that 6.1% of males in Britain had a homosexual experience, while in France that number was 4.1%.<ref>TERESA L. WAITE,
December 8, 1992 "Sexual Behavior Levels Compared in Studies In Britain and France" in the ''New York Times''[http://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=9E0CE0D91E3EF93BA35751C1A964958260&sec=&spon=&pagewanted=all]</ref>
== Law, politics, and society ==
{{Further|[[Societal attitudes towards homosexuality]]}}
Societal attitudes towards same-sex relationships vary over time and place, from expecting all males to engage in same-sex relationships, to casual integration, through acceptance, to seeing the practice as a minor sin, repressing it through law enforcement and judicial mechanisms, and to proscribing it under penalty of death.
Most nations do not impede consensual sex between unrelated persons above the local [[age of consent]]. Some jurisdictions further recognize identical rights, protections, and privileges for the family structures of same-sex couples, including [[same-sex marriage|marriage]]. Some nations mandate that all individuals restrict themselves to heterosexual relationships; that is, in some jurisdictions homosexual activity is illegal. Offenders face up to the death penalty in some fundamentalist Muslim areas such as [[Iran]] and parts of [[Nigeria]]. There are, however, often significant differences between official policy and real-world enforcement.
''See [[Violence against gays, lesbians, bisexuals, and the transgendered]]''.
=== Prejudice ===
{{Further|[[Homophobia]], [[Heterosexism]], [[LGBT stereotypes]]}}
In many cultures, homosexual people are frequently subject to prejudice and discrimination. Like many other minority groups that are the objects of prejudice, they are also subject to [[stereotypes|stereotyping]]. Gay men are seen as effeminate and fashionable, often identified with a [[gay lisp|lisp]] or a female-like tone and lilt.<ref name=xtra>{{cite news |title=Dunk the faggot: A gay radio voice, back from hell |first=Ian |last=Mackenzie |work=[[Xtra!]] |date=[[2004-03-18]] |accessdate=2007-04-07}}</ref><ref name=stuever>{{cite news |title=Dishy Delight: Steven Cojocaru, a Glamour Boy in TV's Post-Gay Embrace|url=http://www.hankstuever.com/cojocaru.html |date=[[2003-04-19]] |last=Stuever |first=Hank |work=[[The Washington Post]]}}</ref><ref name=sfchronicle1>{{cite news |title=Gay couples can be as stable as straights, evidence suggests |url=http://www.sfgate.com/cgi-bin/article.cgi?f=/c/a/2004/02/27/MNG1H59R5Q1.DTL |first=Rona |last=Marech |date=[[2004-02-27]] |work=[[San Francisco Chronicle]] |accessdate=2007-04-07}}</ref> They are stereotyped as being [[promiscuous]]{{Fact|date=April 2008}} and unsuccessful in developing enduring romantic relationships{{Fact|date=April 2008}}, despite research to the contrary.<ref name="jayyoung1997">{{cite book |last=Jay |first=Karla |authorlink= |coauthors=Young, Allen |title=The gay report: Lesbians and gay men speak out about sexual experiences and lifestyles |year=1979 |publisher=Summit |location=New York |isbn=0671400134 }}</ref> Gay men are also often alleged as having pedophiliac tendencies and more likely to commit child sexual abuse than the heterosexual male population, a view rejected by mainstream psychiatric groups and contradicted by research.<ref name=sfchronicle2>{{cite news |last=Buchanan |first=Wyatt |date=[[2006-10-07]] |url=http://sfgate.com/cgi-bin/article.cgi?f=/c/a/2006/10/07/MNG9HLKTVH1.DTL |title=Foley incident stirs up a stereotype about gay men |accessdate=2007-04-07}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |author=Marshall WL, Barbaree HE, Butt J |title=Sexual offenders against male children: sexual preferences |journal=Behav Res Ther |volume=26 |issue=5 |pages=383–91 |year=1988 |pmid=3190647 |doi=10.1016/0005-7967(88)90071-X}}</ref><ref>[[Kurt Freund|Freund]] et al. (1989). Heterosexuality, homosexuality, and erotic age preference. Journal of Sex Research, 26, 107-117.</ref> Lesbians are seen as [[butch]], and sometimes "man-haters"<ref name=crimevictimservices>{{cite web |url=http://www.crimevictimservices.org/victimtypes/gaylesbian.php |title=Facts About Gay and Lesbian Victims |work=Crime Victim Services |accessdate=2007-04-07}}</ref> or [[radical feminists]].<ref name=fathersforlife>{{cite web |title=Feminism? You want feminism? |url=http://fathersforlife.org/feminism/feminism_terms_defined.htm#Lesbianism |work=FathersForLife.org |accessdate=2007-04-07}}</ref>
Homosexuality has at times been used as a [[scapegoat]] by governments facing problems. For example, during the early 14th century, accusations of homosexual behavior were instrumental in disbanding the [[Knights Templar]] under [[Philip IV of France]], who profited greatly from confiscating the Templars' wealth. In the 20th century, [[Nazi Germany]]'s [[History of gays in Nazi Germany and the Holocaust|persecution of homosexual people]] was based on the proposition that they posed a threat to "normal" masculinity as well as a risk of contamination to the "[[Aryan race]]".
In the 1950s, at the height of the [[Red Scare]] in the United States, hundreds of federal and state employees were fired because of their homosexuality in the so-called [[Lavender Scare]]. (Ironically, politicians opposed to the scare tactics of [[McCarthyism]] tried to discredit Senator [[Joseph McCarthy]] by hinting during a televised Congressional committee meeting that McCarthy's top aide, [[Roy Cohn]], was homosexual, as he in fact was.)
A recent instance of scapegoating is the burning of 6,000 books of homoerotic poetry of 8th c. Persian-Arab poet [[Abu Nuwas]] by the Egyptian Ministry of Culture in January 2001, to placate [[Islamic fundamentalism|Islamic fundamentalists]].<ref>''Al-Hayat'', January 13, 2001</ref><ref>''Middle East Report'', 219 Summer 2001</ref>
=== Sexual orientation and the law ===
{{worldview}}
{{Further|[[Homosexuality laws of the world]], [[LGBT rights by country]]}}
* '''[[Employment discrimination]]''' refers to discriminatory employment practices such as bias in hiring, promotion, job assignment, termination, and compensation, and various types of harassment. [[Employment discrimination law in the United States|In the United States]] there is "very little statutory, common law, and case law establishing employment discrimination based upon sexual orientation as a legal wrong."<ref name="soandthelaw">{{citation |title=Sexual Orientation and the Law |first=James M |last=Donovan |author2=American Association of Law Libraries Standing Committee on Lesbian and Gay Issues |year=2007 |publisher=William S. Hein & Co. |isbn=083770166X}} § 5:17</ref> Some exceptions and alternative legal strategies are available. President [[Bill Clinton]]'s [[Executive Order 13087]] (1998) prohibits discrimination based on sexual orientation in the competitive service of the federal civilian workforce,<ref name="clintonexecorder">{{citation |title=Executive Order 13087 of May 28, 1998 |url=http://frwebgate.access.gpo.gov/cgi-bin/getdoc.cgi?dbname=1998_register&docid=fr02jn98-135.pdf |format=PDF |periodical=[[Federal Register]] |volume=63 |number=105 |date=[[1998-06-02]] |accessdate=[[2007-09-07]]}}</ref> and federal non-civil service employees may have recourse under the [[due process clause]] of the [[U.S. Constitution]].<ref name="ashtonciviletti">Ashton v. Civiletti, 613 F.2d 923, 20 Fair Empl. Prac. Cas. (BNA) 1601, 21 Empl. Prac. Dec. (CCH) P 30297 (D.C. Cir. 1979)</ref> Private sector workers may have a [[Title VII]] action under a quid pro quo [[sexual harassment]] theory,<ref name="kellyoakland">Kelly v. City of Oakland, 198 F.3d 779, 81 Fair Empl. Prac. Cas. (BNA) 1455, 77 Empl. Prac. Dec. (CCH) P 46281 (9th Cir. 1999)</ref> a "hostile work environment" theory,<ref name="oncalesundowner">Oncale v. Sundowner Offshore Services, Inc., 523 U.S. 75, 118 S. Ct. 998, 1002 (1998)</ref> a sexual stereotyping theory,<ref name="pwchopkins">Price Waterhouse v. Hopkins, {{ussc|490|228|1989}}</ref> or others.<ref name="soandthelaw" />
* '''[[Housing discrimination]]''' refers to discrimination against potential or current tenants by landlords. In the United States, there is no federal law against such discrimination on the basis of sexual orientation or gender identity, but at least thirteen states and many major cities have enacted laws prohibiting it.<ref name="findlawrenters">{{citation |accessdate=[[2007-09-07]] |url=http://realestate.findlaw.com/tenant/tenant-fair-housing/tenant-fair-housing-orientation.html |title=Renter's Rights Against Sexual Orientation Discrimination}}</ref>
* A '''[[sodomy law]]''' is a [[law]] that defines certain [[sexual acts]] as [[sex crime]]s. The precise sexual acts meant by the term [[sodomy]] are rarely spelled out in the law, but is typically understood by courts to include any sexual act which does not lead to [[procreation]]. Furthermore, ''Sodomy'' has many [[synonym]]s: [[buggery]], [[crime against nature]], [[unnatural act]], [[deviant sexual intercourse]]. It also has a range of similar [[euphemism]]s.<ref name="jeffweeks">{{cite book |last=Weeks |first=Jeff |title=Sex, Politics and Society: The Regulation of Sexuality Since 1800 |publisher=Longman Publishing Group |date=January 1981 |location=London |isbn=0-582-48334-4}}</ref> While in theory this may include heterosexual [[oral sex]], [[anal sex]], [[masturbation]], and [[bestiality]], in practice such laws are primarily enforced against sex between men (particularly anal sex).<ref name="andrewsullivan">{{cite web |last=Sullivan |first=Andrew |title=We're all sodomists now |date=2003-04-03 |url=http://www.tnr.com/doc.mhtml?i=20030324&s=sullivan032403 |publisher=The New Republic Online |accessdate=2006-12-04}}</ref> In the United States, 47 out of 50 states had repealed any specifically [[Anti-homosexualism|anti-homosexual-conduct]] laws when the Supreme Court invalidated all sodomy laws in ''[[Lawrence v. Texas]]''. Some other countries criminalize homosexual acts. In some [[Muslim]] nations (such as [[Iran]]) and [[Africa]]n countries it remains a [[capital punishment|capital crime]]. In a highly publicized case, two male teenagers, [[Mahmoud Asgari and Ayaz Marhoni]], were hanged in [[Iran]] in 2005 reportedly because they had been caught having sex with each other.<ref name="nytimeshangings">{{citation |url=http://www.nytimes.com/2005/07/29/international/middleeast/29hangings.html?ex=1180152000&en=fc03756b1ac5be7a&ei=5070 |title=Rights Advocates Condemn Iran for Executing 2 Young Men |date=[[2005-07-29]] |accessdate=[[2007-09-07]] |first=Nazila |last=Fathi |periodical=[[The New York Times]]}}</ref>
* '''[[Hate crimes]]''' (also known as '''bias crimes''') are crimes motivated by bias against an identifiable [[social group]], usually groups defined by [[Race (classification of human beings)|race]], [[religion]], [[sexual orientation]], [[disability]], [[ethnicity]], [[nationality]], age, [[gender]], [[gender identity]], or [[political affiliation]]. In the United States, 45 states and the [[District of Columbia]] have statutes criminalizing various types of bias-motivated violence or intimidation (the exceptions are [[Arizona|AZ]], [[Georgia (U.S. state)|GA]], [[Indiana|IN]], [[South Carolina|SC]], and [[Wyoming|WY]]). Each of these statutes covers bias on the basis of race, religion, and ethnicity; 32 of them cover sexual orientation, 28 cover gender, and 11 cover transgender/gender-identity.<ref name="adl">{{citation |url=http://www.adl.org/99hatecrime/state_hate_crime_laws.pdf |title=State Hate Crime Laws |periodical=[[Anti-Defamation League]] |date=June 2006 |accessdate=[[2007-05-04]]}}</ref>
=== Violence against gay and lesbian people ===
{{main|Violence against LGBT people}}
In the [[United States]], the [[FBI]] reported that 15.6% of hate crimes reported to police in 2004 were based on perceived sexual orientation. Sixty-one percent of these attacks were against gay men.<ref name="fbicrime">{{citation |title=Crime in the United States 2004: Hate Crime |url=http://www.fbi.gov/ucr/cius_04/offenses_reported/hate_crime/index.html |periodical=[[FBI]] |accessdate=[[2007-05-04]]}}</ref> The 1998 murder of [[Matthew Shepard]], a gay student, is one of the most notorious incidents in the U.S.
Homosexual acts are punishable by death in some present-day countries including [[Iran]], [[Mauritania]], [[Nigeria]], [[Pakistan]], [[Saudi Arabia]], [[Sudan]], [[United Arab Emirates]], and [[Yemen]].<ref name="ilga">{{citation |last=Ottosson |first=Daniel |title=LGBT world legal wrap up survey |publisher=[[ILGA]] |date=November, 2006 |accessdate=[[2007-09-21]] |url=http://www.ilga.org/statehomophobia/World_legal_wrap_up_survey_November2006.pdf |format=PDF}}</ref>
=== Politics ===
{{Further|[[LGBT social movements]], [[LGBT rights by country]]}}
[[Image:Queer liberation banners, Philadelphia 1972.jpg|thumb|[[Homophile]] banner, 1972. Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, United States]]
[[Image:Seattle gay parade-protesters.jpg|thumb|Anti-homosexuality Christian protesters at a [[gay pride parade]], 2007. Seattle, Washington, United States.]]
Although homosexual acts were decriminalized in some parts of the [[Western world]], such as in [[Gay rights in Denmark|Denmark]] in 1933, in [[Gay rights in Sweden|Sweden]] in 1944, in the [[Gay rights in the United Kingdom|United Kingdom]] in 1967, and in [[Gay rights in Canada|Canada]] in 1969, it was not until the mid-1970s that the [[gay community]] first began to achieve actual, though limited, [[civil rights]] in some [[developed countries]]. A turning point was reached in 1973 when the [[American Psychiatric Association]] removed homosexuality from the [[Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders]], thus negating its previous definition of homosexuality as a clinical [[mental disorder]]. In 1977, [[Quebec]] became the first state-level jurisdiction in the world to prohibit [[discrimination]] on the grounds of [[sexual orientation]].
Since the 1960s, in part due to their history of shared oppression, many [[LGBT]] people in the West, particularly those in major metropolitan areas, have developed a so-called [[Queer culture|gay culture]]. To many, gay culture is exemplified by the [[gay pride]] movement, with annual parades and displays of rainbow flags. Yet not all LGBT people choose to participate in "queer culture", and many gay men and women specifically decline to do so. To some it seems to be a frivolous display, perpetuating gay stereotypes. To some others, the gay culture represents [[heterophobia]] and is scorned as widening the gulf between gay and non-gay people.
With the outbreak of [[AIDS]] in the early 1980s, many LGBT groups and individuals organized campaigns to promote efforts in AIDS education, prevention, research, patient support, and community outreach, as well as to demand government support for these programs. [[Gay Men's Health Crisis]], [[Project Inform]], and [[ACT UP]] are some notable American examples of the LGBT community's response to the AIDS crisis.
The bewildering death toll wrought by the [[AIDS]] epidemic at first seemed to slow the progress of the [[gay rights]] movement, but in time it galvanized some parts of the LGBT community into community service and political action, and challenged the heterosexual community to respond compassionately. Major American motion pictures from this period that dramatized the response of individuals and communities to the AIDS crisis include ''[[An Early Frost]]'' (1985), ''[[Longtime Companion]]'' (1990), ''[[And the Band Played On]]'' (1993), ''[[Philadelphia]]'' (1993), and ''[[Common Threads: Stories from the Quilt]]'' (1989), the last referring to the [[NAMES Project AIDS Memorial Quilt]], last displayed in its entirety on [[National Mall|the Mall]] in [[Washington, D.C.]], in 1996.
During the 1980s and 1990s, most [[developed countries]] enacted laws decriminalizing homosexual behavior and prohibiting discrimination against lesbians and gays in employment, housing, and services. Yet as LGBT people slowly gained legal protection and social acceptance, [[gay bashing]] and [[hate crimes]] also increased due to [[heterosexism]] and [[homophobia]] (See [[Violence against gays, lesbians, bisexuals, and the transgendered]]).
Publicly gay politicians have attained numerous government posts, even in countries that had [[sodomy law]]s or outright [[History of gays in Nazi Germany and the Holocaust|mass murder of gays]] in their recent past.
Gay British politicians include former UK [[Cabinet|Cabinet ministers]] [[Chris Smith, Baron Smith of Finsbury|Chris Smith]] (now Lord Smith of [[Finsbury]] who is also a rare example of an openly [[HIV]] positive statesman) and [[Nick Brown]], and, most famously, [[Peter Mandelson]], a [[European Commission]]er and close friend of [[Tony Blair]]. Openly gay [[Per-Kristian Foss]] was the [[Norway|Norwegian]] [[Minister of Finance]] until [[September 2005]].
LGBT movements are opposed by a variety of individuals and organizations. Supporters of the [[traditional marriage movement]] believe that all sexual relationships with people other than an opposite-sex spouse undermines the traditional family<ref>[http://newsroom.lds.org/ldsnewsroom/v/index.jsp?vgnextoid=a1312e636369f010VgnVCM100000176f620aRCRD First Presidency Message on Same-Gender Marriage]</ref> and that children should be reared in homes with both a father and a mother.<ref name = DMD>
{{cite web
| last = Brownback
| first = Sam
| title = Defining Marriage Down - We need to protect marriage.
| publisher = [[National Review]]
| date = [[July 9]], [[2004]]
| url = http://www.nationalreview.com/comment/brownback200407090921.asp }}
</ref><ref>[http://lds.org/ldsorg/v/index.jsp?vgnextoid=e1fa5f74db46c010VgnVCM1000004d82620aRCRD&locale=0&sourceId=1aba862384d20110VgnVCM100000176f620a____&hideNav=1&contentLocale=0 ''The Family: A Proclamation to the World'']</ref>
There is also concern that gay rights may conflict with individual's freedom of speech<ref>{{cite news
|url=http://www.dailymail.co.uk/pages/live/articles/news/news.html?in_article_id=496871&in_page_id=1770
|title=Gay hate law 'threat to Christian free speech'
|date= [[28 November]] [[2007]]
|first=Steve
|last=Doughty
|publisher=Daily Mail}}</ref><ref>{{cite news
|url=http://www.dailymail.co.uk/pages/live/articles/news/news.html?in_article_id=403815&in_page_id=1770
|title=Christian faces court over 'offensive' gay festival leaflets
|first=Steve
|last=Doughty
|date= [[6 September]] [[2006]]
|publisher=Daily Mail}}</ref><ref>{{cite news
|url=http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/comment/columnists/michael_gove/article805241.ece
|publisher=The Times
|title=I'd like to say this, but it might land me in prison
|date=[[December 24]], [[2002]]
|first=Michael
|last=Gove}}</ref><ref>{{cite news
|url=http://www.cbc.ca/canada/calgary/story/2007/11/28/chandler-meeting.html
|title=Christian group likens Tory candidate review to witch hunt
|date=[[November 28]], [[2007]]
|publisher=CBC News}}</ref><ref>{{cite news
|url=http://www.nationalpost.com/opinion/story.html?id=431535&p=2
|title=Conduct unbecoming a free society
|date=[[April 9]], [[2008]]
|last=Kempling
|first=Chris
|publisher=National Post}}</ref>, religious freedoms in the workplace<ref> {{cite news
|url=http://www.law.com/jsp/ihc/PubArticleIHC.jsp?id=1193735028038
|title=Employer's Dilemma: When Religious Expression and Gay Rights Cross
|first=Judith
|last=Moldover
|publisher=New York Law Journal
|date=[[October 31]], [[2007]]}}</ref><ref>{{cite news
|url=http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m1374/is_1_68/ai_n24944645
|title=Collision of religious and gay rights in the workplace
|publisher=Humanist
|date=January-February, 2008
|first=Bob
|last=Ritter}}</ref>, and the ability to run churches<ref>{{cite news
|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/uk_news/wales/6904057.stm
|title=Bishop loses gay employment case
|date=[[18 July]] [[2007]]
|publisher=BBC News}}</ref>, charitable organizations<ref>{{cite news
|url=http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/uknews/2080669/Catholic-adoption-service-stops-over-gay-rights.html
|title = Catholic adoption service stops over gay rights
|date=June 5 ,2008
|publisher=Telegraph
|first=Martin
|last=Beckford}}</ref><ref>{{cite news
|url=http://www.boston.com/news/local/massachusetts/articles/2006/03/10/catholic_charities_to_halt_adoptions_over_issue_involving_gays/
|title=Catholic Charities to halt adoptions over issue involving gays
|date=[[March 10]], [[2006]]
|last=LeBlanc
|first=Steve
|publisher=[[Boston Globe]]}}</ref> and other religious organizations<ref>{{cite news
|url=http://news.therecord.com/News/CanadaWorld/article/341201
|date=[[April 24]], [[2008]]
|first=Greg
|last=Mercer
|publisher=The Record
|title=Christian Horizons rebuked: Employer ordered to compensate fired gay worker, abolish code of conduct
}}</ref> in accordance with one's religious views. There is also concern that the acceptance of homosexual relationships by religious organizations might be forced through threatening to remove the tax-exempt status of churches whose views don't align with those of the government.<ref name=BannedBoston>{{cite news
|url=http://www.weeklystandard.com/Content/Public/Articles/000/000/012/191kgwgh.asp
|title=Banned in Boston:The coming conflict between same-sex marriage and religious liberty
|first=Maggie
|last=Gallagher
|date=2006-05-15
|volume=011
|issue=33}}</ref><ref>{{cite news
|url=http://www.nytimes.com/2007/08/14/nyregion/14civil.html?_r=1&oref=slogin
|date=[[August 14]], [[2007]]
|title=Church Group Complains of Civil Union Pressure
|first=Jill
|last=Capuzzo
|publisher= New York Times}}</ref><ref>{{cite news
|url=http://www.nytimes.com/2007/09/18/nyregion/18grove.html
|title=Group Loses Tax Break Over Gay Union Issue
|first=Jill
|last=Capuzzo
|publisher= New York Times}}</ref><ref>{{cite news
|url=http://www.deseretnews.com/article/1,5143,700226242,00.html
|title= LDS Church expresses disappointment in California gay marriage decision
|date=[[May 15]], [[2008]]
|first=Carrie
|last=Moore
|publisher=[[Deseret News]]}}
</ref>
=== Coming out ===
{{main|Coming out}}
[[Image:Montclair Graffiti.JPG|thumb|right|300px|Graffiti expressing sexual orientation.]]
Many people who feel attracted to members of their own sex have a so-called "coming out" at some point in their lives. Generally, coming out is described in three phases. The first phase is the phase of "knowing oneself," and the realization or decision emerges that one is open to same-sex relations. This is often described as an internal coming out. The second phase involves one's decision to come out to others, e.g. family, friends, and/or colleagues. This occurs with many people as early as age 11, but others do not clarify their sexual orientation until age 40 or older. The third phase more generally involves living openly as an LGBT person.<ref name="hrccontinuum">{{citation |accessdate=[[2007-05-04]] |url=http://dev.hrc.org/issues/3333.htm |periodical=[[Human Rights Campaign]] |title=The Coming Out Continuum}}</ref> In the United States today, people often come out during high school or college age. At this age, they may not trust or ask for help from others, especially when their orientation is not accepted in society. Sometimes their own parents are not even informed.
[[Outing]] is the practice of publicly revealing the sexual orientation of a closeted person.<ref name="glbtqouting">{{citation |last=Neumann |first=Caryn E |url=http://www.glbtq.com/social-sciences/outing.html |title=Outing |year=2004 |periodical=[[glbtq.com]]}}</ref> Notable politicians, celebrities, military service people, and clergy members have been outed, with motives ranging from malice to political or moral beliefs. Many commentators oppose the practice altogether,<ref name="biasfreeusage">{{citation |title=The Dictionary of Bias-Free Usage: A Guide to Nondiscriminatory Language |last=Maggio |first=Rosalie |year=1991 |publisher=Oryx Press |isbn=0897746538 |page=208}}</ref> while some encourage outing public figures who use their positions of influence to harm other gay people.<ref name="statesmanouting">{{citation |url=http://www.newstatesman.com/200704230064 |title=Outing hypocrites is justified |first=Peter |last=Tatchell |date=[[2007-04-23]] |accessdate=[[2007-05-04]] |periodical=[[The New Statesman]]}}</ref>
=== Government recognition of same-sex unions ===
{{Further|[[Same-sex marriage]], [[Status of same-sex marriage]], [[Same-sex union]] (full list of types of unions)}}
[[Image:World homosexuality laws.svg|thumb|350px|{{legend|#c0c0c0|No information}}
'''Homosexuality legal'''
{{legend|#57781f|Same sex marriages allowed}}
{{legend|#99b453|Same sex unions allowed}}
{{legend|#bed688|No same sex unions allowed}}
{{legend|#7fbcff|International marriage licenses recognized}}
'''Homosexuality illegal'''
{{legend|#f9dc36|Minimal penalty}}
{{legend|#ec8028|Large penalty}}
{{legend|#e73e21|Life in prison}}
{{legend|#8c210f|Death penalty}}]]
Government recognition of same-sex marriage is presently available in seven countries and two U.S. states. [[Same-sex marriage in the Netherlands|The Netherlands]] was the first country to authorize same-sex marriage in 2001 and they are now also recognized in [[Same-sex marriage in Belgium|Belgium]], [[Same-sex marriage in Canada|Canada]], [[Same-sex marriage in South Africa|South Africa]], [[Same-sex marriage in Spain|Spain]], Norway<ref name="norwgaymarr">{{citation |last=France-Press |first=Agence |url=http://afp.google.com/article/ALeqM5jko_BIHizUFFqUtmEaUrAEoPXFWw |title=Norway adopts gay marriage law |year=2008 |periodical=[[news.google.com]]}}</ref>, [[Civil partnerships in the United Kingdom|United Kingdom]] and the [[U.S. states]] of [[Same-sex marriage in Massachusetts|Massachusetts]], [[Same-sex marriage in California|California]] and [[Same-sex marriage in Iowa|Iowa]], though Iowa's issuance of marriage licenses is on hold until a Supreme Court appeal is heard. The states of [[Same-sex marriage in New York|New York]], [[Same-sex marriage in Rhode Island|Rhode Island]] and [[Same-sex marriage in New Mexico|New Mexico]] do not allow same-sex marriages to be performed, but do recognize such marriages performed elsewhere. [[Same-sex marriage in Israel|Israel]]'s High Court of Justice ruled to recognize same-sex marriages performed in other countries, although it is still illegal to perform them within the country.
Other countries, including the majority of [[Europe]]an nations, have enacted laws allowing [[civil unions]], designed to give gay couples similar rights as married couples concerning legal issues such as inheritance and immigration. Most [[Scandinavia]]n countries (Denmark, Sweden, Iceland, Finland, with the sole exception of the Faroe Islands) have enacted [[civil union]] laws.
Jurisdictions in the U.S. that offer civil unions or domestic partnerships granting nearly all of the state-recognized rights of marriage to same-sex couples include [[Domestic partnership in California|California]] (2000), [[civil unions in Vermont|Vermont]] (2000), [[civil unions in Connecticut|Connecticut]] (2005), [[civil unions in New Jersey|New Jersey]] (2006), [[Domestic partnership in Oregon|Oregon]] (2007), and [[civil unions in New Hampshire|New Hampshire]] (2008). States in the U.S. with domestic partnerships or similar status granting some of the rights of marriage include [[Domestic partnerships in Hawaii|Hawaii]] (1996), [[domestic partnership in Maine|Maine]] (1999), [[Domestic partnership in Washington|Washington]] (2007), as well as the [[Domestic partnerships in District of Columbia|District of Columbia]] (Washington, DC) (2001).
=== Parenting ===
{{main|LGBT parenting}}
{{Unbalanced}}
Many LGB people are parents through various means including adoption, donor insemination, foster parenting, surrogacy, from former relationships and together with an opposite sex spouse in a [[mixed-orientation marriage]].<ref>[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/8505530?ordinalpos=86&itool=EntrezSystem2.PEntrez.Pubmed.Pubmed_ResultsPanel.Pubmed_RVDocSum Gay fathers in straight marriages]</ref><ref>{{cite book
|url=http://books.google.com/books?hl=en&lr=&id=yffzsKWvP6AC&oi=fnd&pg=PA138&ots=8RVKJpMsQh&sig=cV1xTjj9Is2BYObvw7DLb4bd7fw#PPA138,M1
|title=Gay and Lesbian Parents
|first=Frederick W.
|last=Bozett
|chapter=The Heterosexually Married Gay and Lesbian Parent
|page=138}}</ref><ref>[http://www.haworthpress.com/store/ArticleAbstract.asp?sid=3Q4EE45JK40W8L1DN0HJVF3U8WFT5DSC&ID=82829 The Married Lesbian]</ref><ref name=Brokeback>{{cite news
|title=Many Couples Must Negotiate Terms of 'Brokeback' Marriages
|url=http://www.nytimes.com/2006/03/07/health/07broke.html?_r=2&oref=slogin&oref=slogin
|last=Butler
|first=Katy
|date=March 7, 2006
|publisher=[[New York Times]]}}</ref> Some children do not know they have a LGB parent.<ref>[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/3655343?ordinalpos=1&itool=EntrezSystem2.PEntrez.Pubmed.Pubmed_ResultsPanel.Pubmed_DiscoveryPanel.Pubmed_Discovery_RA&linkpos=5&log$=relatedarticles&logdbfrom=pubmed Helping gay fathers come out to their children]</ref><ref>[http://www.haworthpress.com/store/ArticleAbstract.asp?sid=3Q4EE45JK40W8L1DN0HJVF3U8WFT5DSC&ID=55278 A Family Matter: When a Spouse Comes Out as Gay, Lesbian, or Bisexual]</ref>
In the [[United States Census, 2000|2000 U.S. Census]], 33 percent of female same-sex couple households and 22 percent of male same-sex couple households reported at least one child under the age of 18 living in the home.<ref name="apa">[http://www.apa.org/pi/lgbc/policy/parents.html APA Policy Statement on Sexual Orientation, Parents & Children], [[American Psychological Association]], July 28 & 30, 2004. Retrieved on [[2007-04-06]].</ref> In January 2008, the [[European Court of Human Rights]] ruled that same-sex couples have the right to [[LGBT adoption|adopt]] a child.<ref>[http://cmiskp.echr.coe.int/tkp197/view.asp?item=1&portal=hbkm&action=html&highlight=43546/02&sessionid=4859311&skin=hudoc-en EMRK is for the LGBT adoption]</ref><ref>[http://www.euronews.net/index.php?page=info&article=466057&lng=3 Euronews: Gleichgeschlechtliche Adoptiveltern - Gerichtshof rügt Frankreich (german)]</ref> In the U.S., LGB people can legally adopt in all states except for Florida.<ref>{{cite web.
|url=http://www.hrc.org/issues/parenting/adoptions/2375.htm
|title= Adoption Laws: State by State
|publisher=Human Rights Campaign
|accessdate=2008-07-09}}</ref>
Same-sex parents are supported by the positions of a number of organizations, including the [[American Psychological Association]], the Child Welfare League of America, the [[American Bar Association]], the [[American Psychiatric Association]], the [[National Association of Social Workers]], the North American Council on Adoptable Children, the [[American Academy of Pediatrics]], the [[American Psychoanalytic Association]], and the [[American Academy of Family Physicians]].<ref name="profviewparenting">{{citation |title= Professional Organizations on GLBT Parenting |url=http://www.hrc.org/issues/parenting/professional-opinion.asp |publisher=[[Human Rights Campaign|HRC]].org |accessdate=[[2007-09-01]]}}</ref>
The [[American Psychological Association]] has stated that:
<blockquote>there is no scientific evidence that parenting effectiveness is related to parental sexual orientation: lesbian and gay parents are as likely as heterosexual parents to provide supportive and healthy environments for their children…research has shown that the adjustment, development, and psychological well-being of children is unrelated to parental sexual orientation and that the children of lesbian and gay parents are as likely as those of heterosexual parents to flourish….<ref name="apa" /></blockquote>
''Children's Development of Social Competence Across Family Types'', a major report prepared by the [[Department of Justice (Canada)]] in July 2006 but not released by the government until forced to do so by a request under the [[Access to Information Act]] in May 2007,<ref name='ssmc050907'>{{cite news | first=Bourassa | last=Kevin | coauthors= Joe Varnell | title=Harper shoves family study into the closet | date=2007-05-09 | publisher=equalmarriage.ca | url =http://www.samesexmarriage.ca/advocacy/PDH090507.htm | work =Equal Marriage for Same-sex Couples: Advocacy News | pages = | accessdate = 2007-07-30 | language = }}</ref> reaches this conclusion:
<blockquote>The strongest conclusion that can be drawn from the empirical literature is that the vast majority of studies show that children living with two mothers and children living with a mother and father have the same levels of social competence. A few studies suggest that children with two lesbian mothers may have marginally better social competence than children in traditional nuclear families, even fewer studies show the opposite, and most studies fail to find any differences. The very limited body of research on children with two gay fathers supports this same conclusion.<ref name='gayparents0606'>{{cite news | first= | last= | coauthors= | title=Children's Development of Social Competence Across Family Types | date=July 2006 | publisher=Department of Justice Canada | url =http://www.samesexmarriage.ca/docs/Justice_Child_Development.pdf | work = | pages =(Long PDF document, 7.7 Mb) | accessdate = 2007-07-30 | language = |format=PDF}}</ref></blockquote>
=== Corporate attitudes ===
In some [[capitalism|capitalist]] countries, large [[private sector]] [[corporation|firms]] often lead the way in the equal treatment of gay men and lesbians. For instance, more than half of the [[Fortune 500]] offer [[domestic partnership]] benefits and 49 of the [[Fortune 50]] companies include [[sexual orientation]] in their non-discrimination policies (only [[ExxonMobil]] does not).<ref name="fortune500-sfgate">DeBare, Illana. "[http://www.sfgate.com/cgi-bin/article.cgi?f=/c/a/2006/06/30/BUGJNJMQ9C1.DTL Gay, lesbian workers gradually gain benefits]." ''San Francisco Chronicle''. 30 June 2006. Accessed 13 April 2007.</ref><ref>{{citation |title=Workplace Improves for Gay, Transgender Employees, Rights Group Says |first=Amy |last=Joyce |periodical=[[The Washington Post]] |url=http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2005/06/05/AR2005060501249.html |date=[[2006-06-06]] |accessdate=[[2007-09-21]]}}</ref>
=== Mental health ===
Stigma, prejudice, and discrimination stemming from negative societal attitudes toward homosexuality leads to a higher prevalence of mental health disorders among lesbians, gay men, and bisexuals compared to their heterosexual peers.<ref>{{cite journal
|url=http://www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov/articlerender.fcgi?artid=2072932
|title=Prejudice, Social Stress, and Mental Health in Lesbian, Gay, and Bisexual Populations: Conceptual Issues and Research Evidence
|first= Ilan H.
|last= Meyer
|date=September 2003
|publisher=Psychological Bulletin
|volume=129
|number=5
|pages=674–697}}</ref> However, evidence indicates that the liberalization of these attitudes over the past few decades is associated with a decrease in such mental health risks among younger LGBT people.<ref>[http://www.eurekalert.org/pub_releases/2007-10/cums-bgm100207.php Black gay men, lesbians, have fewer mental disorders than whites, says Mailman School of PH study<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref>
=== Gay and lesbian youth ===
Gay and lesbian youth bear an increased risk of suicide, substance abuse, school problems, and isolation because of a "hostile and condemning environment, verbal and physical abuse, rejection and isolation from family and peers".<ref name="dhhs">{{citation |title=Report of the Secretary's Task Force on Youth Suicide |editor-first=Marcia R. (ed.) |editor-last= Fenleib |year=1989 |publisher=United States Government Printing Office |isbn=0160025087 |last=Gibson |first=P. |contribution=Gay and Lesbian Youth Suicide}}</ref>
LGB youths are more likely to report psychological and physical abuse by parents or caretakers, and more sexual abuse. Suggested reasons for this disparity are that (1) LGBT youths may be specifically targeted on the basis of their perceived sexual orientation or gender non-conforming appearance, and (2) "risk factors associated with sexual minority status, including discrimination, invisibility, and rejection by family members... may lead to an increase in behaviors that are associated with risk for victimization, such as substance abuse, sex with multiple partners, or running away from home as a teenager."<ref>{{cite journal
|url=http://www.apa.org/journals/features/ccp733477.pdf
|title=Victimization Over the Life Span: A Comparison of Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual, and Heterosexual Siblings
|first=Kimberly F.
|last= Balsam
|coauthors=Esther D. Rothblum
|date=June 2005
|publisher=Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology
|volume=73
|number=3
|pages=477–487|format=PDF}}</ref>
Crisis centers in larger cities and information sites on the Internet have arisen to help youth and adults.<ref name="suicideorg">{{citation |title=Gay, Lesbian, Bisexual, and Transgender Suicide|url=http://www.suicide.org/gay-and-lesbian-suicide.html |first=Kevin |last=Caruso |periodical=Suicide.org |accessdate=[[2007-05-04]]}}</ref> [[The Trevor Helpline]], a suicide prevention helpline for gay youth, was established following the 1998 airing on HBO of the [[Academy Award]] winning short film ''[[Trevor (film)|Trevor]]''.
== Military service ==
{{Main|Sexual orientation and military service}}
Some [[Ancient history|ancient]] and pre-modern societies, such as [[Ancient Greece|Greece]] and [[History of Japan|Japan]], fostered erotic love bonds between experienced warriors and their apprentices. It was believed that a man and youth who were in love with each other would fight harder and with greater [[morale]]. A classic example of a military force built upon this belief is the [[Sacred Band of Thebes]].
The adoption of [[Christianity]] by the [[Roman Empire|Roman]] Emperor [[Constantine I (emperor)|Constantine]] in the [[4th century|fourth century]] and subsequent predominance of Christianity led to a diminished emphasis on erotic love among military forces. By the time of the [[Crusades]], the military of [[Europe]] had largely switched gears, asserting that carnal relations between males were sinful and therefore had no place in an army that served their perception of [[God]]'s will. The [[Knights Templar]], a prominent military order, was destroyed by accusations (probably fabricated) of [[sodomy]].
The [[United Kingdom]], [[Canada]], the [[Netherlands]], and [[Israel]] admit openly gay service members, and others—like the [[United States]], and many nations in [[South America]] and the [[Caribbean]]—either quiet or discharge anyone found to be engaging in homosexual relations or openly identifying as gay; the [[United States]] is known for its 1993 "[[don't ask, don't tell]]" policy. The traditional justification for excluding openly gay service members is that it may lead to "harassment, discord, blackmail, bullying or an erosion of unit cohesion or military effectiveness".<ref name="nyt2007">{{citation |url=http://www.nytimes.com/2007/05/21/world/europe/21britain.html?_r=1&oref=slogin |periodical=[[The New York Times]] |title=Gay Britons Serve in Military With Little Fuss, as Predicted Discord Does Not Occur |date=[[2007-05-21]] |first=Sarah |last=Lyall |accessdate=[[2007-05-04]]}}</ref> The British military, which removed their restriction against gay service members in 2000, has not experienced any of these feared results.<ref name="nyt2007"/>
== Religion ==
{{main|Religion and homosexuality}}
Religions have had differing views about love and sexual relations between people of the same sex.
Presently, a large proportion of the Abrahamic sects view sexual relationships outside of a heterosexual marriage, including homosexual sex, negatively, though there are groups within each faith that disagree with orthodox positions and challenge their doctrinal authority. Opposition to homosexual behavior ranges from quietly discouraging displays and activities to those who explicitly forbid same-sex sexual practices among adherents and actively oppose social acceptance of homosexual relationships. Support of homosexual behavior is reflected in the acceptance of sexually heterodox individuals in all functions of the church, and sanctification of same-sex unions.
Partially because of religious reasons, some gay men and lesbians seek to change their sexual orientations through religious faith and practice. In a survey of 882 people who were undergoing [[conversion therapy]], attending [[ex-gay]] groups or ex-gay conferences, 22. 9% reported they had not undergone any changes, 42.7% reported some changes, and 34.3% reported much change in sexual orientation.<ref name="Nicolosi2000">{{cite journal
|last=Nicolosi
|first=Joseph
|title=Retrospective self-reports of changes in homosexual orientation: A consumer survey of conversion therapy clients
|coauthors=Byrd, A. Dean; Potts, Richard W.
|url=http://doi.apa.org/index.cfm?fuseaction=showUIDAbstract&uid=2000-00515-002
|publisher=Psychological Reports
|date=2000 June
|volume=86
|pages=1071–1088}}</ref> [[Exodus International]] is the largest ostensibly ex-gay group. A major ally of Exodus International is [[Focus on the Family]], who works with Exodus International in their [[Love Won Out]] ministry.
Several churches teach love and compassion towards gay people, regardless of their sexual practices, while still teaching against homosexual relationships.<ref name=Oakland>{{cite news
|title=Mormon church changes stance on homosexuality
|url=http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_qn4176/is_20070820/ai_n19473724
|last=Lum
|first=Rebecca Rosen
|publisher=[[Oakland Tribune]]
|date=[[2007-08-20]]}}</ref> The Catechism of the Catholic Church states gay people "must be accepted with respect, compassion and sensitivity. Every sign of unjust discrimination in their regard should be avoided."<ref>[http://www.scborromeo.org/ccc/p3s2c2a6.htm#2357 Catechism of the Catholic Church, para. 2357 Catholic Church]</ref> The [[LDS Church]] denounced gay-bashing<ref> [http://lds.org/portal/site/LDSOrg/menuitem.b12f9d18fae655bb69095bd3e44916a0/?vgnextoid=2354fccf2b7db010VgnVCM1000004d82620aRCRD&locale=0&sourceId=43786e9ce9b1c010VgnVCM1000004d82620a____&hideNav=1''1995 Dallin H. Oaks Statement''], Official Site of the [[Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints]]. Retrieved on [[September 27]] [[2007]].</ref> and has officially stated they "reach out with understanding and respect".<ref>{{Citation
| last1=Hinckley
| first1=Gordon B.
| author1-link=Gordon B. Hinckley
| last2=Monson
| first2=Thomas S.
| author2-link=Thomas S. Monson
| last3=Faust
| first3=James E.
| author3-link=James E. Faust
| title=First Presidency Statement on Same-Gender Marriage
| publisher=LDS Church
| place=Salt Lake City, Utah
| date=[[October 20]] [[2004]]
| year=2004
| url=http://www.lds.org/ldsnewsroom/v/index.jsp?vgnextoid=a1312e636369f010VgnVCM100000176f620aRCRD
}}</ref>
Other churches have changed their doctrine to accommodate homosexual relationships. [[Reform Judaism]], the largest branch of [[Judaism]] outside [[Israel]] has begun to facilitate religious [[same-sex marriages]] for gay adherents in their synagogues. [[Jewish Theological Seminary]], considered to be the flagship institution of [[Conservative Judaism]], decided in March 2007 to begin accepting applicants in homosexual relationships, after scholars who guide the movement lifted the ban on ordaining people in homosexual relationships.<ref name="jewishseminary">{{citation |url=http://www.cbsnews.com/stories/2007/03/27/national/main2611436.shtml |title=Conservative Jewish Seminary To Allow Gays |date=[[2007-03-27]] |accessdate=[[2007-05-04]] |periodical=[[CBS News]]}}</ref> In 2005, the [[United Church of Christ]] became the largest Christian denomination in the United States to formally endorse same-sex marriage.
On the other hand, the [[Anglican Communion]] encountered discord that caused a rift between the African (except Southern Africa) and Asian Anglican churches on the one hand and North American churches on the other when American and Canadian churches openly ordained gay clergy and began blessing same-sex unions. Other churches such as the [[Methodist Church]] had experienced trials of gay clergy who some claimed were a violation of religious principles resulting in mixed verdicts dependent on geography.
Some religious groups have even promoted boycotts of corporations whose policies support the LGBT community. In early 2005, the [[American Family Association]] threatened a boycott of [[Ford Motor Company|Ford]] products to protest Ford's perceived support of "the [[gay agenda|homosexual agenda]] and homosexual marriage".<ref>"[http://find.galegroup.com/ips/infomark.do?&contentSet=IAC-Documents&type=retrieve&tabID=T003&prodId=IPS&docId=A133003422&source=gale&srcprod=GRGM&userGroupName=va0053_remote&version=1.0 Family group to boycott Ford for its gay support.](American Family Association (AFA))(Brief Article)." ''PR Week (US)'' (June 6, 2005): 02. ''General Reference Center Gold''. Thomson Gale. Newport News Public Library System. 7 Apr. 2007.</ref>
== Art and literature ==
{{Further|[[Homoeroticism]], [[Lesbian literature]], [[Gay literature]]}}
[[Image:Love play in China.jpg|thumb|200px|''Young men sipping tea, reading poetry, and making love''<br /> Individual panel from a hand scroll on homosexual themes, paint on silk; [[Qing Dynasty]] (c. 18th–19th), China; [[Kinsey Institute]], Bloomington, Indiana]]
The record of same-sex love has been preserved through [[literature]] and [[art]]. Male homoerotic sensibilities are visible in the foundations of art in the West, to the extent that those roots can be traced back to the [[ancient Greeks]]. [[Homer]]'s ''[[Iliad]]'' is considered to have the love between two men as its central feature, a view held since antiquity. [[Plato]]'s ''[[Symposium (Plato)|Symposium]]'' also gives readers commentary on the subject, at one point putting forth the claim that male homosexual love is superior to heterosexual love.
The European tradition of homoeroticism was continued in the works of artists and writers such as [[Leonardo da Vinci]], [[Michelangelo]] and [[Shakespeare]]. Since the Renaissance, both male and female homoeroticism has remained a common, if subtle and hidden, theme in the visual arts of the West.
In Islamic societies homoeroticism was present in the work of such writers as [[Abu Nuwas]] and [[Omar Khayyam]]. A large corpus of literature, numbering in the hundreds of works, fostered the [[shudo]] tradition in [[Japan]], together with a widespread tradition of homoerotic [[shunga]] art.<ref>Gregory M. Pflugfelder, ''Cartographies of Desire, passim''</ref>
In the Chinese literary tradition, works such as ''[[Homosexuality in China#Same-sex love in literature|Bian er Zhai]]'' and ''[[Homosexuality in China#Same-sex love in literature|Jin Ping Mei]]'' survivd th many purges to record the homoerotic climate of their time. Today, the Japanese [[anime]] subgenre [[yaoi]] centers on gay youths. Japan is unusual in that the culture's male homoerotic art has typically been the work of female artists addressing a female audience, mirroring the case of lesbian eroticism in western art.
In the twentieth century, entertainers such as [[Noel Coward]], [[Madonna (entertainer)|Madonna]], [[k.d. lang]], and [[David Bowie]] have brought homoeroticism into the field of western popular music. It is through these and other modern songwriters and poets that female homoerotic work by women, rather than erotic art by men with lesbian themes, has had its greatest cultural impact in the West since the ancient Greek poet [[Sappho]].
In the 1990s, a number of American television comedies began to feature homosexual themes, and characters who expressed same-sex attractions. The 1997 [[Coming out|coming-out]] of comedian [[Ellen DeGeneres]] on her show ''[[Ellen (TV series)|Ellen]]'' was front-page news in America and brought the show its highest ratings. However, public interest in the show swiftly declined after this, and the show was cancelled after one more season. Immediately afterward, ''[[Will & Grace]]'', which ran from 1998 to 2005 on [[NBC]], became the most successful series to date focusing on male homosexuality.
Playwrights have penned such popular homoerotic works as [[Tennessee Williams]]'s ''[[Cat on a Hot Tin Roof]]'' and [[Tony Kushner]]'s ''[[Angels in America: A Gay Fantasia on National Themes|Angels in America]]''. Homosexuality has also been a frequent theme in [[Broadway theatre|Broadway]] musicals, such as ''[[A Chorus Line]]'' and ''[[Rent (musical)|Rent]]''. In 2005, the film ''[[Brokeback Mountain]]'' was a financial and critical success internationally. Unlike most gay film characters, both the film's gay lovers were traditionally [[masculinity|masculine]] and married. The movie's success was considered a milestone in the public acceptance of the [[Gay rights in the United States|American gay rights movement]].
== Anthropology ==
Scholars who study the social construction of homosexuality investigate the various forms that same-sex relationships have taken in different societies, and look for patterns as well as differences. Their work suggests that the concept of homosexuality would best be rendered as "homosexualities". Anthropologists group these socio-historical variations into three separate categories:<ref name="chicagoseries">{{cite book|title= Homosexualities |series=Worlds of Desire: The Chicago Series on Sexuality, Gender, and Culture |last= Murray |first= Stephen |authorlink= Stephen O. Murray |editor= [[Gilbert Herdt]] (ed.) |year= 2002 |publisher= [[University of Chicago Press]] |location= |isbn= 0226551946 |pages= p.2 }}</ref><ref name="queeringanthro">{{citation |contibution=Queering Anthropology |editor-first=Theo |editor-last=Sandfort (ed.) |title=Lesbian and Gay Studies: An Introductory, Interdisciplinary Approach |publication-place=London/NY |publisher=Routledge |year=2000 |isbn=076195418X}}</ref>
{| class="wikitable"
|-
!Association
!Annotations
!See also
|-
|Egalitarian
|Features two partners with no relevance to age. Additionally, both play the same socially accepted sex role as [[heterosexuality|heterosexuals]] of their own sex. This is exemplified by relationships currently prevalent in Western society between partners of similar age and sex.
|[[Sexuality and gender identity-based cultures]]
|-
|Gender-structured
|Features each partner playing a different [[gender role]]. This is exemplified by traditional relations between men in the [[Mediterranean Basin]], the [[Middle East]] and [[Central Asia|Central]] and [[South Asia|South]] [[Asia]], as well as [[Two-Spirit]] or shamanic gender-changing practices seen in native societies. In North America, this is best represented by the [[butch and femme|butch–femme]] practice.
|[[Homosexuality and Islam]], [[Two-Spirit]], and [[Hijra (South Asia)|Hijra]]
|-
|Age-structured
|Features partners of different ages, usually one adolescent and the other adult. This is exemplified by [[pederasty]] among the [[Hellenic civilization|Classical Greeks]] or those engaged in by novice [[samurai]] with more experienced warriors; southern Chinese boy marriage rites; and ongoing Central Asian and Middle Eastern practices.
|[[Shudo]], [[Pederasty]], [[Historical pederastic couples]], and [[Homosexuality in China]]
|}
Usually in any society one form of homosexuality predominates, though others are likely to co-exist. As historian [[Rictor Norton]] points out in his [http://www.infopt.demon.co.uk/social19.htm ''Intergenerational and Egalitarian Models,''] in ancient Greece egalitarian relationships co-existed (albeit less privileged) with the institution of [[pederasty]], and fascination with adolescents can also be found in modern sexuality, both heterosexual and homosexual. Egalitarian homosexuality is the principal form present in the Western world, while age- and gender-structured homosexuality are less common. As a byproduct of growing Western cultural dominance, this egalitarian homosexuality is spreading from Western culture to non-Western societies, although there are still defined differences between the various cultures.
== Sexual practices ==
Individuals may or may not express their sexual orientation in their [[sexual behavior|behaviors]].<ref>{{citation |url=http://www.apahelpcenter.org/articles/article.php?id=31 |title=Sexual Orientation and Homosexuality |periodical=[[American Psychological Association|APA]]HelpCenter.org |accessdate=[[2007-09-07]]}}</ref> According to a 1990 study of The Social Organization of Sexuality, out of 131 women and 108 men who self-reported [[same-sex attraction]], only 43 men (40%) and 42 women (32%) had participated in [[gay sex]].<ref>{{cite book
|title=The Social Organization of Sexuality: Sexual Practices in the United States
|last=Laumann
|first=Edward O.
|date=1994
|publisher=[[University of Chicago Press]]
|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=72AHO0rE2HoC&pg=PA4&lpg=PA4&source=web&ots=kHfFtQQH7j&sig=ZS5sk4GqzcR4e8mLVIHTNPsHt-Y#PPA299,M1
|page=299}}</ref> In comparison, a survey by the Family Pride Coalition showed that 50% of gay men had fathered children<ref>{{cite news
|title=How to tell if your husband is gay
|first=Rochelle
|last=Hentges
|publisher=[[Pittsburgh Tribune-Review]]
|date=[[October 4]], [[2006]]
|url=http://www.pittsburghlive.com/x/pittsburghtrib/news/tribpm/s_473458.html}}</ref> and 75% of lesbians had children,<ref>{{cite web
|title=Straight Spouses -- What to Do and What Not to Do If Your Spouse is Gay
|accessdate=2008-01-31
|author=Sheri & Bob Stritof
|url=http://marriage.about.com/cs/straightspouses/a/straightspouse.htm}}</ref> and even more have had straight sex without having children.
Lesbian sex can include [[tribadism]], [[mutual masturbation]], [[cunnilingus]], and the use of [[sex toys]] for vaginal or oral penetration or clitoral stimulation. For men, gay sex can include [[mutual masturbation]], [[frot]], [[intercrural sex]], [[fellatio|oral sex]] and [[anal intercourse|anal sex]]. As with any sexual relationship, people may begin with various forms of [[foreplay]] such as fondling, caressing, and kissing, and may or may not experiment with other practices, as they see fit.
People who have same-sex partners tend to have more sexual partners overall. The same study showed that men who had at least one male sexual partner in the previous 5 years had an average of 16.7 sexual partners during that time period, while men who only had sex with women had an average of 4.8 sexual partners during that time. Women with female sexual partners had an average of 10.1 partners while women with only male partners had an average of 2.2 partners. <ref>{{cite book
|title=The Social Organization of Sexuality: Sexual Practices in the United States
|last=Laumann
|first=Edward O.
|date=1994
|publisher=[[University of Chicago Press]]
|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=72AHO0rE2HoC&pg=PA4&lpg=PA4&source=web&ots=kHfFtQQH7j&sig=ZS5sk4GqzcR4e8mLVIHTNPsHt-Y#PPA315,M1
|page=315}}</ref>
=== AIDS and STDs ===
{{main|AIDS pandemic}}
[[Men who have sex with men]] are more likely to get HIV in the modern West,<ref name=HIVprevention /> in Japan,<ref>[http://www.japanetwork.org/aidsnews/stats/06jul-sep.html Statistics from the Ministry of Health, Labor and Welfare]</ref> India,<ref>[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15076248?ordinalpos=1&itool=EntrezSystem2.PEntrez.Pubmed.Pubmed_ResultsPanel.Pubmed_DiscoveryPanel.Pubmed_Discovery_RA&linkpos=1&log$=relatedarticles&logdbfrom=pubmed High HIV prevalence and risk behaviors in men who have sex with men in Chennai, India]</ref> and Taiwan<ref>[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18492625?ordinalpos=31&itool=EntrezSystem2.PEntrez.Pubmed.Pubmed_ResultsPanel.Pubmed_RVDocSum Increased Risk for Entamoeba histolytica Infection and Invasive Amebiasis in HIV Seropositive Men Who Have Sex with Men in Taiwan]</ref> than men who do not. A comparison study of HIV-infected men found that men who have sex with men were especially unlikely to receive HIV preventative services even though they were more likely to report unprotected sexual intercourse with seronegative and unknown serostatus casual partners.<ref name=HIVprevention>{{cite journal
|url=http://www.ajph.org/cgi/content/abstract/98/6/1011
|title=Receipt of Prevention Services Among HIV-Infected Men Who Have Sex with Men
|last=Steward
|first=Wayne T.
|date=June 2008
|volume=Vol 98
|number=No. 6
|publisher=American Journal of Public Health}}</ref> This can lead to the rapid transmission of HIV among small clusters of gay men.<ref>{{cite journal
|url=http://www.mdconsult.com/das/article/body/98760047-2/jorg=journal&source=&sp=N&sid=0/N/642675/1.html?issn=
|title=Rapid HIV transmission in men who have sex with men
|last=Hayward
|first=Peter
|publisher=The Lancet Infectious Diseases
|volume=Volume 8
|issue=Issue 5
|date=May 2008}}</ref> However, the persistence of disparities in HIV between heterosexual individuals and MSM in the United States cannot be explained solely by differences in risky sexual behavior between these two populations.<ref>[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17855487?ordinalpos=14&itool=EntrezSystem2.PEntrez.Pubmed.Pubmed_ResultsPanel.Pubmed_RVDocSum Biological and demographic causes of high HIV and sexually transmitted disease prevalence in men who have sex with men.]</ref> This has caused some countries to [[MSM blood donor controversy|prohibit MSM from donating blood or tissue]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.bloodservices.ca/CentreApps/Internet/UW_V502_MainEngine.nsf/resources/Reports/$file/McLaughlin_Report.pdf|format=pdf|title=Mclaughlin Report on Risk Management for Canadian Blood Services|date=2007-01-31|publisher=McLaughlin Center for Population Health Risk Assessment, University of Ottawa|pages=28|accessdate=2008-05-25}}</ref>
In 2006, an estimated 62% of adult and adolescent American males living with [[HIV]]/[[AIDS]] got it through sexual contact with other men. This compares to an estimated 13% of American males who get AIDS from sexual contact with a female who is known to have, or is at high risk for, HIV infection.<ref>[http://www.cdc.gov/hiv/topics/surveillance/resources/reports/2006report/table9.htm Estimated numbers of persons living with HIV/AIDS at the end of 2006, by race/ethnicity, sex, and transmission category—33 states with confidential name-based HIV infection reporting], Center for Disease and Control Prevention</ref> However, HIV infection is increasing at a rate of 12 percent annually among 13 to 24 year old American men who have sex with men.<ref>{{cite news
|url=http://www.medicalnewstoday.com/articles/112998.php
|title=HIV Rising Among Young Gay Men In The US
|date=[[27 June]] [[2008]]
|publisher=Medical News Today
|first=Catharine
|last=Paddock}}</ref><ref>"Trends in HIV/AIDS Diagnoses Among Men Who Have Sex with Men --- 33 States, 2001--2006."
A Mitsch, MPH, X Hu, MS, K McDavid Harrison, PhD, T Durant, PhD, Div of HIV/AIDS Prevention, National Center for HIV/AIDS, Viral Hepatitis, STD, and TB Prevention, CDC.
MMWR Weekly, June 27, 2008 / 57(25);681-686.</ref>
This follows the general increase in [[STD]]s among men who have sex with men.<ref>[http://www.cdc.gov/std/stats/msm.htm STD Surveillance 2006: Men Who Have Sex With Men], Center for Disease Control</ref> In 2006, 64% of the reported [[syphilis]] cases in the United States were among men who have sex with men.<ref>[http://www.cdc.gov/std/syphilis/STDFact-MSM&Syphilis.htm#concern Syphilis & MSM (Men Who Have Sex With Men) - CDC Fact Sheet], Centers for Disease Control and Prevention</ref>
Men who have sex with men are 17 times more likely to develop [[anal cancer]] than heterosexual men,<ref name="CDC men">{{cite web |url=http://www.cdc.gov/std/hpv/STDFact-HPV-and-men.htm |title=STD Facts - HPV and Men |accessdate=2007-08-17}}</ref> probably due to a higher risk of [[Human papillomavirus]].<ref>{{cite journal |author=Frisch M, Smith E, Grulich A, Johansen C |title=Cancer in a population-based cohort of men and women in registered homosexual partnerships |journal=Am. J. Epidemiol. |volume=157 |issue=11 |pages=966–72 |year=2003 |pmid=12777359| url = http://171.66.121.65/cgi/content/full/157/11/966 | quote=However, the risk for invasive anal squamous carcinoma, which is believed to be caused by certain types of sexually transmitted human papillomaviruses, notably type 16, was significantly 31-fold elevated at a crude incidence of 25.6 per 100,000 person-years. |doi=10.1093/aje/kwg067}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |author=Chin-Hong PV, Vittinghoff E, Cranston RD, ''et al'' |title=Age-related prevalence of anal cancer precursors in homosexual men: the EXPLORE study |journal=J. Natl. Cancer Inst. |volume=97 |issue=12 |pages=896–905 |year=2005 |pmid=15956651 |doi=10.1093/jnci/dji163}}</ref> Many people become infected with HPV soon after becoming sexually active.<ref>{{cite news
|url=http://www.nytimes.com/2007/01/30/health/30virus.html
|title=New Vaccine for Cervical Cancer Could Prove Useful in Men, Too
|first=David
|last=Tuller
|date=[[January 30]], [[2007]]
|publisher=New York Times}}</ref>
[[Women who have sex with women]] are more likely to have [[bacterial vaginosis]],<ref>[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15502678?ordinalpos=18&itool=EntrezSystem2.PEntrez.Pubmed.Pubmed_ResultsPanel.Pubmed_RVDocSum Bacterial vaginosis in lesbians and bisexual women.]</ref><ref>[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12001048?ordinalpos=4&itool=EntrezSystem2.PEntrez.Pubmed.Pubmed_ResultsPanel.Pubmed_RVDocSum Characterization of vaginal flora and bacterial vaginosis in women who have sex with women.]</ref> [[vulvovaginal candidiasis]]<ref>[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18418293?ordinalpos=1&itool=EntrezSystem2.PEntrez.Pubmed.Pubmed_ResultsPanel.Pubmed_DiscoveryPanel.Pubmed_Discovery_RA&linkpos=4&log$=relatedarticles&logdbfrom=pubmed Vulvovaginal candidiasis in women who have sex with women]</ref> and higher prevalence of BV, [[hepatitis C]], and HIV risk behaviours such as injecting drugs, sexual contact with those who inject drugs, and sexual contact with men who have sex with men.<ref>[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11141849?ordinalpos=1&itool=EntrezSystem2.PEntrez.Pubmed.Pubmed_ResultsPanel.Pubmed_DiscoveryPanel.Pubmed_Discovery_RA&linkpos=1&log$=relatedarticles&logdbfrom=pubmed Sexually transmitted infections and risk behaviours in women who have sex with women.]</ref>
== Theories of causality ==
The [[American Academy of Pediatrics]] has stated that "sexual orientation probably is not determined by any one factor but by a combination of genetic, hormonal, and environmental influences."<ref name="aappub">{{citation |title=Sexual Orientation and Adolescents |url=http://aappolicy.aappublications.org/cgi/reprint/pediatrics;113/6/1827.pdf |periodical=[[American Academy of Pediatrics]] Clinical Report |accessdate=[[2007-02-23]]}}</ref> The amount that each influence plays is highly debated. One study on Swedish twins suggested that there was a moderate, primarily genetic, familial effects, and moderate to large effects of the nonshared environment (social and biological) on same-sex sexual behavior.<ref>{{cite journal
|first=Niklas
|last=Långström
|coauthor=Qazi Rahman, Eva Carlström, Paul Lichtenstein.
|title=Genetic and Environmental Effects on Same-sex Sexual Behaviour: A Population Study of Twins in Sweden
|publisher=Archives of Sexual Behaviour
|date=[[7 June]] [[2008]]
|doi=10.1007/s10508-008-9386-1
|url=http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18536986
</ref>
The [[American Psychological Association]] has stated that "there are probably many reasons for a person's sexual orientation and the reasons may be different for different people". It also stated that for most people, sexual orientation is determined at an early age.<ref name="apaanswers">{{citation |url=http://www.apa.org/topics/orientation.html |title=Answers to Your Questions About Sexual Orientation and Homosexuality |periodical=[[American Psychological Association]] |accessdate=[[2007-05-04]]}}</ref>
The [[American Psychiatric Association]] has stated that, "to date there are no replicated scientific studies supporting any specific biological etiology for homosexuality. Similarly, no specific psychosocial or family dynamic cause for homosexuality has been identified, including histories of childhood sexual abuse."<ref name="Psych" />
Research into how sexual orientation may be determined by genetic or other prenatal factors plays a role in political and social debates about homosexuality, and also raises fears about [[genetic profiling]] and [[prenatal testing]].<ref name="chicagotribune">{{citation |url=http://www.chicagotribune.com/features/lifestyle/health/chi-gaygene_bd12aug12,1,5608849.story?ctrack=1&cset=true |title=Study of gay brothers may find clues about sexuality |first=Robert |last=Mitchum |periodical=[[Chicago Tribune]] |date=[[2007-08-12]] |accessdate=[[2007-05-04]]}}</ref>
=== Biological explanations ===
{{main|Biology and sexual orientation}}
In 1993, [[Dean Hamer]] found the genetic marker [[Xq28]] on the X chromosome. Hamer's study found a link between the Xq28 marker and male homosexuality,<ref>{{cite journal |author=Hamer DH, Hu S, Magnuson VL, Hu N, Pattatucci AM |title=A linkage between DNA markers on the X chromosome and male sexual orientation |journal=Science |volume=261 |issue=5119 |pages=321–7 |year=1993 |pmid=8332896 |doi=10.1126/science.8332896}}</ref> but the original study's results have been disputed.<ref>[http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/sci/tech/325979.stm Doubt cast on 'gay gene'], [[April 23]], [[1999]], [[BBC News]]</ref> Several mutations have been identified in flies, such as changes in the [[Fruitless (gene)|fruitless]] gene, cause male flies to court and attempt to mate with other males; however, when a modified male fruit fly is isolated with only female fruit flies, then he will attempt to mate with them.<ref name=Yamamoto/>
[[Twin study|Twin studies]] give indications that genes may predispose some men to seek partners of the same sex. Hamer commented "From twin studies, we already know that half or more of the variability in sexual orientation is not inherited. Our studies try to pinpoint the genetic factors, not to negate the psychosocial factors."<ref>{{cite journal
|url=http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,1101951113-133393,00.html
|title=New Evidence of a "Gay Gene"
|last=Toufexis
|first=Anastasia
|date=June, 24, 2001
|publisher=[[Time (magazine)|Time]]}}</ref> One common type of [[twin study]] compares the monozygotic (or ''identical'') [[twin]]s of people possessing a particular trait to the dizygotic (non-identical, or ''fraternal'') twins of people possessing the trait. Bailey and Pillard (1991) in a study of gay twins found that 52% of monozygotic brothers and 22% of the dizygotic twins were concordant for homosexuality.<ref>cited in Wilson and Rahman 2005, p47</ref> Bailey, Dunne and Martin (2000) used the Australian twin registry to obtain a sample of 4,901 twins.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Bailey JM, Dunne MP, Martin NG |title=Genetic and environmental influences on sexual orientation and its correlates in an Australian twin sample |journal=J Pers Soc Psychol |volume=78 |issue=3 |pages=524–36 |year=2000 |pmid=10743878 |doi=}}</ref> Recently, Långström and colleagues reported on a study of 3,826 twin pairs, comprising all twins between the ages of 20 and 47 in Sweden.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Långström N, Rahman Q, Carlström E, Lichtenstein P |title=Genetic and environmental effects on same-sex sexual behavior: A population study of twins in Sweden |journal=Arch Sex Behav |volume= |issue= |pages= |year=2008 |pmid=18536986 |doi=10.1007/s10508-008-9386-1}}</ref> Their results showed that genetic factors explained about 34-39% of the variation, whereas specific environmental effects explained the remaining 61-66% in men. In women, the genetic part of the variation was 18-19%, with 16-17% for shared environmental and 64-66% for unique environmental factors.
==== Prenatal hormonal theory ====
{{main|Prenatal hormones and sexual orientation}}
The hormonal theory of sexuality holds that, just as exposure to certain hormones plays a role in fetal sex differentiation, such exposure also influences the sexual orientation that emerges later in the adult.<ref>Dörner, G., Rohde, W., Stahl, F., Krell, L., & Masius, W.-G. (1975). A neuroendocrine predisposition for homosexuality in men. ''Archives of Sexual Behavior, 4,'' 1–8.</ref><ref>Ellis & Ames (1987). Neurohormonal functioning and sexual orientation: A theory of homosexuality-heterosexuality. ''Psychological Bulletin, 101,'' 233–258.</ref>
==== Prenatal stress ====
It has been hypothesized that [[prenatal stress]] (stress to the mother during pregnancy) can increase the probability that the child be homosexual.<ref>Dörner, G., Geier, T., Ahrens, L., Krell, L., Münx, G., Sieler, H., Kittner, E., & Müller, H. (1980). Prenatal stress as possible aetiogenetic factor of homosexuality in human males. ''Endokrinologie, 75,'' 365–368.</ref><ref>Dörner, G., Schenk, B., Schmiedel, B., & Ahrens, L. (1983). Stressful events in prenatal life and bi- and homosexual men. ''Experimental and Clinical Endocrinology, 31,'' 83–87.</ref><ref>Ellis, L., & Cole-Harding, S. (2001). The effects of prenatal stress, and of prenatal alcohol and nicotine exposure, on human sexual orientation. ''Physiology and Behavior, 74,'' 213–226.</ref>
==== Physiological differences in gay men and lesbians ====
Recent studies have found notable differences between the physiology of gay people and non-gay people. There is evidence that:
* The average size of the [[INAH 3|INAH-3]] in the brains of gay men is approximately the same size as INAH 3 in women, which is significantly smaller, and the cells more densely packed, than in heterosexual men's brains.<ref name="levay">{{cite journal |author=LeVay S |title=A difference in hypothalamic structure between heterosexual and homosexual men |journal=Science |volume=253 |issue=5023 |pages=1034–7 |year=1991 |pmid=1887219 |doi=10.1126/science.1887219}}</ref>
* The [[suprachiasmatic nucleus]] was found by Swaab and Hopffman to be larger in gay men than in non-gay men,<ref>http://www.dafml.unito.it/anatomy/panzica/pubblicazioni/pdf/1995PanzicaJEI.pdf</ref> the suprachiasmatic nucleus is also known to be larger in men than in women.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Swaab DF, Zhou JN, Ehlhart T, Hofman MA |title=Development of vasoactive intestinal polypeptide neurons in the human suprachiasmatic nucleus in relation to birth and sex |journal=Brain Res. Dev. Brain Res. |volume=79 |issue=2 |pages=249–59 |year=1994 |pmid=7955323 |doi=}}</ref>
* The [[anterior commissure]] is larger in women than men and was reported to be larger in gay men than in non-gay men,<ref>{{cite journal |author=Allen LS, Gorski RA |title=Sexual orientation and the size of the anterior commissure in the human brain |journal=Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. |volume=89 |issue=15 |pages=7199–202 |year=1992 |pmid=1496013 |doi=}}</ref> but a subsequent study found no such difference.<ref>Lasco, M. S., Jordan, T. J., Edgar, M. A., Petito, C. K., & Byne, W. (2002). A lack of dimorphism of sex or sexual orientation in the human anterior commissure. ''Brain Research, 936,'' 95–98.</ref>
* Gay men report, on an average, slightly longer and thicker penises than non-gay men.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Bogaert AF, Hershberger S |title=The relation between sexual orientation and penile size |journal=Arch Sex Behav |volume=28 |issue=3 |pages=213–21 |year=1999 |pmid=10410197 |doi=10.1023/A:1018780108597}}</ref>
* Gay men's brains respond differently to [[fluoxetine]], a selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Kinnunen LH, Moltz H, Metz J, Cooper M |title=Differential brain activation in exclusively homosexual and heterosexual men produced by the selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor, fluoxetine |journal=Brain Res. |volume=1024 |issue=1-2 |pages=251–4 |year=2004 |pmid=15451388 |doi=10.1016/j.brainres.2004.07.070}}</ref>
* The functioning of the inner ear and the central auditory system in lesbians and bisexual women are more like the functional properties found in men than in non-gay women (the researchers argued this finding was consistent with the [[Prenatal hormones and sexual orientation|prenatal hormonal theory of sexual orientation]]).<ref name="mcf">{{cite journal |author=McFadden D |title=Masculinization effects in the auditory system |journal=Arch Sex Behav |volume=31 |issue=1 |pages=99–111 |year=2002 |pmid=11910797 |doi=10.1023/A:1014087319682}}</ref>
* The [[startle response]] (eyeblink following a loud sound) is similarly masculinized in lesbians and bisexual women.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Rahman Q, Kumari V, Wilson GD |title=Sexual orientation-related differences in prepulse inhibition of the human startle response |journal=Behav. Neurosci. |volume=117 |issue=5 |pages=1096–102 |year=2003 |pmid=14570558 |doi=10.1037/0735-7044.117.5.1096}}</ref>
* Three regions of the brain ([[medial prefrontal cortex]], [[left hippocampus]], and [[right amygdala]]) are more active in gay men than non-gay men when exposed to sexually arousing material.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Safron A, Barch B, Bailey JM, Gitelman DR, Parrish TB, Reber PJ |title=Neural correlates of sexual arousal in homosexual and heterosexual men |journal=Behav. Neurosci. |volume=121 |issue=2 |pages=237–48 |year=2007 |pmid=17469913 |doi=10.1037/0735-7044.121.2.237}}</ref>
* Gay and non-gay people emit different armpit odors.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Martins Y, Preti G, Crabtree CR, Runyan T, Vainius AA, Wysocki CJ |title=Preference for human body odors is influenced by gender and sexual orientation |journal=Psychol Sci |volume=16 |issue=9 |pages=694–701 |year=2005 |pmid=16137255 |doi=10.1111/j.1467-9280.2005.01598.x}}</ref>
* Gay men are more likely to have a counter-clockwise hair whorl pattern.<ref>http://www.iisc.ernet.in/academy/jgenet/Vol83No3/251.pdf</ref>
* Gay and non-gay people's brains respond differently to two human sex pheromones (AND, found in male armpit secretions, and EST, found in female urine).<ref>{{cite journal |author=Savic I, Berglund H, Gulyas B, Roland P |title=Smelling of odorous sex hormone-like compounds causes sex-differentiated hypothalamic activations in humans |journal=Neuron |volume=31 |issue=4 |pages=661–8 |year=2001 |pmid=11545724 |doi=10.1016/S0896-6273(01)00390-7}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |author=Savic I, Berglund H, Lindström P |title=Brain response to putative pheromones in homosexual men |journal=Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. |volume=102 |issue=20 |pages=7356–61 |year=2005 |pmid=15883379 |doi=10.1073/pnas.0407998102}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |author=Berglund H, Lindström P, Savic I |title=Brain response to putative pheromones in lesbian women |journal=Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. |volume=103 |issue=21 |pages=8269–74 |year=2006 |pmid=16705035 |doi=10.1073/pnas.0600331103}}</ref>
* [[Digit ratio|Finger length ratios]] between the index and ring fingers may be different between non-gay and lesbian women.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Brown WM, Hines M, Fane BA, Breedlove SM |title=Masculinized finger length patterns in human males and females with congenital adrenal hyperplasia |journal=Horm Behav |volume=42 |issue=4 |pages=380–6 |year=2002 |pmid=12488105 |doi=10.1006/hbeh.2002.1830}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |author=Hines M, Johnston KJ, Golombok S, Rust J, Stevens M, Golding J |title=Prenatal stress and gender role behavior in girls and boys: a longitudinal, population study |journal=Horm Behav |volume=42 |issue=2 |pages=126–34 |year=2002 |pmid=12367566 |doi=10.1006/hbeh.2002.1814}}</ref><ref name="mcf"/><ref>{{cite journal |author=Rahman Q, Wilson GD |title=Sexual orientation and the 2nd to 4th finger length ratio: evidence for organising effects of sex hormones or developmental instability? |journal=Psychoneuroendocrinology |volume=28 |issue=3 |pages=288–303 |year=2003 |pmid=12573297 |doi=10.1016/S0306-4530(02)00022-7}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |author=Brown WM, Finn CJ, Cooke BM, Breedlove SM |title=Differences in finger length ratios between self-identified "butch" and "femme" lesbians |journal=Arch Sex Behav |volume=31 |issue=1 |pages=123–7 |year=2002 |pmid=11910785 |doi=10.1023/A:1014091420590}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |author=Hall LS, Love CT |title=Finger-length ratios in female monozygotic twins discordant for sexual orientation |journal=Arch Sex Behav |volume=32 |issue=1 |pages=23–8 |year=2003 |pmid=12597269 |doi=10.1023/A:1021837211630}}</ref>
==== Cognitive differences in gay men and lesbians ====
Recent studies suggest the presence of subtle differences in the way gay people and non-gay people process certain kinds of information. Researchers have found that:
* Gay men and lesbians are significantly [[Handedness and sexual orientation|more likely to be left-handed or ambidextrous]] than are non-gay men and women;<ref>{{cite journal |author=Lalumière ML, Blanchard R, Zucker KJ |title=Sexual orientation and handedness in men and women: a meta-analysis |journal=Psychol Bull |volume=126 |issue=4 |pages=575–92 |year=2000 |pmid=10900997 |doi=}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |author=Mustanski BS, Bailey JM, Kaspar S |title=Dermatoglyphics, handedness, sex, and sexual orientation |journal=Arch Sex Behav |volume=31 |issue=1 |pages=113–22 |year=2002 |pmid=11910784 |doi=10.1023/A:1014039403752}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |author=Lippa RA |title=Handedness, sexual orientation, and gender-related personality traits in men and women |journal=Arch Sex Behav |volume=32 |issue=2 |pages=103–14 |year=2003 |pmid=12710825 |doi=10.1023/A:1022444223812}}</ref> Simon LeVay argues that because "[h]and preference is observable before birth<ref>{{cite journal |author=Hepper PG, Shahidullah S, White R |title=Handedness in the human fetus |journal=Neuropsychologia |volume=29 |issue=11 |pages=1107–11 |year=1991 |pmid=1775228 |doi=10.1016/0028-3932(91)90080-R}}</ref>... [t]he observation of increased non-right-handness in gay people is therefore consistent with the idea that sexual orientation is influenced by prenatal processes," perhaps heredity.<ref name="levay"/>
* Gay men<ref>Geoff Sanders, Ph.D. and Marian Wright, B.Sc.(1997), Sexual Orientation Differences in Cerebral Asymmetry and in the Performance of Sexually Dimorphic Cognitive and Motor Tasks</ref> and lesbians are more verbally [[fluency|fluent]] than heterosexuals of the same sex<ref>[http://inductivist.blogspot.com/2007/09/homosexuality-and-iq-looking-at.html GSS data on verbal performance of homosexual, heterosexual, and bisexual males and females]</ref><ref>{{cite journal |author=McCormick CM, Witelson SF |title=A cognitive profile of homosexual men compared to heterosexual men and women |journal=Psychoneuroendocrinology |volume=16 |issue=6 |pages=459–73 |year=1991 |pmid=1811244 |doi=}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |author=Rahman Q, Abrahams S, Wilson GD |title=Sexual-orientation-related differences in verbal fluency |journal=Neuropsychology |volume=17 |issue=2 |pages=240–6 |year=2003 |pmid=12803429 |doi=}}</ref> (but two studies did not find this result).<ref>Gladue, B. A., W. W. Beatty, et al. (1990). "Sexual orientation and spatial ability in men and women." Psychobiology 18: 101-108.</ref><ref>{{cite journal |author=Neave N, Menaged M, Weightman DR |title=Sex differences in cognition: the role of testosterone and sexual orientation |journal=Brain Cogn |volume=41 |issue=3 |pages=245–62 |year=1999 |pmid=10585237 |doi=10.1006/brcg.1999.1125}}</ref>
* Gay men may receive higher scores than non-gay men on tests of [[object location memory]] (no difference was found between lesbians and non-gay women).<ref>{{cite journal |author=Rahman Q, Wilson GD, Abrahams S |title=Sexual orientation related differences in spatial memory |journal=J Int Neuropsychol Soc |volume=9 |issue=3 |pages=376–83 |year=2003 |pmid=12666762 |doi=10.1017/S1355617703930037}}</ref>
=== Fraternal birth order ===
{{main|Fraternal birth order and sexual orientation}}
There is evidence from numerous studies that homosexual men tend to have more older brothers than do heterosexual men, known as the "fraternal birth order effect."<ref>Blanchard, R. (1997). Birth order and sibling sex ratio in homosexual versus heterosexual males and females. ''Annual Review of Sex Research, 8,'' 27–67.</ref><ref name="blan">{{cite journal |author=Blanchard R, Klassen P |title=H-Y antigen and homosexuality in men |journal=J. Theor. Biol. |volume=185 |issue=3 |pages=373–8 |year=1997 |pmid=9156085 |doi=10.1006/jtbi.1996.0315}}</ref> One reported that each older brother increases the odds of being gay by 33%.<ref>Blanchard and Klassen (1997); ''Birth order and sibling sex ratio in homosexual versus heterosexual males and females''. Review of Sex Research, Vol. 8</ref> The fraternal birth order effect is the strongest known predictor of sexual orientation.<ref name = Bogaert2006>Bogaert, A. F. (2006). Biological versus nonbiological older brothers and men's sexual orientation. ''Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 103,'' 10777-10774.</ref> Interestingly, this relation seems to hold only for right-handed males.<ref name="blanchardetal">{{cite journal |author=Blanchard R, Cantor JM, Bogaert AF, Breedlove SM, Ellis L |title=Interaction of fraternal birth order and handedness in the development of male homosexuality |journal=Horm Behav |volume=49 |issue=3 |pages=405–14 |year=2006 |pmid=16246335 |doi=10.1016/j.yhbeh.2005.09.002}}</ref><ref>Blanchard, R. (2008). Review and theory of handedness, birth order, and homosexuality in men. ''Laterality, 13,'' 51–70.</ref> There has been no observed equivalent for women.<ref>Blanchard, R., Zucker, K. J., Siegelman, M., Dickey, R., & Klassen, P. (1998). The relation of birth order to sexual orientation in men and women. ''Journal of Biosocial Science, 30,'' 511–519.</ref> [[Peter Bearman]] repeated the experiments, but found no correlation between older brothers and male homosexuality and questions the sampling methods used.<ref name="Bearman" />
The effect has been found even in males not raised with their biological brothers, suggesting an in-utero environmental causation.<ref name = Bogaert2006/> To explain this finding, a maternal immune response has been hypothesized.<ref name="blan" /> Male fetuses produce H-Y antigens which may be involved in the sexual differentiation of vertebrates.<ref name="blan" /> Other studies have suggested the influence of birth order was not due to a biological, but a social process.<ref>[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17135133?ordinalpos=30&itool=EntrezSystem2.PEntrez.Pubmed.Pubmed_ResultsPanel.Pubmed_RVDocSum Fraternal birth order and ratio of heterosexual/homosexual feelings in women and men]</ref>
=== Non-biological explanations ===
==== Environment ====
Researchers have found [[childhood gender nonconformity]] to be the largest predictor of homosexuality in adulthood.<ref>{{cite journal
|last=Bailey
|first = J.M.
|coauthor = Zucker, K.J
|year=1995
|url=http://content.apa.org/journals/dev/31/1/43
|title=Childhood sex-typed behavior and sexual orientation: A conceptual analysis and quantitative review
|publisher=[[Developmental Psychology]]
|volume=31
|pages=43–55}}</ref> [[Daryl Bem]]'s [[Exotic Becomes Erotic theory]] suggests that some children will prefer activities that are typical of the other sex and that this will make a gender-conforming child feel different from opposite-sex children, while gender-nonconforming children will feel different from children of their own sex, which may evoke physiological arousal when the child is near members of the sex which it considers as being "different", which will later be transformed into sexual arousal. Researchers have suggested that this nonconformity may be a result of genetics, prenatal hormones, personality, parental care or other environmental factors{{Fact|date=April 2008}}. [[Peter Bearman]] showed that males with a female twin are twice as likely to report same-sex attractions, unless there was an older brother. He says that his findings support the hypothesis that less gendered socialization in early childhood and preadolescence shapes subsequent same-sex romantic preferences. He suggests that parents of opposite-sex twins are more likely to give them unisex treatment, but that an older brother establishes gendersocializing mechanisms for the younger brother to follow.<ref name="Bearman">{{cite journal
|last=Bearman
|first=Peter
|coauthor=Brückner, Hannah
|year=2002
|title=Opposite-sex twins and adolescent same-sex attraction
|publisher=American Journal of Sociology
|volume=107
|url=http://www.soc.duke.edu/~jmoody77/205a/ecp/bearman_bruckner_ajs.pdf
|format=PDF
|pages=1179–1205}}</ref>
From their research on 275 men in the Taiwanese military, Shu and Lung concluded that "paternal protection and maternal care were determined to be the main vulnerability factors in the development of homosexual males." Key factors in the development of homosexuals were "paternal attachment, introversion, and neurotic characteristics."<ref name="Shu and Lung">{{cite journal
|last= Lung
|first= F.W.
|year= 2007
|title= Father-son attachment and sexual partner orientation in Taiwan
|journal= Comprehensive Psychiatry
|volume= 48
|pages= 20–26
|accessdate= 2007-10-30
|doi= 10.1016/j.comppsych.2006.08.001
}}</ref> Other researchers have also provided evidence that gay men report having had less loving and more rejecting fathers, and closer relationships with their mothers, than non-gay men.<ref>Bell, Weinberg, & Parks, 1981; Bieber et al., 1962; Braatan & Darling, 1965; Brown, 1963; Evans, 1969; Jonas, 1944; Millic & Crowne, 1986; Nicolosi, 1991; Phelan, 1993; Biggio, 1973; Seutter & Rovers, 2004; Siegelman, 1974; Snortum, 1969; [[Charles Socarides|Socarides]], 1978; West, 1959).</ref> Whether this phenomenon is a cause of homosexuality, or whether parents behave this way in response to [[Gender variance|gender-variant]] traits in a child, is unclear.<ref>Isay, Richard A. (1990). Being homosexual: Gay men and their development. [[HarperCollins]]. ISBN 0380710226.</ref><ref>Isay, Richard A. (1996). Becoming gay: The journey to self-acceptance. New York, Pantheon. ISBN 0679421599.</ref>
==== Innate bisexuality ====
{{main|Innate bisexuality}}
{{Further|[[Kinsey Reports]], [[Latent homosexuality]]}}
''[[Innate bisexuality]]'' (or predisposition to bisexuality) is a term introduced by [[Sigmund Freud]] (based on work by his associate [[Wilhelm Fliess]]) that expounds that all humans are born bisexual but through psychological development (which includes both external and internal factors) become monosexual, while the bisexuality remains in a latent state.
== Pathological model of homosexuality ==
{{Further|[[Homosexuality and psychology]], [[Conversion therapy]]}}
{{wikinews|Dr. Joseph Merlino on sexuality, insanity, Freud, fetishes and apathy}}
Today, the consensus of medical and scientific professional organizations is that homosexuality is not a mental illness. In 1973 the [[American Psychiatric Association]] (APA) removed homosexuality as a disorder from the ''Sexual Deviancy'' section of the [[Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders]], the DSM-II.<ref name="aparecalling">{{citation |title=Recalling APA's Historic Step |url=http://www.psych.org/pnews/00-09-01/recalling.html |first=Alfred M |last=Freedman |periodical=[[APA News]] |date=[[2000-09-01]] |accessdate=[[2007-05-04]]}}</ref> The [[World Health Organization]]'s [[ICD-9]] (1977) listed homosexuality as a mental illness, and in 1990, a resolution was adopted to remove it in the [[ICD-10]] (1993).<ref name="pinknewsstigma">{{citation |title=Homophobic stigma - A community cause |url=http://www.pinknews.co.uk/news/articles/2005-1496.html |date=[[2006-05-17]] |periodical=PinkNews.co.uk |first=Marc |last=Shoffman |accessdate=[[2007-05-04]]}}</ref> The ICD-10 added [[ego-dystonic sexual orientation]] to the list, which refers to people who want to change their [[gender identity|gender identities]] or [[sexual orientation]] because of a psychological or behavioral disorder ({{ICD10|F|66|1|f|60}}). Groups that advocate reparative therapy, including both secular organizations such as [[NARTH]] and religious organizations such as [[Exodus International]], do not accept this position.
== Malleability of sexual orientation ==
The [[American Psychiatric Association]] has stated "some people believe that sexual orientation is innate and fixed; however, sexual orientation develops across a person’s lifetime."<ref name="Psych">{{cite web
|url=http://www.aglp.org/pages/cfactsheets.html#Anchor-Gay-14210
|title=Gay, Lesbian and Bisexual Issues
|author=[[American Psychiatric Association]]
|publisher=Association of Gay and Lesbian Psychiatrics
|date=May 2000}}</ref> In combination with other major American medical organizations, they have put out a statement which said: "Sexual orientation develops across a person's lifetime—different people realize at different points in their lives that they are heterosexual, gay, lesbian, or bisexual."<ref name="apa">
{{cite web
|url= http://www.apa.org/pi/lgbc/publications/justthefacts.html
|title= Just the Facts About Sexual Orientation & Youth: A Primer for Principals, Educators and School Personnel
|accessdate= 2007-08-28
|year= 1999
|publisher= American Academy of Pediatrics, American Counseling Association, American Association of School Administrators, American Federation of Teachers, American Psychological Association, American School Health Association, The Interfaith Alliance, National Association of School Psychologists, National Association of Social Workers, National Education Association
}}</ref> A report from the [[Centre for Addiction and Mental Health]] states: "For some people, sexual orientation is continuous and fixed throughout their lives. For others, sexual orientation may be fluid and change over time."<ref>{{cite web
|url= http://www.camh.net/Publications/Resources_for_Professionals/ARQ2/arq2_question_a2.html
|title= ARQ2: Question A2 - Sexual Orientation
|accessdate= 2007-08-28
|publisher= Centre for Addiction and Mental Health
}}</ref> One study has suggested "considerable fluidity in bisexual, unlabeled, and lesbian women's attractions, behaviors, and identities."<ref>{{cite journal
|title=Female bisexuality from adolescence to adulthood: Results from a 10-year longitudinal study.
|last=Diamond
|first=Lisa M.
|publisher=[[Developmental Psychology]]
|date=2008 January
|volume=44
|number=1
|url=http://www.apa.org/journals/releases/dev4415.pdf
|pages=5–14|format=PDF}}</ref><ref>{{cite news
|title=Bisexual women - new research findings
|publisher=Women's Health News
|date=[[17 January]] [[2008]]
|url=http://www.news-medical.net/?id=34415}}</ref>
However, they have said "most people experience little or no sense of choice about their sexual orientation."<ref name="answers">
{{cite web
|url = http://www.apa.org/topics/orientation.html
|title = Answers to Your Questions About Sexual Orientation and Homosexuality
|accessdate = 2008-05-26
|publisher = American Psychological Association
}}</ref> American medical organization have further stated therapy cannot change sexual orientation, and have expressed concerns over potential harms.<ref name="apa" /> The director of the APA's LGBT Concerns Office explained: "I don't think that anyone disagrees with the idea that people can change because we know that straight people become gays and lesbians.... the issue is whether therapy changes sexual orientation, which is what many of these people claim."<ref>{{cite web
|url= http://www.cnsnews.com/Culture/Archive/200608/CUL20060815a.html
|title= Psychologists Disagree Over Therapy for Homosexuals
|last= Bansal
|first= Monisha
|publisher= Cybercast News Service
|accessdate= 2007-08-28
}}</ref> The [[American Psychiatric Association]] has stated "To date, there are no scientifically rigorous outcome studies to determine either the actual efficacy or harm of "reparative" treatments," and supports research to further determines risks versus its benefits.<ref>{{cite web
|url = http://www.psych.org/psych_pract/copptherapyaddendum83100.cfm
|title = Position Statement on Therapies Focused on Attempts to Change Sexual Orientation (Reparative or Conversion Therapies)
|accessdate = 2007-08-28
|year = 2000
|month = May
|publisher = American Psychiatric Association
}}</ref> Similarly, [[Surgeon General of the United States|United States Surgeon General]] [[David Satcher]] issued a report stating that "there is no valid scientific evidence that sexual orientation can be changed".<ref>[http://www.surgeongeneral.gov/library/sexualhealth/call.htm#III The Surgeon General's call to Action to Promote Sexual Health and Responsible Sexual Behavior]", A Letter from the Surgeon General U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, [[2001-07-09]]. Retrieved [[2007-03-29]].</ref>
== Homosexual behavior in animals ==
{{Further|[[Homosexuality in animals]], [[List of animals displaying homosexual behavior]]}}
Homosexual sexual behavior occurs in the [[animal]] kingdom, especially in social species, particularly in marine birds and mammals, monkeys, and the [[Hominidae|great apes]]. Homosexual behavior has been observed among 1,500 species, and in 500 of those it is well documented.<ref name="oslogayanimals">[http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/6066606.stm Oslo gay animal show draws crowds], [[BBC News]], [[2006-10-19]]. Retrieved [[2006-10-19]]</ref><ref name="The Gay Animal Kingdom">[http://www.seedmagazine.com/news/2006/06/the_gay_animal_kingdom.php?page=all&p=y>]</ref>. This discovery constitutes a major argument against those calling into question the biological legitimacy or naturalness of homosexuality, or those regarding it as a meditated social decision. For example, male [[penguin]] couples have been documented to mate for life, build nests together, and to use a stone as a [[surrogate]] egg in nesting and brooding. In a well-publicized story from 2004, the [[Central Park Zoo]] in the [[United States]] replaced one male couple's stone with a fertile egg, which the couple then raised as their own offspring.<ref name="sfpenguins">Smith, Datitia. ([[2004-02-07]]). "[http://www.sfgate.com/cgi-bin/article.cgi?f=/c/a/2004/02/07/MNG3N4RAV41.DTL Central Park Zoo's gay penguins ignite debate]". ''[[San Francisco Chronicle]]''. Retrieved on [[2007-09-08]].</ref>
The genetic basis of animal homosexuality has been studied in the fly ''[[Drosophila melanogaster]]''.<ref name="yamamoto3">{{cite journal |author=Yamamoto D, Nakano Y |title=Sexual behavior mutants revisited: molecular and cellular basis of Drosophila mating |journal=Cell. Mol. Life Sci. |volume=56 |issue=7-8 |pages=634–46 |year=1999 |pmid=11212311 |doi=10.1007/s000180050458}}</ref> Here, multiple genes have been identified that can cause homosexual courtship and mating.<ref name=Yamamoto>{{cite journal |author=Yamamoto D, Ito H, Fujitani K |title=Genetic dissection of sexual orientation: behavioral, cellular, and molecular approaches in Drosophila melanogaster |journal=Neurosci. Res. |volume=26 |issue=2 |pages=95–107 |year=1996 |pmid=8953572 |doi=10.1016/S0168-0102(96)01087-5}}</ref> These genes are thought to control behavior through [[pheromone]]s as well as altering the structure of the animal's brains.<ref name="ferveur">{{cite journal |author=Ferveur JF, Savarit F, O'Kane CJ, Sureau G, Greenspan RJ, Jallon JM |title=Genetic feminization of pheromones and its behavioral consequences in Drosophila males |journal=Science |volume=276 |issue=5318 |pages=1555–8 |year=1997 |pmid=9171057 |doi=10.1126/science.276.5318.1555}}</ref><ref name="yamamoto2">{{cite journal |author=Yamamoto D, Fujitani K, Usui K, Ito H, Nakano Y |title=From behavior to development: genes for sexual behavior define the neuronal sexual switch in Drosophila |journal=Mech. Dev. |volume=73 |issue=2 |pages=135–46 |year=1998 |pmid=9622612 |doi=10.1016/S0925-4773(98)00042-2}}</ref> These studies have also investigated the influence of environment on the likelihood of flies displaying homosexual behavior.<ref name="zhang">{{cite journal |author=Zhang SD, Odenwald WF |title=Misexpression of the white (w) gene triggers male-male courtship in Drosophila |journal=Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. |volume=92 |issue=12 |pages=5525–9 |year=1995 |pmid=7777542 |url=http://www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov/articlerender.fcgi?tool=pubmed&pubmedid=7777542 |doi=10.1073/pnas.92.12.5525}}</ref><ref name="svetec">{{cite journal |author=Svetec N, Ferveur JF |title=Social experience and pheromonal perception can change male-male interactions in Drosophila melanogaster |journal=J. Exp. Biol. |volume=208 |issue=Pt 5 |pages=891–8 |year=2005 |pmid=15755887 |url=http://jeb.biologists.org/cgi/content/full/208/5/891 |doi=10.1242/jeb.01454}}</ref>
[[Georgetown University]] professor Janet Mann has specifically theorized that homosexual behavior, at least in [[dolphin]]s, is an evolutionary advantage that minimizes intraspecies aggression, especially among males.<ref name="janetmann">Mann, J. "Establishing Trust: Sociosexual behaviour and the development of male-male bonds among Indian Ocean bottlenose dolphin calves." Homosexual Behaviour in Animals: An Evolutionary Perspective. Ed. P. Vasey and V. Sommer. : Cambridge University Press, 2006.</ref> Studies indicating prenatal homosexuality in certain animal species have had social and political implications surrounding the gay rights debate.<ref name="seattle2002">{{citation |url=http://seattletimes.nwsource.com/html/localnews/2002340883_gayscience19m.html |date=[[2005-06-19]] |title=Born gay? How biology may drive orientation |first=Sandi |last=Doughton |periodical=[[Seattle Times]] |accessdate=[[2007-09-08]]}}</ref>
== See also ==
{|
|valign="top"|
* [[Anti-LGBT slogans]]
* [[Exotic Becomes Erotic theory]]
* [[Gay bashing]]
* [[Hate speech]]
* [[Heterosexism]]
* [[Homophobia]]
* [[Human Rights Campaign]]
* [[LGBT rights opposition]]
* [[List of gay, lesbian or bisexual people]]
|valign="top"|
* [[Mythology of same-sex love]]
* [[Non-westernized concepts of male sexuality]]
* [[Religion and sexuality]]
* [[Religion and homosexuality]]
* [[Romantic friendship]]
* [[Sexuality and gender identity-based cultures]]
* [[Sodomy law]]
* [[Same-sex couples]]
|}
== References ==
{{Reflist|2}}
== Bibliography ==
<div class="references-small" style="-moz-column-count:2; column-count:2;">
<!-- author, title, publisher date, ISBN -->
=== Books ===
* Kenneth J. Dover, ''Greek Homosexuality'', , Gerald Duckworth & Co. Ltd. 1979, ISBN 0-674-36261-6 (hardcover), ISBN 0-674-36270-5 (paperback)
* John d'Emilio, ''Sexual Politics, Sexual Communities: The Making of a Homosexual Minority in the United States, 1940-1970'', [[University of Chicago Press]] 1983, ISBN 0226142655
* Norman Roth. ''The care and feeding of gazelles - Medieval Arabic and Hebrew love poetry.'' IN: Lazar & Lacy. ''Poetics of Love in the Middle Ages'', George Mason University Press 1989, ISBN 0913969257
<!-- 1990s -->
* Allan Bérubé, ''Coming out under Fire: The History of Gay Men and Women in World War Two'', New York: MacMillan 1990, ISBN 0029031001
* Bret Hinsch, ''Passions of the Cut Sleeve: The Male Homosexual Tradition in China'', The University of California Press, 1990, ISBN 0-520-06720-7
* Dynes, Wayne R. (ed.) ''The Encyclopedia of Homosexuality'' New York and London, Garland Publishing 1990, ISBN 0824065441
* Foucault, Michel, ''The History of Sexuality'' vol. 1: ''An Introduction'', p.43. Trans. Robert Hurley. New York: Vintage 1990
* George Rousseau, ''Perilous Enlightenment: Pre- and Post-Modern Discourses--Sexual, Historical'', Manchester University Press 1991, ISBN 0719033012
* Lillian Faderman, ''Odd Girls and Twilight Lovers: A History of Lesbian Life in Twentieth Century America'', Penguin 1992
* Arno Schmitt & Jehoeda Sofer (eds). ''Sexuality and Eroticism Among Males in Moslem Societies''. Haworth Press, 1992
* George Chauncey, ''Gay New York: Gender Urban Culture and the Making of the Gay Male World'', New York: Basic Books, 1994
* Juanita Ramos , ''Compañeras: Latina Lesbians : An Anthology'', Routledge 1994
* Johansson, Warren and Percy, William A., (1994), ''Outing: Shattering the Conspiracy of Silence,'' Harrington Park Press
* Robert T. Michael, John H. Gagnon, Edward O. Laumann, and Gina Kolata. Sex in America: A definitive survey. Boston: Little, Brown, 1995. ISBN 0-316-07524-8
* Percy, William A ''Pederasty and Pedagogy in Archaic Greece.'' University of Illinois Press, 1996
* Lester G. Brown, ''Two Spirit People'', 1997, Harrington Park Press, ISBN 1-56023-089-4
* Bullough et al. (eds.) (1996). Handbook of Medieval Sexuality. Garland Publishing. ISBN 0-8153-1287-3.
* Jennifer Terry, ''An American Obsession: Science, Medicine, and Homosexuality in Modern Society'', University of Chicago Press 1999, ISBN 0-226-79367-2
<!-- 2000s -->
* Bullough, Vern L. ''Before Stonewall: Activists for Gay and Lesbian Rights in Historical Context,'' Harrington Park Press 2002
* Ruth Vanita, ''Queering India: Same-Sex Love and Eroticism in Indian Culture and Society'', Routledge 2002
* Joanne Meyers, ''Historical Dictionary of the Lesbian Liberation Movement: Still the Rage'', Scarecrow Press 2003
* David K. Johnson, ''The Lavender Scare: The Cold War Persecution of Gays and Lesbians in the Federal Government'', Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2004
=== Journal articles ===
* Bowman, Karl M.; Eagle, Bernice ''[http://hearth.library.cornell.edu/cgi/t/text/text-idx?c=hearth;idno=4732756_885_001 The Problem of Homosexuality]'', Journal of Social Hygiene 1953
* Norton, Rictor and Crew, Louis ''[http://www.rci.rutgers.edu/~lcrew/pubd/homophobicimagination.html The Homophobic Imagination]'', College English 1974
* Simon LeVay, ''A difference in hypothalamic structure between homosexual and heterosexual men'', Science Magazine 1991
* Christopher Bagley and Pierre Tremblay, ''On the Prevalence of Homosexuality and Bisexuality, in a Random Community Survey of 750 Men Aged 18 to 27'', [[Journal of Homosexuality]], Volume 36, Number 2, pages 1-18, 1998
=== Online articles ===
* [http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/sci/tech/55169.stm BBC News (Feb 1998)]: Fingerprints Study
* [http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/nature/325979.stm BBC News (Apr 1999)]: Doubt cast on 'gay gene'
* [http://my.webmd.com/content/article/22/1728_56075?src=Inktomi&condition=Home%20&%20Top%20Stories WebMD (March 2000)]: Pointing the Finger at Androgen as a Cause of Homosexuality
* [http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/health/3735668.stm BBC News (Oct 2004)]: Genetics of homosexuality
* James Davidson, ''[[London Review of Books]]'', [[2 June]] [[2005]], [http://www.lrb.co.uk/v27/n11/davi02_.html "Mr and Mr and Mrs and Mrs"] - detailed review of ''The Friend'', by Alan Bray, a history of same-sex marriage and other same-sex formal bonds
* [http://semgai.free.fr/doc_et_pdf/africa_A4.pdf Murray, Stephen; ''Homosexuality in traditional Sub-Saharan Africa'']
</div>
== External links ==
{{sisterlinks|homosexuality}}
* [http://www.apa.org/topics/sbehaviorsub1.html Answers to Your Questions About Sexual Orientation and Homosexuality] The American Psychological Association
* [http://www.ohsu.edu/news/2004/030504sheep.html Biology behind homosexuality in sheep, study confirms]
* [http://www.oneinstitute.org One National Gay & Lesbian Archives]
* [http://www.ericdigests.org/2001-3/sexual.htm Sexual Minorities on Community College Campuses]
* [http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/homosexuality/ Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy - Same-sex Orientation]
* [http://www.gaymilitary.ucsb.edu/Publications/200412_Dalvi-study.pdf European Court of Human Rights Rulings Against Military Forces]
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