Horse 13645 225824925 2008-07-15T16:00:29Z Dana boomer 5998007 [[WP:UNDO|Undid]] revision 225823840 by [[Special:Contributions/Pink!Teen|Pink!Teen]] ([[User talk:Pink!Teen|talk]]) {{pp-semi-protected|small=yes}} {{otheruses}} {{Taxobox | name = Domestic Horse | status = DOM | image = Mangalarga Marchador.jpg | image_width = 250px | regnum = [[Animal]]ia | phylum = [[Chordate|Chordata]] | classis = [[Mammal]]ia | ordo = [[Perissodactyla]] | familia = [[Equidae]] | genus = ''[[Equus (genus)|Equus]]'' | species = '''''E. caballus''''' | binomial = ''Equus caballus'' | binomial_authority = [[Carolus Linnaeus|Linnaeus]], 1758 | synonyms = ''Equus ferus caballus'' <small>(see text)</small><br /> ''Equus laurentius'' }} The '''horse''' (''Equus caballus'') is a large [[odd-toed ungulate]] [[mammal]], one of ten living species of the family [[Equidae]]. For centuries horses have been one of the most economically important [[domesticated]] animals, especially relied upon for farmwork and for transportation. Their importance declined following the introduction of [[mechanization]]. The history of the horse is prominent in [[religion]], [[mythology]], [[art]], [[transportation]], [[agriculture]], and [[horses in warfare|warfare]]. Most horses perform work such as [[equestrianism|carrying humans]] or are [[horse harness|harnessed]] to pull objects such as [[horse-drawn vehicle|carts]] or [[plow]]s. Hundreds of distinct [[list of horse breeds|horse breeds]] have been developed, allowing horses to be specialized for certain tasks; lighter horses for [[horse racing|racing]] or [[equestrianism|riding]], heavier horses for [[farm]]ing and other tasks requiring pulling power. Some horses, such as the [[miniature horse]], can be kept as pets. In some societies, horses are a source of food, both [[horse meat|meat]] and milk; in others it is [[taboo food|taboo]] to consume these products. In [[Developed country|industrialized countries]], horses are predominantly kept for leisure and sporting pursuits, while in other parts of the world they are still used as [[working animal]]s. Horses and humans have lived and worked together for thousands of years and an extensive specialized vocabulary has arisen to describe virtually every horse behavioral and anatomical characteristic with a high degree of precision. ==Biology== {{main|Equine anatomy}} [[Image:Horse parts.jpg|right|thumb|Parts of a horse (click to enlarge).]] Horse anatomy is described by a large number of horse specific terms, as illustrated by the chart to the right. Specific terms also describe horses of various ages, colors and [[list of horse breeds|breeds]]. ===Age=== Depending on breed, management and environment, the domestic horse today has a life expectancy of 25 to 30 years. It is uncommon, but a few horses live into their 40s, and, occasionally, beyond. The oldest verifiable record was "Old Billy," a horse that lived in the 19th century to the age of 62.<ref name="horsefacts">{{cite web |url= http://www.fbresearch.org/HorseFacts/Facts/|title= The Mane Facts About Horse Health|accessdate=2007-01-22 |author= HorseFacts |work= Horsefacts.org |publisher= Foundation for Biomedical Research}}</ref> In modern times, Sugar Puff, who had been listed in the [[Guinness Book of World Records]] as the world's oldest then-living pony, died at age 56.<ref>{{cite web |url= http://www.thehorse.com/viewarticle.aspx?ID=9708|title= World's Oldest Living Pony Dies at 56|accessdate=2007-05-31 |author= Ryder, Erin |work= TheHorse.com |publisher= The Horse}} </ref> Regardless of a horse's actual birthdate, for most competition purposes, horses are considered a year older on January 1 of each year in the northern hemisphere<ref>British Horse Society ''The Manual of Horsemanship of the British Horse Society'' p. 255</ref><ref name=Ensminger46/> and August 1 in the southern hemisphere.<ref>{{cite web |url= http://www.studbook.org.au/DisplayPDF.aspx?ty=RULES |format=pdf |title= Rules of the Australian Stud Book |accessdate=2008-07-09 |author=Australian Jockey Club |date= 2007 |publisher=Australian Jockey Club |pages=p. 7}}</ref> The exception is [[endurance riding]], where the minimum age to compete is based on the horse's actual calendar age.<ref name=Endurance>{{cite web |url= http://www.aerc.org/horseage.asp|title= Age Matters (Your Horse's Age, That Is!)|accessdate=2008-04-05 |author= American Endurance Riding Conference|work= |publisher= American Endurance Riding Conference}}</ref> A very rough estimate of a horse's age can be made from looking at its [[Horse#Teeth|teeth]].<ref name=Ensminger46/> The following terminology is used to describe horses of various ages: * [[Foal]]: a horse of either sex less than one year old. A nursing foal is sometimes called a ''suckling'' and a foal that has been weaned is called a ''weanling.''<ref name=Ensminger418>Ensminger ''Horses and Horsemanship'' p. 418</ref> Most domesticated foals are weaned at 4-6 months of age. * [[Yearling (horse)|Yearling]]: a horse of either sex that is between one and two years old.<ref>Ensminger ''Horses and Horsemanship'' p. 430</ref> * [[Colt (horse)|Colt]]: a male horse under the age of four.<ref>Ensminger ''Horses and Horsemanship'' p. 415</ref> A common terminology error is to call any young horse a colt, when the term actually only refers to young male horses. * [[Filly]]: a female horse under the age of four.<ref name=Ensminger418/> * [[Mare (horse)|Mare]]: a female horse four years old and older.<ref>Ensminger ''Horses and Horsemanship'' p. 422</ref> * [[Stallion (horse)|Stallion]]: a non-castrated male horse four years old and older.<ref>Ensminger ''Horses and Horsemanship'' p. 427</ref> Some people, particularly in the UK, refer to a stallion as a "horse."<ref name=Ensminger420>Ensminger ''Horses and Horsemanship'' p. 420</ref> A [[Ridgling]] or "Rig" is a stallion which has an undescended testicle. If both testicles are not descended, the horse may appear to be a gelding, but will still behave like a stallion.<ref>{{cite web |url= http://www.horseandhound.co.uk/horsecare/1370/57411.html|title= When is a gelding, not a gelding?|accessdate=2008-04-03 |author= Horse & Hound|work= Horse & Hound Magazine|publisher= Horse & Hound}}</ref> * [[Gelding]]: a [[castration|castrated]] male horse of any age,<ref name=Ensminger418/> though for convenience sake, many people also refer to a young gelding under the age of four as a "colt." In [[horse racing]], the definitions of colt, filly, mare, and stallion or horse may differ from those given above. In the United Kingdom, [[Thoroughbred]] horse racing defines a colt as a male horse less than five years old, and a filly as a female horse less than five years old.<ref>Hammond ''The Language of Horse Racing'' pp. 49,79</ref> In the USA, both [[Thoroughbred racing]] and [[harness racing]] defines colts and fillies as four years old and younger.<ref>{{cite web |url= http://www.equibase.com/newfan/glossary-full.cfm|title= Glossary of Horse Racing Terms|accessdate=2008-04-03 |author= Equibase|work= Equibase.com|publisher= Equibase Company, LLC}} </ref> ===Size=== The English-speaking world measures the height of horses in ''[[Hand (unit)|hands]]'', abbreviated "h" or "hh," and is measured at the highest point of an animal's [[withers]]. One hand is {{convert|4|in|cm}}. Intermediate heights are defined by hands and inches, rounding to the lower measurement in hands, followed by a decimal point and the number of additional inches between 1 and 3. Thus a horse described as 15.2 hh tall, means it is 15 hands, 2 inches, or {{convert|62|in|cm}} in height.<ref name=Ensminger51>Ensminger ''Horses and Horsemanship'' p. 51</ref> [[Image:Horse-and-pony.jpg|thumb|left|Size varies greatly among horse breeds, as with this full-sized horse and a miniature horse.]] The size of horses varies by [[list of horse breeds|breed]], but can also be influenced by [[equine nutrition|nutrition]]. The general rule for cutoff in height between what is considered a horse and a [[pony]] at maturity is 14.2 hands ({{convert|58|in|cm}}) as measured at the withers. An animal 14.2h or over is usually considered a horse and one less than 14.2h is a pony.<ref name=EnsmingerHT11>Ensminger ''Horses and Tack'' pp. 11-12</ref> However, there are exceptions to the general rule. Some smaller horse breeds who typically produce individual horses both under and over 14.2h are considered "horses" regardless of height.<ref>For example, the [[Missouri Fox Trotter]] or the [[Arabian horse]]. See McBand ''The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Horse Breeds'' pp. 192,218</ref> Likewise, some pony breeds, such as the [[Welsh pony]], share some features of horses and individual animals may occasionally mature at over 14.2h, but are still considered ponies.<ref>McBand ''The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Horse Breeds'' pp. 52-63</ref> The difference between a horse and pony is not simply a height difference, but also a difference in ''[[phenotype]]'' or appearance. There are noticeable differences in [[Equine conformation|conformation]] and temperament. Ponies often exhibit thicker manes, tails and overall coat. They also have proportionally shorter legs, wider barrels, heavier bone, shorter and thicker necks, and short heads with broad foreheads. They often have calmer temperaments than horses and also a high level of equine intelligence that may or may not be used to cooperate with human handlers.<ref name=EnsmingerHT11/> Light riding horses such as [[Arabian horse|Arabians]], [[Morgan horse|Morgans]], or [[Quarter Horse]]s usually range in height from 14.0 ({{convert|56|in|cm}}) to 16.0 [[hand (unit)|hands]] ({{convert|64|in|cm}}) and can weigh from {{convert|850|lb|kg}} to {{convert|1200|lb|kg}}. Larger riding horses such as [[Thoroughbred]]s, [[American Saddlebred]]s or [[Warmblood]]s usually start at about 15.2 hands ({{convert|62|in|cm}}) and often are as tall as 17 hands ({{convert|68|in|cm}}), weighing from {{convert|1100|lb|kg}} to {{convert|1500|lb|kg}}. Heavy or [[draft horse]]s such as the [[Clydesdale (horse)|Clydesdale]], [[Belgian (horse)|Belgian]], [[Percheron]], and [[Shire horse|Shire]] are usually at least 16.0 ({{convert|64|in|cm}}) to 18.0 hands ({{convert|72|in|cm}}) high and can weigh from about {{convert|1500|lb|kg}} to {{convert|2000|lb|kg}}. While ponies cannot be taller than 14.2h (147 cm), they may be much smaller, down to the [[Shetland pony]] at around 10 hands ({{convert|40|in|cm}}),<ref name=HorseTack12>Ensminger ''Horses and Tack'' p. 12</ref> and the [[Falabella (horse)|Falabella]] which can be no taller than {{convert|30|in|cm}}, the size of a medium-sized dog. However, while many [[miniature horse]] breeds are small as or smaller than a Shetland pony, because they are bred to have a horse [[phenotype]] (appearance), their breeders and [[breed registry|registries]] classify them as very small horses rather than ponies.<ref>McBane ''The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Horse Breeds'' p. 200</ref> It is thought that the largest horse in (recorded) history was a [[Shire horse]] named [[Sampson (horse)|Sampson]], who lived during the late 1800s. He stood 21.2½ hands high ({{convert|86.5|in|cm}}), and his peak weight was estimated at {{convert|3360|lb|kg}}.<ref>{{cite web |url= http://www.ruralheritage.com/horse_paddock/horse_large.htm|title= World's Largest Draft Horse|accessdate=2008-04-08 |author= Damerow, Gail|work= Rural Heritage Horse Paddock|publisher= Rural Heritage}} </ref> The current record holder for the world's smallest horse is [[Thumbelina (horse)|Thumbelina]], a fully mature miniature horse affected by [[dwarfism]]. She is {{convert|17|in|cm}} tall and weighs {{convert|60|lb|kg}}.<ref>{{cite web |url= http://www.dailymail.co.uk/pages/live/articles/news/news.html?in_article_id=409317&in_page_id=1770|title=Meet Thumbelina, the World's Smallest Horse |accessdate=2006-10-08 |author= Martin, Arthur |work= Daily Mail|publisher= Daily Mail}} </ref> ===Colors and markings=== {{main|Equine coat color|Equine coat color genetics|Horse markings}} [[Image:Horsescd1l-095.jpg|thumb|right|[[Bay (horse)|Bay]] (left) and [[chestnut (coat)|chestnut]] (sometimes called "sorrel") are two of the most common horse coat colors, seen in almost all breeds.]] Horses exhibit a diverse array of [[Equine coat color|coat colors]] and distinctive [[horse markings|markings]], and a specialized vocabulary has evolved to describe them. Often, one will refer to a horse in the field by its coat color first rather than by breed or by sex.<ref>Vogel, ''The Complete Horse Care Manual'', p. 14</ref> In spite of the adage that "a good horse is never a bad color,"<ref>Apperson, et.al., ''Dictionary of Proverbs'', p. 289</ref> flashy or unusual colors are sometimes very popular, as are horses with particularly attractive markings. Horses of the same color may be distinguished from one another by their markings.<ref>Mills, et. al., ''A Basic Guide to Horse Care and Management'', pp. 72-73</ref> The [[Equine coat color genetics|genetics]] of horse coat colors has largely been mapped, although research continues to be conducted on the identification of specific genes and mutations that result in specific color traits.<ref>{{cite web |url= http://www.vgl.ucdavis.edu/services/coatcolorhorse.php|title= Horse Coat Color Tests|accessdate=2008-05-01 |author= UC Davis |work= Veterinary Genetics Laboratory |publisher= University of California}}</ref> Essentially, all horse colors begin with a genetic base of "red" ([[chestnut (coat)|chestnut]]) or "black," with the addition of [[allele]]s for suppression of color, dilution of color, spotting, graying, or other effects acting upon the base colors in various combinations and varying degrees of [[dominance relationship|dominance or recessivity]] that create the dozens of possible shades of horses.<ref>{{cite web |url= http://www.equinecolor.com/color.html|title= Color Information|accessdate=2008-05-01|author= Equine Color |work= Equine Color Genetics Information |publisher= Equine Color}} </ref> Horses that are light in color are often misnamed as being "white" horses. A horse that looks pure white is, in most cases, actually a middle-aged or older [[gray (horse)|gray]]. Grays have black skin underneath their white hair coat (with the exception of small amounts of pink skin under white [[horse markings|markings]]). This is how a gray horse can be distinguished from a white horse. The only horses properly called [[white (horse)|white]] are those with pink skin under a white hair coat, a far more rare occurrence.<ref>{{cite web |url= http://www.vgl.ucdavis.edu/services/coatcolor.php|title= Introduction to Coat Color Genetics|accessdate=2008-05-01|author= UC Davis |work= Veterinary Genetics Laboratory |publisher= University of California}}</ref>There are no truly [[albino]] horses (white skin and pink eyes). True albinism is a lethal gene in horses.<ref>Mau "Genetic mapping of dominant white" ''Journal of Animal Breeding and Genetics''</ref> ===Reproduction and development=== {{Main|Horse breeding}} [[Image:Horses.london.750pix.jpg|thumb|left|Mares and foals.]] Pregnancy lasts for approximately 335-340 days<ref name=HorseTack129>Ensminger ''Horses and Tack'' p. 129</ref> and usually results in one [[foal]]. Twins are rare. Colts are carried on average about 4 days longer than fillies.<ref>Hura "The Effect of some factors on gestation length in nonius breed mares in Slovakia" ''Proceedings of Roundtable Conference on Animal Biotechnology''</ref> Horses, particularly colts, may sometimes be physically capable of reproduction at approximately 18 months but in practice are rarely allowed to breed until a minimum age of 3 years, especially females.<ref name=HorseTack129/> Horses four years old are considered mature, though the skeleton usually finishes developing at the age of six, and the precise time of completion of development also depends on the horse's size (therefore a connection to breed exists), gender, and the quality of care provided by its owner. Also, if the horse is larger, its bones are larger; therefore, not only do the bones take longer to actually form bone tissue (bones are made of cartilage in earlier stages of bone formation), but the [[epiphyseal plate]]s (plates that fuse a bone into one piece by connecting the bone shaft to the bone ends) are also larger and take longer to convert from [[cartilage]] to bone as well. These plates convert after the other parts of the bones do but are crucial to development.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.equineortho.colostate.edu/questions/dod.htm |title=Developmental Orthopaedic Disease: Problems of Limbs in young Horses|accessdate=2008-04-20|Author= McIlwraith CW}}</ref> Depending on maturity, breed and the tasks expected, young horses are usually put under saddle and [[horse training|trained]] to be ridden between the ages of two and four.<ref>{{cite web |url= http://www.alphahorse.com/horse-starting.html|title= What Age Should I Start My Horse?|accessdate=2008-04-28 |author= Rolo, Jeffrey|work= AlphaHorse|publisher= AlphaHorse}}</ref> Although [[Thoroughbred]] [[race horse]]s are put on the track at as young as two years old in some countries,<ref>{{cite web |url= http://www.jockeyclub.com/factbook.asp?section=11|title= 2-Year-Old Racing (US and Canada)|accessdate=2008-04-28 |author= Jockey Club|work= Online Fact Book|publisher= Jockey Club}}</ref> horses specifically bred for sports such as [[dressage]] are generally not entered into top-level competition until a minimum age of four years old, because their bones and muscles are not solidly developed, nor is their advanced training complete.<ref>{{cite web |url= http://www.dressage-connection.com/Young_horse_article.html|title= The Correct Age and Way to Break a Young Horse|accessdate=2008-04-28 |author= Crebbin, Tess|work= Dressage Connection|publisher= Dressage Connection}}</ref> For [[endurance riding]] competition, horses may not compete until they are a full 60 calendar months (5 years) old.<ref name=Endurance/> ===Anatomy=== {{main|Equine anatomy}} ====Skeletal system==== {{Main|Skeletal system of the horse}} [[Image:Horseanatomy.png|thumb|The skeletal system of a modern horse.]] Horses have, on average, a skeleton of 205 bones.<ref name=Evans90>Evans ''The Horse'' p. 90</ref> A significant difference in the bones contained in the horse skeleton, as compared to that of a human, is the lack of a [[collarbone]]. A horse's [[Equine forelimb anatomy|front limb]] system is attached to the spinal column by a powerful set of muscles, tendons and ligaments that attach the [[shoulder blade]] to the torso. The horse's legs and hooves are also unique, interesting structures. Their leg bones are proportioned differently from those of a human. For example, the [[equine forelimb anatomy|body part]] that is called a horse's "knee" is actually the [[carpal]] bones that correspond to the human [[wrist]]. Similarly, the [[horse anatomy|hock]], contains the bones equivalent to those in the human [[ankle]] and [[heel]]. The lower leg bones of a horse correspond to the bones of the human hand or foot, and the [[horse anatomy|fetlock]] (incorrectly called the "ankle") is actually the proximal [[sesamoid]] bones between the [[horse anatomy|cannon]] bones (a single equivalent to the human [[metacarpal]] or [[metatarsal]] bones) and the [[proximal phalanges]], located where one finds the "knuckles" of a human. A horse also has no muscles in its legs below the knees and hocks, only skin and hair, bone, [[tendon]]s, [[ligament]]s, [[cartilage]], and the assorted specialized tissues that make up the [[horse hoof|hoof]] (see section ''hooves'', below).<ref name=Ensminger21>Ensminger ''Horses and Horsemanship'' pp. 21-25</ref> ====Digestion==== {{Main|Horse anatomy#Digestive system|Equine nutrition}} Horses are [[herbivore]]s with a digestive system adapted to a [[forage]] diet of [[grass]]es and other plant material, consumed regularly throughout the day, and so they have a relatively small stomach but very long intestines to facilitate a steady flow of nutrients. A {{convert|1000|lb|kg}} horse will eat between {{convert|15|lb|kg}} and {{convert|25|lb|kg}} of food per day and, under normal use, drink {{convert|10|USgal|L}} to {{convert|12|USgal|L}} of [[water]]. Horses are not [[ruminant]]s, so they have only one stomach, like humans, but unlike humans, they can also digest [[cellulose]] from grasses due to the presence of a "hind gut" called the [[cecum]], or "water gut," that food goes through before reaching the [[large intestine]]. Unlike humans, horses cannot vomit, so digestion problems can quickly spell trouble, with [[horse colic|colic]] a leading cause of death.<ref>Giffin ''Horse Owner's Veterinary Handbook'' p. 175</ref> ====Teeth==== {{Main|Horse teeth}} [[Image:Horse teeth.jpg|thumb|left|The [[incisors]] of a horse.]] Horses are adapted to grazing. In an adult horse, there are 12 [[incisors]] (six upper and six lower), adapted to biting off the grass or other vegetation, at the front of the mouth. There are 24 teeth adapted for chewing, the [[premolar]]s and [[Molar (tooth)|molar]]s, at the back of the mouth. Stallions and geldings have four additional teeth just behind the incisors, a type of [[canine teeth]] that are called "tushes." Some horses, both male and female, will also develop one to four very small [[vestigial]] teeth in front of the molars, known as "wolf" teeth, which are generally removed because they can interfere with the bit. There is an empty interdental space between the incisors and the molars where the [[bit (horse)|bit]] rests directly on the bars (gums) of the horse's mouth when the horse is [[bridle]]d.<ref>Kreling ''Horses' Teeth and Their Problems'' pp. 12-13</ref> The incisors show a distinct wear and growth pattern as the horse ages, as well as change in the angle at which the chewing surfaces meet. The [[horse teeth|teeth]] continue to erupt throughout life as they are worn down by grazing, and while the diet and veterinary care of the horse can affect the rate of tooth wear, a very rough estimate of the age of a horse can be made by looking at its teeth.<ref name=Ensminger46>Ensminger ''Horses and Horsemanship'' pp. 46-50</ref> ====Hooves==== {{Main|Horse hoof}} {{Seealso|Horseshoe|Farrier}} The critical importance of the feet and legs is summed up by the traditional adage, "no foot, no horse."<ref>{{cite web |url= http://www.progressivefarmer.com/tabid/1110/Default.aspx|title= No Hoof, No Horse |accessdate=2008-04-05 |author= The Progressive Farmer Staff |work= Horses & Farm Animals|publisher= The Progressive Farmer, Inc.}}</ref> The [[horse hoof]] begins with the [[distal phalanges]], the equivalent of the human fingertip or tip of the toe, surrounded by [[cartilage]] and other specialized, blood-rich soft tissues such as the [[Horse hoof#Internal structures|laminae]], with the exterior hoof wall and horn of the sole made essentially of the same material as a human [[fingernail]].<ref>Giffin ''Horse Owner's Veterinary Handbook'' p. 304</ref> The end result is that a horse, weighing on average {{convert|1100|lb|kg}},<ref>Giffin ''Horse Owner's Veterinary Handbook'' p. 457</ref> travels on the same bones as a human on tiptoe.<ref>{{cite web |url= http://www.cvm.uiuc.edu/petcolumns/showarticle_pf.cfm?id=118|title= Yes, The Shin Bone Is Connected to the Ankle Bone|accessdate=2008-04-05 |author= Fuess, Ph.D., Theresa A.|work= Pet Column|publisher= University of Illinois}}</ref> For the protection of the hoof under certain conditions, some horses have [[horseshoe]]s placed on their feet by a professional [[farrier]]. The hoof continually grows, just like a large fingernail, and needs to be trimmed (and horseshoes reset, if used) every five to eight weeks.<ref>Giffin ''Horse Owner's Veterinary Handbook'' pp. 310-312</ref> ====Senses==== [[Image:HorseEye.jpg|thumb|A horse's eye]] The senses of a horse are generally superior to those of a human. As [[predation|prey animals]], they must be aware of their surroundings at all times.<ref name=Ensminger309>Ensminger ''Horses and Horsemanship'' pp. 309-310</ref> They have very large eyes (among land animals only the [[ostrich]] has a larger eye), and the side positioning of the eyes gives the horse a wide field of vision of about 350°.<ref>Barnett ''Equine Ophthalmology''</ref> Horses have excellent day and [[night vision]], but studies indicate that they have two-color, or [[Dichromacy|dichromatic vision]]; their [[color vision]] is somewhat like [[Color blindness#Red-green_color_blindness|red-green color blindness]] in humans. This means that certain colors, especially red and related colors, appear more green.<ref>McDonnell "In Living Color" ''The Horse''</ref> {{seealso|Equine vision}} Their hearing is good,<ref name=Ensminger309/> and the [[pinna]] of each ear can rotate up to 180°, giving the potential for 360° hearing without having to move the head.<ref>Myers ''Horse Safe'' p.7</ref> Their sense of smell, while much better than that of humans, is not their strongest asset; they rely to a greater extent on vision.<ref name=Ensminger309/> Horses have a great sense of balance, due partly to their ability to feel their footing and partly to highly developed [[proprioceptive]] abilities (the unconscious sense of where the body and limbs are at all times).<ref>{{cite web |url= http://www.thoroughbredtimes.com/horse-health/1998/October/17/True-horse-sense.aspx|title= True Horse Sense|accessdate=2008-07-08 |author= Thomas, Heather Smith |work= Thoroughbred Times |publisher= Thoroughbred Times Company}}</ref> A horse's sense of touch is well developed. The most sensitive areas are around the eyes, ears and nose. Via touch, horses perceive and respond immediately to changes in their environment,<ref>{{cite web |url= http://www.unce.unr.edu/publications/files/ag/other/fs9829.pdf|title= Horse Handling and Riding Guidelines Part 1: Equine Senses|accessdate=2008-07-09 |author= Cirelli, Al Jr. and Brenda Cloud |work= Cooperative Extension |page=4 |publisher= University of Nevada}}</ref> sensing contact as subtle as an insect landing anywhere on the body.<ref>Hairston, et. al., ''The Essentials of Horsekeeping'', p. 77</ref> Horses have an advanced sense of taste that allows them to sort through grains and grasses to choose what they would most like to eat,<ref>Miller, ''Understanding the Ancient Secrets of the Horse's Mind'', p. 28</ref> and their [[prehensile]] lips can easily sort even the smallest grains. Horses generally will not eat poisonous plants. However, there are exceptions and horses will occasionally eat toxic amounts of poisonous plants even when there is adequate healthy food.<ref>{{cite web |url= http://www.cvm.uiuc.edu/petcolumns/showarticle.cfm?id=16|title= Horse Pasture is No Place for Poisonous Plants|accessdate=2008-07-09 |author= Gustavson, Carrie |work= Pet Column July 24, 2000 |publisher= University of Illinois}}</ref> {{Seealso|Equine vision|Muscular system of the horse|Respiratory system of the horse|Circulatory system of the horse}} ==Gaits== [[Image:Muybridge race horse animated.gif|thumb|left|The gallop]] {{Main|Horse gait|Trot (horse gait)|Canter|Ambling}} All horses move naturally with four basic [[horse gait|gaits]]: the four-beat [[Horse gait#Walk|walk]], the two-beat [[Trot (horse gait)|trot or jog]], and the [[leaping gait]]s known as the [[Canter|canter or lope]] (a three-beat gait), and the [[Horse gait#Gallop|gallop]].<ref name=HorseGaits32>Harris ''Horse Gaits, Balance and Movement'' p. 32</ref> Besides these basic gaits, some horses perform a two-beat [[Horse gait#Pace|pace]], instead of the trot.<ref name=HorseGaits50>Harris ''Horse Gaits, Balance and Movement'' p. 50</ref> In addition, there are several four-beat ''"[[ambling]]"'' gaits that are approximately the speed of a trot or pace, though smoother to ride. These include the lateral [[Ambling#Slow gait|slow gait]], [[Ambling#Rack|rack]], [[Ambling|running walk]], and [[Ambling#Tölt|tölt]] as well as the diagonal [[Ambling#Fox trot|fox trot]].<ref name="Lieberman">Lieberman, Bobbie. "Easy-Gaited Horses." ''Equus'', issue 359, August, 2007, pp. 47-51.</ref> Ambling gaits are often genetic traits in specific breeds, often referred to as [[gaited horse]]s.<ref>"Breeds that Gait." Equus, issue 359, August, 2007, pp. 52-54</ref> In most cases, gaited horses replace the standard trot, a 2-beat gait, with one of the four beat gaits.<ref name=HorseGaits51>Harris ''Horse Gaits, Balance and Movement'' pp. 50-55</ref> ==Behavior== {{main|Horse behavior|Stable vices}} Horses are prey animals with a well-developed [[fight-or-flight]] instinct. Their first response to threat is to startle and usually flee, although they are known to stand their ground and defend themselves or their offspring in cases where flight is not possible, or when their young are threatened. They also tend to be curious; when startled, they will often hesitate an instant to ascertain the cause of their fright, and may not always flee from something that they perceive as non-threatening. Through selective breeding, some breeds of horses are quite docile, particularly certain large draft horses. However, most light horse riding breeds were developed for speed, agility, alertness and endurance; natural qualities that extend from their wild ancestors.<ref name=Natural226>McBane ''A Natural Approach to Horse Management'' pp. 226-228</ref> Horses are herd animals, with a clear hierarchy of rank, led by a dominant animal (usually a mare). Horses are also social creatures who are able to form companionship attachments to their own species and to other animals, including humans. They communicate in various ways, including vocalizations such as nickering or whinnying, mutual [[Social grooming|grooming]], and [[body language]]. Many horses will become difficult to manage if they are isolated. However, through proper training, it is possible to teach any horse to accept a human as a type of companion, and thus be comfortable away from other horses.<ref name=Ensminger305>Ensminger ''Horses and Horsemanship'' pp. 305-309</ref> When confined with insufficient companionship, exercise or stimulation, horses may develop [[stable vices]], an assortment of bad habits, mostly [[psychology|psychological]] in origin, that include wood chewing, wall kicking, "weaving" (rocking back and forth) and other problems.<ref name=Prince214>Prince ''Basic Horsemanship'' pp. 214-223</ref> ===Sleep patterns=== {{seealso|Horse behavior#Sleep patterns|l1=Horse sleep patterns|Sleep#Sleep in non-humans|l2=Sleep in non-humans}} [[Image:Biandintz eta zaldiak - modified2.jpg|thumb|When horses lie down to sleep, others in the herd remain standing, awake or in a light doze, in order to keep watch.]] Horses are able to sleep both standing up and lying down. In an adaptation from life in the wild, horses are able to enter light sleep by using a "stay apparatus" in their legs, allowing them to doze without collapsing. <ref>{{cite web |url= http://equisearch.com/horses_care/health/behavior/eqzzz629/|title= How Horses Sleep |accessdate=2007-03-23 |author= Pascoe, Elaine |work= Equisearch.com |publisher= EquiSearch}} </ref> Horses sleep better when in groups because some animals will sleep while others stand guard to watch for predators. A horse kept entirely alone will not sleep well because its [[instinct]]s are to keep a constant eye out for danger.<ref name="Horse sleep pt. 2"/> Unlike humans, horses do not sleep in a solid, unbroken period of time, but through many short periods of rest. Horses may spend anywhere from four to fifteen hours a day in standing rest, and from a few minutes to several hours lying down. Total sleep time in a day may range from several minutes to a couple of hours.<ref name="Horse sleep pt. 2">{{cite web |url= http://equisearch.com/horses_care/health/behavior/eqpowernap1771/|title= How Horses Sleep, Pt. 2 - Power Naps|accessdate=2007-03-23 |author= Pascoe, Elaine|work= Equisearch.com |publisher= EquiSearch}}</ref> Most of this sleep occurs in many short intervals of about 15 minutes each.<ref name=Ensminger310>Ensminger ''Horses and Horsemanship'' p. 310</ref> Horses must lie down to reach [[REM sleep]]. They only have to lie down for an hour or two every few days to meet their minimum REM sleep requirements.<ref name="Horse sleep pt. 2"/> However, if a horse is never allowed to lie down, after several days it will become sleep-deprived, and in rare cases may suddenly collapse as it involuntarily slips into REM sleep while still standing.<ref>{{cite web |url= http://equisearch.com/horses_care/health/behavior/sleepdisorder_121506/|title= Equine Sleep Disorder Videos|accessdate=2007-03-23 |author= Editors of EQUUS Magazine |work= Equisearch.com |publisher= EquiSearch}}</ref> This condition differs from [[narcolepsy]], though horses may also suffer from that disorder.<ref name ="Smith">Smith ''Large Animal Internal Medicine'' pp. 1086-1087</ref> ===Temperament=== {{seealso|Horse behavior}} Horses are [[mammals]], and as such are all "[[warm-blooded]]" creatures, as opposed to [[reptiles]], which are cold-blooded. However, these words have developed a separate meaning in the context of equine description, used to describe temperament, not body temperature. For example, the "hot-bloods", such as [[horse racing|race horses]], exhibit more sensitivity and energy, while the "cold-bloods," such as most [[draft horse|draft breeds]], are quieter, calmer creatures.<ref name="Henry">Henry ''All About Horses''</ref> [[Image:Monmouth Park.jpg|thumb|left|Thoroughbred race horses are a "hot blooded" breed]] ===="Hot" bloods==== The "hot blooded" breeds include "oriental" breeds such as the [[Akhal-Teke]], [[Barb (horse)|Barb]], [[Arabian horse]] and the now-extinct [[Turkoman horse]], as well as the [[Thoroughbred]], a breed developed from the older oriental breeds. These five breeds are the only breeds given the classification of "hot blooded" today. The original hot bloods were brought to Europe from the Middle East and Northern Africa when European breeders wished to infuse characteristic traits into their best racing and light [[cavalry]] horses.<ref name="Henry"/> Hot bloods have a level of intelligence that allows them to be athletic, versatile, and learn quickly. They are bred for agility and speed and are generally considered spirited and bold.<ref name="Henry"/> They tend to be thin-skinned, long-legged and slim in build; more physically refined than other types.<ref>DeFilippis ''The Everything Horse Care Book'' p. 4</ref> ==== "Cold" bloods ==== {{Main|Draft horse}} [[Image:Brabanter.jpg|thumb|The [[Belgian horse|Brabant]] is an example of a "cold blooded" draft breed.]] Muscular and heavy [[draft horse]]s are known as "cold bloods," as they have been bred not only for strength, but also to have the calm, steady, patient temperament needed to pull a plow or a heavy carriage full of people. They are sometimes nicknamed "gentle giants" because of their placid dispositions. The "cold-blooded" group includes many pony breeds.<ref>{{cite web |url= http://www.equiworld.net/uk/horsecare/evolution/domestication.htm|title= Domestication|accessdate=2008-02-17 |author= Staples, Michelle |work= Equiworld.net|publisher= Equiworld}}</ref> There are well over a dozen well-known draft breeds, and many more rarer breeds developed in various regions of the world that were adapted to local conditions. Some breeds are lighter and livelier, developed to pull carriages or to plow large fields in drier climates. Others are slower and more powerful, bred to plow fields with heavy, clay-based soils. One of the most common draft breeds is the [[Belgian (horse)|Belgian]]. The largest is the [[Shire horse|Shire]]. [[Clydesdale (breed)|Clydesdales]], with their common coloration of a [[bay (horse)|bay]] or [[black (horse)|black]] coat, with white legs and long-haired, "feathered" fetlocks, are one of the most easily recognized.<ref name="Henry"/> [[Image:WCLV07m.JPG|thumb|left|A modern "Warmblood" horse is large, but agile and athletic]] ====Warmbloods==== {{Main|Warmblood}} The term "warmblood" has two different meanings today; the more common modern meaning refers to a specific subset of horse breeds, and the other, older meaning refers simply to horses of a moderate temperament. The term "[[warm blood]]," up through approximately the 1970s, originally referred to any cross of "cold blooded" [[draft horse]]s on "hot blooded" Thoroughbreds or Arabians. Examples included breeds such as the [[Irish Draught]] horse or the [[Cleveland Bay]], and sometimes also referred to the "[[Baroque horse]]s" used for [[classical dressage]], such as the [[Lipizzan]] or [[Andalusian horse|Andalusian]]. Sometimes the term was even used to refer to breeds of light riding horse other than Thoroughbreds or Arabians, such as the [[Morgan horse]].<ref name="Henry"/> Today the term "warmblood" usually refers to a group of [[sport horse]] breeds that have dominated the [[Olympic Games]] and [[World Equestrian Games]] in [[Dressage]] and [[Show Jumping]] since the 1960s. The "[[Warmblood]]" breeds began when European carriage and [[horses in warfare|war horses]] were crossed with Arabians or Thoroughbreds, producing a tall riding horse with more refinement than a draft horse, but greater size and more phlegmatic temperament than a lighter breed.<ref>Edwards, ''The Encyclopedia of the Horse'', pp. 122-123</ref> Certain [[pony]] breeds with warmblood characteristics have been developed for smaller riders.<ref>Examples are the Australian Riding Pony and the Connemara, see Edwards, ''The Encyclopedia of the Horse'', pp. 178-179, 208-209</ref> ==Breeds== {{main|List of horse breeds|Horse breeding|Selective breeding}} Horse breeds are groups of horses with distinctive characteristics, such as conformation, color, performance, intelligence or disposition, that are transmitted consistently to their offspring. These inherited traits are usually the result of a combination of natural crosses and artificial selection methods aimed at developing horses for specific tasks. Certain breeds are known for certain talents, for example, [[Standardbred]]s are known for their speed in [[Horse harness|harness]]. Some breeds have been developed through centuries of crossings with other breeds, while others such as [[Tennessee Walking Horse]]s and [[Morgan horse|Morgans]] developed from a single sire with a tremendous influence. There are more than 300 horse breeds in the world today.<ref>Hedge ''Horse Conformation'' pp. 307-308</ref> ===Origin of breeds=== {{seealso|Domestication of the horse}} Different schools of thought exist to explain how this range of size and shape came about. One school, which some refer to as the "Four Foundations", (see ''Domestication and surviving wild species,'' below), suggests that the modern horse evolved from multiple types of early wild pony and horse prototypes, each adapted to a given habitat, and the differences between these types account for some of the differences in type of the modern breeds. A second school - the "Single Foundation" - holds only one type of wild horse underwent domestication, and it diverged in form after domestication through human [[selective breeding]] (or in the case of [[feral]] horses and [[landrace]]s, through ecological pressures).<ref name="Bennett">Bennett ''Conquerors''</ref> DNA evidence appears to show that domesticated horses evolved from multiple wild populations, instead of only one.<ref>Briggs, [http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/sci/tech/2129182.stm "Origins of domestic horse revealed"], ''BBC News''</ref> In either case, modern horse breeds developed in response to the need for "form to function"; that is, the necessity to develop certain physical characteristics necessary to perform a certain type of work. Thus, light, refined horses such as the [[Arabian horse]] or the [[Akhal-Teke]] developed in dry climates to be fast and with great endurance over long distances, while heavy draft horse such as the [[Belgian (horse)|Belgian]] developed out of a need to pull plows and perform other [[farm]] work. Ponies of all breeds developed out of a dual need to create mounts suitable for children as well as for work in small places like mine shafts or in areas where there was insufficient forage to support larger draft animals. In between these extremes, horses were bred to be particularly suitable for tasks that included pulling carriages, carrying heavily-armored [[knight]]s, jumping, racing, herding other animals, and packing supplies.{{Fact|date=April 2008}} ===Purebreds and registries=== {{main|Breed registry|Purebred}} [[Selective breeding]] of horses has occurred as long as humans have [[domestication of the horse|domesticated]] them. However, the concept of [[purebred]] bloodstock and a controlled [[breed registry]] has only gained wide importance in modern times. Sometimes [[purebred]]s are incorrectly termed [[Thoroughbred]]s, which is incorrect. A "Thoroughbred" is a specific breed of horse, while a "purebred" is a horse (or any other animal) with a defined [[Pedigree chart|pedigree]] recognized by a [[breed registry]].<ref name=Ensminger424>Ensminger ''Horses and Horsemanship'' p. 424</ref> The [[Bedouin]] people had a reputation for breeding their prize [[Arabian horse|Arabian]] mares to only the most worthy stallions, and kept extensive pedigrees of their "[[asil]]" (purebred) horses.<ref>Edwards ''The Arabian''</ref> Though these pedigrees were originally transmitted via an [[oral tradition]], written pedigrees of Arabian horses can be found that date to the 14th century.<ref>{{cite web |url= http://www.waho.org/History.html|title= Is Purity the Issue? |accessdate=2008-04-29 |author= World Arabian Horse Organization|work= WAHO Publication Number 21 January 1998|publisher= World Arabian Horse Organization}}</ref> In the same period of the early [[Renaissance]], the [[Carthusian]] monks of southern [[Spain]] bred horses and kept meticulous pedigrees of the best bloodstock; the lineage survives to this day in the [[Andalusian horse]].<ref>{{cite web |url= http://www.ansi.okstate.edu/breeds/horses/andalusian/index.htm|title= Andalusian |accessdate=2008-04-29 |author= Oklahoma State University|work= Breeds of Livestock|publisher= Oklahoma State University Board of Regents}}</ref> One of the earliest formal registries was [[General Stud Book]] for [[Thoroughbreds]], which was begun in 1791 and traced back to the [[Arabian horse|Arabian]] stallions imported to England from the Middle East to become the foundation stallions for the breed.<ref>{{cite web |url= http://www.britishhorseracing.com/goracing/racing/racehorses/history.asp|title= History of Thoroughbreds |accessdate=2008-04-03 |author= British Horseracing Authority |work= Britishhorseracing.com|publisher= British Horseracing Authority}}</ref> The modern landscape of breed designation presents a complicated picture. Some breeds have closed [[studbook]]s. For example, a registered [[Thoroughbred]] or [[Arabian horse|Arabian]] must have two registered parents of the same breed, and no other criteria for registration apply.<ref name=JockeyClub>{{cite web |url= http://www.jockeyclub.com/registry.asp?section=3#one|title= American Stud Book Principal Rules and Requirements|accessdate=2007-07-05 |author= Jockey Club |work= The Jockey Club|publisher= Jockey Club}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url= http://www.arabianhorses.org/registration/reg_rules.asp |title= 2008 Rules & Regulations|accessdate=2008-04-03 |author= Arabian Horse Association |work= 2008 Rulebook|publisher= Arabian Horse Association}}</ref> Other breeds tolerate limited infusions from other breeds; for example, the modern [[Appaloosa]] must have at least one Appaloosa parent but may also have a [[American Quarter Horse|Quarter Horse]], Thoroughbred, or Arabian parent and must also exhibit specific color characteristics to gain full registration.<ref>{{cite web |url= http://www.appaloosa.com/pdfs/rulebook07.pdf|title= Appaloosa Horse Club Handbook 2007|accessdate=2007-07-05 |author= The Appaloosa Horse Club|work= 2007 Rulebook|publisher= The Appaloosa Horse Club}}</ref> The [[Quarter Horse]] normally requires both parents to be registered Quarter Horses, but allows [[American Quarter Horse#"Appendix" and "Foundation" horses|"Appendix"]] registration of horses with one Thoroughbred parent, and the horse may earn its way to full registration by completing certain performance requirements.<ref>{{cite web |url= http://www.aqha.com/association/registration/pdf/registrationrules_07.pdf|title= AQHA Registration Rules and Regulations|accessdate=2007-07-05 |author= American Quarter Horse Association|work= 2007 Rulebook|publisher= American Quarter Horse Association}} </ref> Still other breeds, such as most of the [[warmblood]] sport horses, require individual judging of an individual animal's quality and [[horse conformation|conformation]] before registration or breeding approval, but also allow outside bloodlines in if the horses meet the standard.<ref>{{cite web |url= http://www.americanwarmblood.org/|title= What Is A Warmblood Anyway?|accessdate=2008-05-01 |author= Bernhold, Suzette|work= Warmblood Whisper|publisher= American Warmblood Society}}</ref> A few "registries," particularly some [[color breed]] registries, will allow membership of any horse that meets a certain criteria, such as coat color, regardless of pedigree or conformation.<ref>{{cite web |url= http://www.palominohorseassoc.com/regandmembershipins.htm|title= Registration and Membership Instructions|accessdate=2008-05-01 |author= Palomino Horse Association|work= |publisher= Palomino Horse Association}}</ref> Breed registries also differ as to their acceptance or rejection of breeding technology. For example, all [[Jockey Club]] Thoroughbred registries require that a registered Thoroughbred be a product of a natural mating (''live cover'' in horse parlance). A foal born of two Thoroughbred parents, but by means of [[artificial insemination]] or [[embryo transfer]] is barred from the Thoroughbred studbook. Any Thoroughbred bred outside of these constraints can, however, become part of the Performance Horse Registry.<ref name=JockeyClub/> On the other hand, since the advent of [[DNA]] testing to verify parentage, most breed registries now allow [[artificial insemination]] (AI), [[embryo transfer]] (ET), or both. The high value of stallions has helped with the acceptance of these techniques because they allow a stallion to breed more mares with each "collection," and take away the risk of injury during mating.<ref>McAfee "Did They Save Barbaro's Semen?" ''Slate''</ref> However, [[cloning]] of horses is highly controversial, and at the present time many mainstream breed registries will not accept cloned horses, though several cloned horses and mules have been produced.<ref>Mott "Champion Horse Cloned by Texas Breeder" ''National Geographic News''</ref> ===Regional specialization=== Some countries specialize in breeding horses suitable for particular activities. For example, [[Australia]], the [[United States]], and the [[Patagonia]] region of [[South America]] are known for breeding horses particularly suitable for working [[cattle]] and other livestock.<ref>Edwards, ''The Encyclopedia of the Horse'', pp.226, 290-291</ref> Spain and Portugal are known for the [[Iberian horse]] breeds used in high school [[dressage]] and [[bullfighting]].<ref>{{cite web |url= http://www.lipizzan.com/iberian.html|title= The Iberian (Spanish) Horse: Ancestor of the Lipizzan |accessdate=2008-04-29 |author= Lipizzan Breeding Farm |work= Lipizzan.com|publisher= Lipizzan Breeding Farm}} which cites {{cite book |author= Giacomini, Jean-Philippe|title= The Classic Dressage Master Class|edition= |publisher=Trophaem Mundi International|location= Houston, TX|year= 1995|isbn=|pages=p. 37}}</ref> Austria is known worldwide for its [[Lipizzaner]] horses, used for dressage and high school work in the famous [[Spanish Riding School]] in Vienna.<ref>{{cite web |url= http://www.lipizzan.org/aboutlipizzans.html|title= Origins and History of the Lipizzan Horse |accessdate=2008-04-29 |author= Lipizzan Association of North America |work= |publisher= Lipizzan Association of North America}}</ref> The [[United Kingdom]] breeds an array of heavy [[draft horse]]s and several breeds of hardy ponies.<ref>Edwards, ''The Encyclopedia of the Horse'', pp. 168, 286, 288</ref> [[Russia]] takes great pride in breeding [[harness racing]] horses, a tradition dating back to the development of the [[Orlov]] Trotter in the 18th century.<ref>{{cite web |url= http://www.horses.ru/orl_trotter.htm|title= Orlov Trotter |accessdate=2008-04-29 |author= Troika |work= Russia's Breeds|publisher= Mekka Consulting}}</ref> ==Evolution== [[Image:Mesohippus.jpg|thumb|''Mesohippus'', an ancestor of the modern horse]] {{main|Evolution of the horse}} The horse as it is known today adapted by [[evolution]] to survive in areas of wide-open terrain with sparse vegetation, surviving in an [[ecosystem]] where other large grazing animals, especially [[ruminant]]s, could not.<ref name="Budiansky">Budiansky ''The Nature of Horses''</ref> Horses and other equids are [[odd-toed ungulate]]s of the [[Order (biology)|order]] [[Perissodactyla]], a group of [[mammals]] that was dominant during the [[Tertiary]] period. In the past, this order contained 14 families and many species, but only three [[family|families]]&mdash; [[Equidae]] (the horse and related species), the [[tapir]] and the [[rhinoceros]]&mdash;have survived to the present day, with 18 known species existing.<ref>{{cite web |url= http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/site/accounts/information/Perissodactyla.html|title= Order Perissodactyla|accessdate=2008-07-09 |author= Myers, Phil|work= Animal Diversity Web |publisher= University of Michigan}}</ref> The earliest known member of the Equidae family was the ''[[Hyracotherium]]'', which lived between 45 and 55 million years ago, during the [[Eocene]] period and had 4 toes on each front foot, and 3 toes on each back foot.<ref>{{cite web |url= http://www.flmnh.ufl.edu/fhc/hyraco1.htm|title= Hyracotherium|accessdate=2008-07-09 |author= Florida Museum of Natural History|work= Fossil Horses in Cyberspace |publisher= Florida Museum of Natural History}}</ref> The extra toe on the front feet soon disappeared with the ''[[Mesohippus]]'', which lived 32 to 37 million years ago,<ref>{{cite web |url= http://www.flmnh.ufl.edu/fhc/mesoh1.htm|title= Messohippus|accessdate=2008-07-09 |author= Florida Museum of Natural History|work= Fossil Horses in Cyberspace |publisher= Florida Museum of Natural History}}</ref> and by about 5 million years ago, the modern Equus had developed.<ref>{{cite web |url= http://www.flmnh.ufl.edu/fhc/equus1.htm|title= Equus|accessdate=2008-07-09 |author= Florida Museum of Natural History|work= Fossil Horses in Cyberspace |publisher= Florida Museum of Natural History}}</ref> The extra side toes shrank in size until they have vanished in modern horses. All that remains are a set of small [[Vestigial structure|vestigial]] bones on the leg above the hoof,<ref name=Natural>{{cite web |url= http://www.amnh.org/exhibitions/horse/?section=evolution&page=evolution_b|title= The Evolution of Horses|accessdate=2008-07-09 |author= American Museum of Natural History|work= The Horse |publisher= American Museum of Natural History}}</ref> known informally as ergots, chestnuts, or splint bones.<ref>Miller, ''Understanding the Ancient Secrets of the Horse's Mind'', p. 20</ref> Their legs also lengthened as their toes disappeared and until they were a hoofed animal capable of running at great speed.<ref name=Natural/> Over millions of years, equid teeth also evolved from browsing on soft, tropical plants to adapt to browsing of drier plant material, and grazing of tougher plains [[grass]]es. Thus the proto-horses changed from leaf-eating forest-dwellers to grass-eating inhabitants of semi-arid regions worldwide, including the [[steppe]]s of Eurasia and the [[Great Plains]] of North America. For reasons not fully understood, ''Equus caballus'' disappeared from North America around 10,000 years ago, at the end of the last [[Ice Age]].<ref>{{cite web |url= http://www.pbs.org/wnet/nature/horses/what.html|title= What Is A Horse?|accessdate=2008-04-03 |author= PBS|work= Nature |publisher= PBS}}</ref> ===Domestication and surviving wild species=== {{main|Domestication of the horse}} Competing theories exist as to the time and place of initial domestication. The earliest evidence for the [[domestication of the horse]] comes from [[Ukraine]] and dates to approximately 4,000 BC.<ref>Matossian ''Shaping World History'' p. 43</ref> It is thought that the horse was completely domesticated by 3000 B.C., and by 2000 B.C. there was a sharp increase in the number of horse bones found in human settlements in northwestern Europe, indicating the spread of domesticated horses throughout the continent.<ref>Evans ''Horse Breeding and Management'' p. 56</ref> ====The "Four Foundations" theory==== There is a theory that there were four basic "proto" horses that developed with adaptations to their environment prior to domestication.<ref name="Bennett"/> There are competing theories, some arguing that the prototypes were separate species, others suggesting that the prototypes were physically different manifestations of the same species. Either way, the most common theories of historical wild species from which other types are thought to have developed suggests the following base prototypes: [[Image:Prezewalsky 26-9-2004-2.JPG|thumb|left|[[Przewalski's Horse]], the last surviving wild horse species]] * The "Warmblood" subspecies or "Forest Horse": (''Equus ferus silvaticus'', also called the Diluvial Horse) thought to have evolved into ''Equus ferus germanicus'', and which may have contributed to the development of the [[warmblood]] horses of northern [[Europe]], as well as older "heavy horses" such as the [[Ardennais]] * The "Draft" subspecies: a small, sturdy, heavyset animal with a heavy hair coat, arising in northern Europe, adapted to cold, damp climates, somewhat resembling today's [[draft horse]] and even the [[Shetland pony]] * The "Oriental" subspecies: a taller, slim, refined and agile animal arising in western [[Asia]], adapted to hot, dry climates, thought to be the progenitor of the modern [[Arabian horse]] and [[Akhal-Teke]] * The "Tarpan" subspecies: dun-colored, sturdy animal, the size of a large pony, adapted to the cold, dry climates of northern Asia, the predecessor to the [[Tarpan]] and [[Przewalski's Horse]] as well as the domesticated [[Mongolian horse]]<ref name="Bennett"/> ====Wild species surviving into modern times==== {{Main|Wild horse}} Most "wild" horses today are actually [[feral horse]]s (see ''feral horses, below''), animals that had domesticated ancestors but were themselves born and live in the wild, often for generations.{{fact|date=July 2008}} The [[Tarpan]], ''Equus ferus ferus'', survived into the historical era, but became [[extinct]] in 1887. Its pure genetic line was lost, but three attempts have been made to re-create the Tarpan. In the early 1930s, Berlin Zoo Director Lutz Heck and Heinz Heck form the Munich Zoo began a program that by the 1960's produced the [[Heck horse]]. In 1936, Polish university professor Tadeasz Vatulai began a program using [[Konik]] horses, and in the mid-1960s Harry Hegard started a program in the United States using feral mustangs and local working ranch horses that has resulted in the Hegardt or Stroebel's Horse. None of the breeding programs was a complete success, but all three resulted in horses with many similarities to the Tarpan.<ref>{{cite web |url= http://www.petermaas.nl/extinct/speciesinfo/tarpan.htm|title= Equus ferus ferus|accessdate=2008-07-09 |author= The Extinction Website|work= Recently Extinct Animals|publisher= The Extinction Website}}</ref> [[Przewalski's Horse]] (''Equus ferus przewalskii''), a rare Asian species, is the only true wild horse alive today. Also known as the [[Mongolian Wild Horse]], [[Mongolia]]ns know it as the ''taki'', while the [[Kyrgyz]] people call it a ''kirtag''. Small wild breeding populations of this animal, named after the [[Russia]]n explorer [[Przewalski]], exist in Mongolia.<ref>{{cite web |url= http://www.treemail.nl/takh/|title= Home|accessdate=2008-04-03 |author= The Foundation for the Preservation and Protection of the Przewalski Horse|work= FPPPH|publisher= Treemail}}</ref> There are also small populations maintained at zoos throughout the world. The species was for a time extinct in the wild between 1969 and 1992 but due to conservations efforts by numerous zoos, a small breeding population of Przewalksi's Horse was reestablished in the wild.<ref>{{cite web |url= http://www.zsl.org/info/media/press-releases/null,1790,PR.html|title= An extraordinary return from the brink of extinction for worlds last wild horse 12/19/2005|accessdate=2008-04-29 |author= Zoological Society of London|work= ZSL Press Releases|publisher= Zoological Society of London}}</ref> ====Feral populations==== {{Main|Feral horse}} [[Image:Image81.jpg|thumb|Free-roaming [[Mustang (horse)|Mustangs]] on [[Bureau of Land Management|BLM]] land cir. 2007]] [[Feral]] horses, who had domesticated ancestors but were born and live in the wild, are distinct from wild animals, whose ancestors have never undergone domestication. Many populations of [[feral horse]]s exist throughout the world. Studies of feral horses have provided useful insights into the behavior of ancestral wild horses, as well as greater understanding of the instincts and behaviours that drive horses.{{Fact|date=April 2008}} ===Other modern equids=== {{main|Equidae}} Besides the horse, there are seven other species in the [[genus]] of ''equus'', in the equidae [[family]]. These are: * ''Equus asinus'' - [[Ass]] or donkey * ''Equus burchelli'' - [[Burchell's zebra]] * ''Equus grevyi'' - [[Grevy's zebra]] * ''Equus hemionus'' - [[Kulan]], with it's subspecies ''Equus hemionus onager'', [[Onager]] * ''Equus kiang'' - [[Kiang]] * ''Equus quagga'' - [[Quagga]] * ''Equus zebra'' - [[Mountain zebra]]<ref>{{cite web |url= http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/site/accounts/classification/Equus.html#Equus|title= Genus Equus|accessdate=2008-07-10 |author= University of Michigan|work= Animal Diversity Web|publisher= University of Michigan}}</ref> There are multiple crosses between horses and other members of the ''equus'' genus. These include the [[zorse]], a cross between a zebra and a horse that is often created in [[Africa]] and used for trekking on [[Mount Kenya]].<ref>{{cite web |url= http://www.dailymail.co.uk/news/article-464723/Meet-Eclyse--amazing-zebra-crossing.html|title= Meet Eclyse - the amazing zebra crossing|accessdate=2008-07-10 |author= Associated Newspapers Ltd |work= Mail Online|publisher= Associated Newspapers Ltd}}</ref> A [[mule]] is a cross between a male donkey and a female horse, while a [[hinny]] is a cross between a female donkey and a male horse.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.britishmulesociety.org.uk/|title= Mule Information|accessdate=2008-07-10 |author= British Mule Society |work= BMS Website|publisher= British Mule Society}}</ref> ==Interaction with humans== {{seealso|Equestrianism}} [[Image:2003horse.PNG|thumb|right|Horse headcount in 2003]] Around the world, horses play a role within human economies. The [[FAO]] reports that in 2003, China had the largest number of horses in the world with over 8 million horses, followed by Mexico (6,260,000), Brazil (5,900,500), the United States (5,300,000), and Argentina (3,655,000).<ref>{{cite web |url= http://www.fao.org/ag/aga/glipha/index.jsp|title= Global Livestock Production and Health Atlas|accessdate=2007-08-22 |author= Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations |work= GLiPHA|publisher= FAO}}</ref> Horses can be used for leisure activities, sports, and working purposes. The [[American Horse Council]] estimates that horse-related activities have a direct impact on the economy of the [[United States]] of over $39 billion, and when indirect spending is considered, the impact is over $102 billion.<ref>{{cite web |url= http://www.cthorsecouncil.org/AHC2005JuneEconStudy.pdf|title= Most Comprehensive Horse Study Ever Reveals A Nearly $40 Billion Impact On The U.S. Economy|accessdate=2005-06-20 |author= American Horse Council |work= American Horse Council Press Release|publisher= American Horse Council}}</ref> In a poll conducted by [[Animal Planet]] in 2004, the horse was voted World's 4th Favorite Animal. More than 50,000 viewers from 73 countries voted in the poll.<ref name=IOL>{{cite web |url= http://www.int.iol.co.za/index.php?newslett=1&em=28164a99a20041206ah&click_id=29&art_id=qw1102325040750B216&set_id=1|title=Tiger tops dog as world's favourite animal |accessdate=2008-04-03|author= Independent Online |work= IOL|publisher= Independent Online}}</ref> ===Sport=== <!-- There is a whole article about Equestrianism for all details about every possible sport. This article should only give the bare summary. So, please do not add elaborate sections of your own favorite horse sport here. --> {{Main|Equestrianism|Horse Racing|Horse training}} [[Image:Baltic Cup Shannon Mejnert Sandy1.jpg|thumb|left|A youth competitor [[show jumping]] in [[Denmark]]]] Horses are trained to be ridden or driven in many different sporting events and competitions. Examples include [[horse show]]s, [[Gymkhana (Equestrian)|gymkhana]] and [[O-Mok-See]], [[rodeo]]s, [[endurance riding]], [[fox hunting]], and [[Equestrian at the Summer Olympics|Olympic]]-level events such as three-day [[eventing]], [[combined driving]], [[dressage]], and [[show jumping]]. Although scoring varies by event, most emphasize the horse's speed, maneuverability, obedience and/or precision. Sometimes the [[equitation]], the style and ability of the rider, is also considered.{{Fact|date=April 2008}} Sports such as [[polo]] and [[horseball]] do not judge the horse itself, but rather use the horse as a partner for human competitors as a necessary part of the game. Although the horse assists this process and requires specialized training to do so, the details of its performance are not judged, only the result of the rider's actions -- be it getting a ball through a goal or some other achievement. Examples of these sports of partnership between human and animal also include [[jousting]] (reenacting the skills used by medieval [[knight]]s), where the main goal is for one rider to dismount the other,{{fact|date=July 2008}} and [[buzkashi]], a team game played throughout [[Central Asia]], the aim being to capture a goat carcass while on horseback.<ref>{{cite web |url= http://www.afghan-network.net/Culture/buzkashi.html|title= Afghan Sport: Buzkashi|accessdate=2008-04-03 |author= Lambert, Larry B. |work= Afghan Network|publisher= WebMedia iNteractive}} </ref> The most widely known use of horses for sport is [[horse racing]], seen in almost every nation in the world. There are three types: "flat" racing; [[Steeplechase (horse racing)|steeplechasing]], i.e. racing over jumps; and [[harness racing]], where horses trot or pace while pulling a driver in a small, light cart known as a [[sulky]]. Most race horses in the developed world are [[Thoroughbred]]s, a breed which can reach speeds up to {{convert|40|mph|km/h}}. In the case of a specialized sprinting breed, the [[American Quarter Horse]], speeds over {{convert|50|mph|km/h}} have been clocked. In [[harness racing]], performed by [[Standardbred]] horses, speeds over {{convert|30|mph|km/h}} have been measured.{{Fact|date=May 2008}} A major part of the economic importance of horse racing, as for many sports, lies in the [[Gambling#Gambling on horse races|gambling]] associated with it.<ref>Campbell ''National Gambling Impact Study Commission Final Report'' p. 111</ref> ===Work=== [[Image:Policja konna Poznań.jpg|thumb|A mounted police officer in [[Poland]].]] There are certain jobs that horses do very well, and no amount of technology appears able to supersede. [[Mounted police]] horses are still effective for crowd control.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.nps.gov/uspp/fhorsepage.htm |title= Horse Mounted Unit|accessdate=2008-04-07 |author= National Park Service |work= United States Park Police|publisher= National Park Service}}</ref> Cattle [[ranch]]es still require riders on horseback to round up cattle that are scattered across remote, rugged terrain.<ref>{{cite web |url= http://www.otrd.state.ok.us/StudentGuide/cowboys.html|title= The Cowboys|accessdate=2008-04-07 |author= Oklahoma Tourism and Recreation Department|work= A Look At Oklahoma: A Student's Guide|publisher= Oklahoma Tourism and Recreation Department}}</ref> [[Search and rescue]] organizations in some countries depend upon [[mounted search and rescue|mounted]] teams to locate people, particularly hikers and children, and to provide disaster relief assistance.<ref>{{cite web |url= http://www.sbcsheriff.org/msru_job.html|title= Volunteer Mounted Search and Rescue Unit|accessdate=2008-07-08 |author= San Benito County Sheriff's Office|work= Employment|publisher= San Benito County Sheriff's Office}}</ref> Horses can also be used in other areas where it is necessary to avoid vehicular disruption to delicate soil. Examples include areas such as a nature reserve. They may also be the only form of transport allowed in [[wilderness area]]s. They are also quieter than motorized vehicles. [[Peace officer]]s such as [[Park ranger]]s or [[game warden]]s may use horses for patrols, and horses or mules may also be used for clearing trails or other work in areas of rough terrain where vehicles are less effective.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.fs.fed.us/r9/publications/success_story_updates/2003-05.pdf |title=Success Stories |accessdate=2008-04-20 |author=US Forest Service |year=2003 |month=May |chapter=Mules Key in Accomplishing Trail Work |publisher=USDA |pages=p. 4 }}</ref> Some land management practices such as cultivating and logging can be efficiently performed with horses. In agriculture less use of fossil fuels, reduced soil compaction and degrading of soil structure can be seen over time with the use of [[working animal|draft animals]] such as horses.<ref>{{cite web |url= http://www.ruralheritage.com/back_forty/economics.htm|title= Economics of Farming with Horses|accessdate=2008-04-07 |author= Kendell, Chet |work= Rural Heritage Back 40|publisher= Rural Heritage}}</ref> In forestry, logging can be done with horses and can result in reduced damage to soil structure and less damage to trees due to more selective logging.<ref>{{cite web |url= http://www.ruralheritage.com/logging_camp/why_horselog.htm|title= Why Log with Horses?|accessdate=2008-04-07 |author= Rutledge, Jason|work= Rural Heritage Logging Camp|publisher= Rural Heritage}}</ref> Although machinery has replaced horses in many parts of the world, an estimated 100 million horses, donkeys and mules are still used for agriculture and transportation in less developed areas including [[Morocco]], [[Kenya]] and [[Guatemala]].<ref>{{cite web |url= http://www.horsetalk.co.nz/features/nc-ilphclinic.shtml|title= Saddled with a Big Responsibility|accessdate=2008-07-08 |author= Horsetalk |work= Features|publisher= Horsetalk}}</ref> ===Entertainment and culture=== {{See also|Horses in art|Horse worship}} Modern horses are often used to re-enact their historical work purpose. One famous example is the [[Budweiser Clydesdales]]. This team of [[draft horse]]s pulls a beer wagon in a manner similar to that used prior to the invention of the modern motorized truck.<ref>{{cite web |url= http://gonewengland.about.com/od/nhsightseeing/a/aaclydesdales.htm|title= Meet the Clydesdales Up Close|accessdate=2008-04-29|author= Beckius, Kim Knox |work= New England Travel|publisher= About, Inc.}} </ref> Horses are used, complete with equipment that is authentic or a meticulously recreated replica, in various [[historical reenactment]]s of specific periods of history, and especially famous battles.<ref>{{cite web |url= http://www.blackhorsetroop.org/activities/|title= Unit Activities|accessdate=2008-04-29|author= Stoddard, Samuel |work= Co H, 4th Virginia Cavalry|publisher= Washington Webworks, LLC}}</ref> Horses also are used to preserve cultural traditions and for ceremonial purposes. Countries such as the [[United Kingdom]] still use horse-drawn carriages to convey royalty and VIPs to and from certain culturally significant events.<ref>{{cite web |url= http://www.royal.gov.uk/output/Page5023.asp|title= Carriages|accessdate=2008-04-29|author= British Monarchy|work= Transport|publisher= British Monarchy}} </ref> Horses are frequently used in [[television]] and [[motion picture]]s to add authenticity to historical dramas as well as adding charm to films set in modern-day, or even futuristic science fiction settings.<ref>{{cite web |url= http://www.rinkworks.com/movies/i/g_horse.shtml|title= Horse Movies|accessdate=2008-04-22|author= Stoddard, Samuel |work= At-a-Glance Film Reviews|publisher= Rink Works}}</ref> The horse frequently appears in coats of arms in [[heraldry]]. The horse can be represented as standing, trotting, courant (running) or salient (rearing). The horse may be saddled and bridled, harnessed, or without any harness whatsoever.<ref>{{cite web |url= http://www.heraldsnet.org/saitou/parker/Jpglossh.htm#Horse|title= A Glossary of Terms Used in Heraldry|accessdate=2008-04-03|author= Parker, James|work= Heraldsnet.org|publisher= Heraldsnet}} </ref> The horse features in the 12-year cycle of animals which appear in the [[Chinese zodiac]] related to the [[Chinese calendar]]. According to Chinese folklore, each animal is associated with certain personality traits, and those born in the year of the horse are intelligent, independent and free-spirited.<ref>{{cite web |url= http://www.c-c-c.org/chineseculture/zodiac/Horse.html|title= Year of the Horse|accessdate=2007-07-22|author= Chinese Culture Center of San Francisco |work= c-c-c.org|publisher= Chinese Culture Center of San Francisco}} </ref> ===Assisted learning and therapy=== {{See also|Hippotherapy|Therapeutic horseback riding|Equine Assisted Learning}} People of all ages with physical and mental disabilities obtain beneficial results from association with horses. Therapeutic riding is used to mentally and physically stimulate disabled persons and help them improve their lives through improved balance and coordination, increased self-confidence and a greater feeling of freedome and independence.<ref>Bush, et.al., ''The Principles of Teaching Riding'', p. 58</ref> The benefits of equestrian activity for people with disabilities has also been recognized with the addition of equestrian events to the [[Paralympic Games]] and recognition of para-equestrian events by the [[International Federation for Equestrian Sports|FEI]].<ref>{{cite web |url= http://www.fei.org/Disciplines/Para-Equestrian/About_Para-Equestrian/Pages/What_Is_Para-Equestrian.aspx|title= What Is Para-Equestrian?|accessdate=2008-07-08 |author= Federation Equestre Internationale|work= Para-Equestrian|publisher= FEI}}</ref> [[Hippotherapy]] and [[therapeutic horseback riding]] are names for different physical, occupational, and speech therapy treatment strategies that utilize equine movement. In hippotherapy, a therapist uses the horse's movement to provide improve their patient's cognitive, coordination, balance and fine motor skills, whereas therapeutic horseback riding uses specific riding skills.<ref>{{cite web |url= http://www.narha.org/PDFFiles/FAQ_Hippotherapy.pdf|title= Frequently Asked Questions About Hippotherapy|accessdate=2008-07-08 |author= American Hippotherapy Association|work= FAQ - AHA, April 2005|publisher= American Hippotherapy Association}}</ref> Horses also provide psychological benefits to people whether they actually ride or not. "Equine-assisted" or "equine-facilitated" [[psychotherapy]] is a form of experiential psychotherapy that uses horses as companion animals to assist people with psychological problems, including anxiety disorders, psychotic disorders, mood disorders, behavioral difficulties, mental illness and those who are going through major life changes.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.narha.org/SecEFMHA/FactSheet.asp|title=Equine Facilitated Psychotherapy (EFP) Fact Sheet|accessdate=2008-07-08 |author= Equine Facilitated Mental Health Association|work= EFMHA Website|publisher= EFMHA}}</ref> [[Equine Assisted Learning]] (EAL) (also known as equine guided education or equine assisted professional development) is field of experiential learning for corporate, professional and personal development.<ref>{{cite web |url= http://www.chiefexecutive.com/display_article.asp?id=1410|title= Why Talk to a Guru - When You Can Whisper to a Horse|accessdate=2008-07-08 |author= The Academy for Chief Executives|work= Articles|publisher= The Academy for Chief Executives}}</ref> There are also experimental programs using horses in [[prison]] settings. Exposure to horses appears to improve the behavior of inmates in a prison setting and help reduce [[recidivism]] when they leave.<ref>Wise, [http://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=9404E6D91331F933A2575BC0A9659C8B63 " Partners, Horse and Man, in Prison Pasture"], ''New York Times''</ref> ===Warfare=== [[Image:Charge3.jpg|thumb|A modern reenactment of a [[cavalry]] charge by members of the Horse Cavalry detachment of the [[United States Army]]'s 1st Cavalry.]] {{main|Horses in warfare}} [[Horses in warfare]] have been seen for most of recorded history, dating back at least to the 19th century B.C..<ref>Chamberlin ''Horse''</ref> While mechanization has largely replaced the horse as a weapon of war, horses are still seen today in limited military uses, mostly for ceremonial purposes, or for reconnaissance and transport activities in areas of rough terrain where motorized vehicles are ineffective. Horses have been used in the 21st century by the [[Janjaweed]] militias in the [[Darfur conflict]].<ref>Lacey "In Sudan, Militiamen on Horses Uproot a Million" ''New York Times''</ref> ===Products=== Horses have been used for the production of many products throughout history, including byproducts from the slaughter of horses and products collected from living horses. [[Horse meat]] has been used as food for animals and humans throughout the ages. It is eaten in many parts of the world and is an export industry in the United States and other countries.<ref name=USDA>{{cite web |url= http://www.igha.org/USDA.html|title= U.S.D.A. Promotes Horse & Goat Meat|accessdate=2008-04-03 |author= U.S. Department of Agriculture|work= I.G.H.A./HorseAid's U.S.D.A. Report|publisher= U.S. Department of Agriculture}}</ref> Bills have been introduced in both the House and the Senate which would put an end to this practice in the United States. <ref>{{cite web |url= http://www.sfgate.com/cgi-bin/article.cgi?file=/c/a/2006/09/08/MNGI9L1RMK1.DTL|title= House votes to outlaw slaughter of horses for human consumption|accessdate=2008-04-03 |author= Coile, Zachary |work= SF Gate |publisher= San Francisco Chronicle}}</ref> Horse consumption is [[taboo]] in some cultures.<ref name=USDA/> Horsehide leather has been used for boots, gloves, [[A-2 jacket|jackets]],<ref name="by-product">Ockerman ''Animal By-product Processing & Utilization'' p. 129</ref> [[Baseball (object)|baseballs]],<ref>{{cite web |url= http://www.baseball-fever.com/showthread.php?p=309566|title= Inside a Modern Baseball |accessdate=2008-04-03 |author= Webmaster |work= Baseball Fever|publisher= Baseball Almanac}} </ref>and baseball gloves. The saba is a horsehide vessel used in the production of [[kumis]]. Horsehide and horse hooves can also be used to produce [[animal glue]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.fineartstore.com/Catalog/tabid/365/List/1/CategoryID/13595/Level/a/Default.aspx |title=Horse Hide Glue |accessdate=2008-04-20 }}</ref> Horse bones can be used to make implements.<ref >MacGregor ''Bone, Antler, Ivory and Horn'' p. 31</ref> Specifically, in Italian cuisine, the horse [[tibia]] is sharpened into a probe called a ''spinto'', which is used to test the readiness of a (pig) ham as it cures.<ref>Fort ''Eating Up Italy'' p. 171</ref> Products collected from living horses include mare's milk, used by people with large horse-herds, such as the [[Mongols]]. They may let it ferment to produce [[kumis]].<ref name=NewYorker>Frazier "Invaders" ''The New Yorker''</ref> Horse blood was also used as food by the Mongols and other [[nomadic]] tribes. The Mongols found this food source especially convenient when riding for long periods of time. Drinking their own horse's blood allowed the Mongols to ride for extended periods of time without stopping to eat.<ref name=NewYorker/> [[Premarin]] is a mixture of female hormones ([[estrogen]]s) extracted from the urine of pregnant mares ('''pre'''gnant '''mar'''es' ur'''in'''e). It is a widely used drug for [[Hormone replacement therapy (menopause)|hormone replacement therapy]]. This horse product is very controversial.<ref>{{cite web |url= http://www.hsus.org/horses_equines/issues/the_facts_about_premarin.html|title= The Facts About Premarin®|accessdate=2008-04-03 |author= The Humane Society of the United States|work= Issues Facing Equines|publisher= The Humane Society of the United States}} </ref> The tail hair of the horse can be used for making [[bow (music)|bow]]s for [[stringed instrument]]s such as the [[violin]], [[viola]], [[cello]], and [[double bass]].<ref>{{cite web |url= http://www.johnsonstring.com/horse.htm|title= From Horse to Bow|accessdate=2008-04-03 |author= VanClay, Mary |work= News You Can Use|publisher= Johnson String Instrument}} </ref> ==Care== {{Main|Horse care}} {{seealso|Equine nutrition|Horse grooming|Veterinary medicine|Farrier}} Horses are [[grazing]] animals, thus their most important dietary need is for abundant good-quality [[forage]] from [[hay]] or pasture. A common guideline is that horse weighing approximately {{convert|1000|lb|kg}} should eat {{convert|15|lb|kg}} to {{convert|18|lb|kg}} of good quality roughage daily. Some supplementation with concentrated feed such as [[grain]] may be an addition (not replacement for) pasture or hay, especially when the animal is active or working.<ref>Giffin ''Horse Owner's Veterinary Handbook'' pp. 476-477</ref> Horses require a plentiful supply of clean [[water]], a minimum of {{convert|10|USgal|L}} to {{convert|12|USgal|L}} per day.<ref>Giffin ''Horse Owner's Veterinary Handbook'' p. 455</ref> Although horses are adapted to live outside, they require shelter from the wind and [[Precipitation (meteorology)|precipitation]], which can range from a simple shed or shelter to an elaborate [[stable]].<ref>Giffin ''Horse Owner's Veterinary Handbook'' p. 482</ref> Horses require regular [[vaccination]]s to protect against various [[disease]]s, need routine [[horse hoof|hoof]] care, and regular [[horse teeth|dental]] examinations from a [[veterinarian]] or a specialized equine dentist.<ref>Giffin ''Horse Owner's Veterinary Handbook'' p. 62,168,310</ref> If horses are kept inside in a [[barn]], they require regular daily exercise for their physical health and mental well-being.<ref>{{cite web |url= http://www.hsus.org/horses_equines/companions/general_horse_care_guidelines.html|title= General Horse Care Guidelines|accessdate=2008-04-22 |author= Humane Society of the United States |work= Horses: Companions for Life |publisher= Humane Society of the United States}}</ref> When turned outside, they require well-maintained, sturdy [[agricultural fencing|fences]] to be safely contained.<ref>Wheeler ''Horse Stable and Riding Arena Design'' p. 215</ref> Regular [[horse grooming|grooming]] is also helpful to help the horse maintain good health of the hair coat and underlying skin.<ref>Giffin ''Horse Owner's Veterinary Handbook'' p. 90</ref> ==Riding and driving== {{Main|Equestrianism|Driving (horse)}} Horses are usually ridden with a [[saddle]] on their backs to assist the rider with balance, and a [[bridle]] on their heads to assist the rider in maintaining control. However, many riders ride on occasion without a saddle and some horses can be trained to perform without a bridle or other headgear. Many horses are also [[Driving (horse)|driven]], which requires a different set of [[Horse tack|tack]]. From the time the horse was [[domestication of the horse|domesticated]], a wide variety of riding methods or styles have developed, all of which balance the need to allow the horse freedom of movement in activities such as [[horse racing]] or [[show jumping]] and the need for security and comfort for the rider, precision of commands, and overall control. Activities such as [[dressage]] and [[reining]] require high levels of control, while [[horse racing]] or [[show jumping]] require that a horse have considerable freedom of movement. Worldwide, the most common modern riding style is referred to in the [[United States]] as [[English riding]], which is a broad style that encompasses most [[Equestrian at the Summer Olympics|Olympic Equestrian]] competition, and includes such specific styles as [[dressage]], [[hunt seat]], [[show jumping]] and [[saddle seat]], among many others. [[Western riding]] is a popular style seen in [[North America]], derived from the traditions of [[Spain]], modified to fit the needs of cattle [[ranch]]ers. A similar riding style is seen with the [[Stockman]] of [[Australia]].{{Fact|date=April 2008}} ==See also== {{commonscat|Equus caballus}} {{wikispecies|Equus caballus}} {{wikiquote|Horses}} *[[Equine prepurchase exam]] *[[Horse tack]] *[[Horse training]] *[[Horse breeding]] *[[List of horse breeds]] *[[Horse care]] ==Notes== {{reflist|2}} ==References== {{refbegin}} *{{cite book |author= Apperson, George Latimer and Martin Manser|title= Dictionary of Proverbs|edition= |publisher= Wordsworth Editions|year= 2006|isbn=1840223111}} * {{cite book |author= Barnett, Keith C. et al.|title= Equine Ophthalmology|edition= |publisher= Elsevier Saunders|location= London|year= 2004|isbn=0702027480}} * {{cite book |author= Bennett, Deb|title= Conquerors: The Roots of New World Horsemanship|edition= First Edition|publisher= Amigo Publications, Inc.|location= |year= 1998 |isbn=0-9658533-0-6}} * {{cite journal |last=Briggs |first=Helen |date=July 16, 2002 |title=Origins of domestic horse revealed|journal=BBC News Online |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/sci/tech/2129182.stm |accessdate= 2008-07-07}} * {{cite book |title= The Manual of Horsemanship of the British Horse Society and the Pony Club |author=British Horse Society |year=1966|edition=6th edition, reprinted 1970 |publisher= British Horse Society |location= Kenilworth, UK}} * {{cite book |author= Budiansky, Stephen|title= The Nature of Horses|edition= |publisher= Free Press|location= |year= 1997|isbn=0-684-82768-9}} *{{cite book |author= Bush, Karen and Julian Marczak|title= The Principles of Teaching Riding: The Official Manual of the Association of British Riding Schools|edition= |publisher= David & Charles|year= 2005|isbn=0715319027|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=uCQYEduHy8cC&pg=PA58&dq=people+with+disabilities+riding+horses+benefits&sig=ACfU3U3imVgBPPwy0P7q8PKIb-UzhQlciA}} * {{cite book |author=Campbell, B.N. |title=[http://books.google.com/books?id=-p7ZF9KW8-MC&printsec=frontcover#PPA111,M1 National Gambling Impact Study Commission Final Report (1999)]|publisher=DIANE Publishing |location=Darby, PA|year=2001 |edition=|isbn=0756707013}} * {{cite book |author= Chamberlin, J. Edward|title= Horse: How the Horse Has Shaped Civilizations|edition= |publisher= Bluebridge|location= |year= 2006|isbn=0-9742405-9-1}} * {{cite book |author=DeFilippis, Chris |title=The Everything Horse Care Book |publisher=Adams Media |location= |year=2006 |edition=|isbn=1593375301}} * {{cite book |author=Edwards, Elwyn Hartley |title=The Encyclopedia of the Horse |publisher=Dorling Kindersley |location= |year=1994 |isbn=1564586146}} * {{cite book |author=Edwards, Gladys Brown |title=The Arabian: War Horse to Show Horse |publisher=Rich Publishing |location= |year=1973 |edition=Revised Collectors Edition |isbn=}} * {{cite book |author= Ensminger, M. E.|title= Horses and Horsemanship: Animal Agricultural Series|edition= Sixth Edition|publisher= Interstate Publishers|location= |year= 1990|isbn=0-8134-2883-1}} * {{cite book |author= Ensminger, M.E.|title= Horses and Tack|edition= Revised Edition|publisher= Houghton Mifflin Company|location= |year= 1991|isbn= 0-395-54413-0}} * {{cite book |author= Evans, J. et al.|title= The Horse|edition= Second Edition|publisher= Freeman|location= New York|year= 1990|isbn=0-7167-1811-1}} * {{cite book |author= Evans, James Warren|title=[http://books.google.com/books?id=QofYEVPeIBUC&pg=PA56&dq=horse+breeds+date:1950-2008&lr=&as_brr=3&sig=0YpXH2g02DjUurVPtTaZt_YsIRA#PPA53,M1 Horse Breeding and Management]|edition= |publisher= Elsevier Health Sciences|location= |year= 1992 | |isbn=0765600617}} * {{cite book |author= Fort, Matthew|title= Eating Up Italy: Voyages on a Vespa|edition= |publisher= Centro Books|location= |year= 2005|isbn=0-00-721481-2}} * {{cite web |url= http://www.newyorker.com/archive/2005/04/25/050425fa_fact4|title= Invaders: Destroying Baghdad|accessdate=2008-04-03 |author= Frazier, Ian |work= The New Yorker|publisher= CondeNet}} * {{cite book |author=Giffin, M.D., James M. and Tom Gore, D.V.M.|title= Horse Owner’s Veterinary Handbook |edition= Second Edition|publisher= Howell Book House |location= New York|year=1998|isbn=0-87605-606-0}} * {{cite book |author= Hairston, Rachel and Madelyn Larsen|title= The Essentials of Horsekeeping|publisher= Sterling Publishing Company, Inc.|year= 2004 |isbn=0806988177|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=vSBwbz7FozYC&pg=PA77&dq=horse+touch+fly&lr=&sig=ACfU3U08pjL8o0-BgZaX3EO4rPLQa4iQiQ}} * {{cite book |last=Hammond |first=Gerald |title=The Language of Horse Racing |url=http://books.google.com/books?id=CJ4zH2P_6mMC&printsec=frontcover&dq=colt&ei=P3QLSNqAAZy4iQGi7Z2iAQ&sig=y022yqRPEjMDxz2qZBmIIGfPSFU#PPA49,M1|date=2000 |publisher=Taylor & Francis |location=London |isbn=1579582761}} * {{cite book |author= Harris, Susan E.|title= Horse Gaits, Balance and Movement|edition= |publisher= Howell Book House|location= New York|year= 1993|isbn= 0-87605-955-8}} * {{cite book |author= Hedge, Juliet and Don M. Wagoner|title= Horse Conformation: Structure, Soundness and Performance|edition= |publisher= Globe Pequot|location=|year= 2004|isbn= 1592284876}} * {{cite book |author= Henry, Marguerite|title= All About Horses|edition= |publisher= Random House|location= |year= 1967|isbn= ASIN: B000H1MRGW}} * {{cite journal |last=Hura |first=V |coauthors=et al |year=1997 |month=October |title=The effect of some factors on gestation length in nonius breed mares in Slovakia (Egyes tényezõk hatása a nóniusz fajta vemhességének idõtartamára)|journal=Proceedings of Roundtable Conference on Animal Biotechnology |volume=XIII |url=http://www.oai.hu/kerekasztal/XIII./hura.htm |accessdate= 2008-04-22 }} * {{cite book |last=Kreling |first=Kai |title=Horses' Teeth and Their Problems: Prevention, Recognition, and Treatment |url=http://books.google.com/books?id=3q1LINmOkOIC&pg=PA117-IA1&dq=interdental+space++bit&lr=&ei=1YkLSOOzJorGjgH_8ZiiAQ&sig=R_CJvltPi3zE7kmjJoB2wTo3Ekw#PPA12,M1 |date=2005 |publisher=Globe Pequot |location= |isbn=1592286968 |chapter=The Horse's Teeth}} * {{cite web |url= http://www.nytimes.com/2004/05/04/international/africa/04DARF.html?ex=1399003200&en=b72ea0a4b892076d&ei=5007&partner=USERLAND|title=In Sudan, Militiamen on Horses Uproot a Million |accessdate=2008-04-03 |author= Lacey, Marc |work= The New York Times|publisher= The New York Times Company}} * {{cite book |author= MacGregor, Arthur|title= Bone, Antler, Ivory and Horn: Technology of Skeletal Materials Since the Roman Period|edition= |publisher= Barnes & Noble|location= |year= 1985 |isbn=0389205311}} * {{cite book |author= Matossian, Mary Kilbourne|title= [http://books.google.com/books?id=LkRATLisN0sC&pg=PA43&dq=horse+domestication&lr=&as_brr=3&sig=bV3A1JmL3racD9ZwC0U4pS3x3LQ#PPA43,M1 Shaping World History: Breakthroughs in Ecology, Technology, Science, and Politics]|edition=|publisher= M.E. Sharpe|location= |year= 1997 |isbn=0444882820}} * {{cite web |url= http://www.blackwell-synergy.com/doi/abs/10.1111/j.1439-0388.2004.00481.x?journalCode=jbg |title= Genetic mapping of dominant white (W), a homozygous lethal condition in the horse (Equus caballus) (2004)|accessdate=2006-09-06 |author= Mau, C., Poncet, P. A., Bucher, B., Stranzinger, G. & Rieder, S. |work= Journal of Animal Breeding and Genetics|publisher= 121 (6), 374-383. doi: 10.1111/ j.1439-0388.2004.00481.x}} * {{cite journal |author= McAfee, Melonyce |date=2007-01-30|title= Did They Save Barbaro's Semen? |journal= Slate |url= http://www.slate.com/id/2158610/ |accessdate=2008-05-01}} * {{cite book |author= McBane, Susan|title= A Natural Approach to Horse Management|edition= |publisher= Methuen|location= London|year= 1992|isbn= 0-413-62370-X}} * {{cite book |title=The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Horse Breeds |last=McBane |first=Susan |year=1997 |publisher=Wellfleet Press |location=Edison, NJ |isbn=0-7858-0604-0}} * {{cite web |url= http://www.thehorse.com/viewarticle.aspx?ID=9670|title= In Living Color |accessdate=2007-07-27 |author= McDonnell, Sue |work= The Horse June 1, 2007|publisher= The Horse, Inc.}} * {{cite book |author=Miller, Robert M.|title= Understanding the Ancient Secrets of the Horse's Mind |publisher= Russell Meerdink Company Ltd|year=1999|isbn=0929346653|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=5Qat2gs43owC&pg=PA28&lpg=PA28&dq=horse+sense+of+taste&source=web&ots=QSx1OAw_cU&sig=1JVoIpjEf_76dUISNGtzV5ol1HM&hl=en&sa=X&oi=book_result&resnum=10&ct=result}} * {{cite book |title=A Basic Guide to Horse Care and Management|author=Mills, Bruce and Barbara Carne |year=1988 |publisher=Howell Book House |isbn=0876058713}} * {{cite journal |author= Mott, Maryann |date=2006-04-04|title= Champion Horses Cloned by Texas Breeder |journal= National Geographic News |url= http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2006/04/0404_060404_horse_clone.html |accessdate=2008-05-01 }} * {{cite book |author=Myers, Jane |title=[http://books.google.com/books?id=-gAgchKMXdkC&printsec=frontcover&dq=horse+subject:%22Sports+%26+Recreation+/+Equestrian%22&sig=iZlW5ZvqPuIER4KhukTy5veK4ug#PPA7,M1 Horse Safe: A Complete Guide to Equine Safety] |publisher=CSIRO Publishing |location= |year=2005 |edition=|isbn=0643092455}} * {{cite book |last=Ockerman |first=Herbert W. |authorlink= |coauthors=Hansen, Conly L. |title=Animal By-product Processing & Utilization |url= |accessdate=2008-04-20 |date=2000 ||publisher=CRC Press |location= |isbn=1566767776}} * {{cite book |author= Prince, Eleanor F. and Gaydell M. Collier|title= Basic Horsemanship: English and Western|edition= |publisher= Doubleday|location= New York|year= 1974|isbn=0-385-06587-6}} * {{cite book |author=Smith, BP |title=Large Animal Internal Medicine|publisher=Mosby|location=St. Louis MO|year=1996 |edition=Second Edition |isbn=0-8151-7724-0}} * {{cite book |author=Vogel, Colin B.V.M|title=The Complete Horse Care Manual|publisher=Dorling Kindersley Publishing, Inc.|location=New York|year=1995 |isbn=0789401703}} * {{cite book |last=Wheeler |first=Eileen|title=Horse Stable And Riding Arena Design |url=http://books.google.com/books?id=c3dGxSY6E54C&pg=PA215&dq=horse+%22sturdy+fencing%22&lr=&ei=1I4LSJ6RIJTyiwHlqJirAQ&sig=byyUlPxTzXwpIWNz6Cr4Lp7V7rg |date=2006 |publisher=Blackwell Publishing |location= |isbn=0813828597|chapter=Fence Planning }} * {{cite journal |author= Wise, Mike |date=2003-08-10|title= Partners, Horse and Man, in Prison Pasture |journal= New York Times |url= http://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=9404E6D91331F933A2575BC0A9659C8B63 |accessdate=2008-07-08}} {{refend}} <!-- ****************************************************************** Please read WP:EL#Links_to_normally_avoid and don't even bother inserting forum links here, we will revert them! ******************************************************************* --> {{Perissodactyla}} {{Equidae|state=collapsed}} [[Category:Horses| ]] [[Category:Livestock]] [[Category:Equids]] [[Category:Animal-powered transport]] [[am:ፈረስ]] [[ang:Hors]] [[ar:حصان]] [[an:Caballo]] [[ast:Caballu]] [[gn:Kavaju]] [[ay:Kawallu]] [[az:آت]] [[bn:ঘোড়া]] [[zh-min-nan:Bé]] [[map-bms:Jaran]] [[bar:Pferdl]] [[bo:རྟ་]] [[bs:Konj]] [[br:Marc'h]] [[bg:Кон]] [[ca:Cavall]] [[cv:Лаша]] [[cs:Kůň]] [[co:Cavaddu]] [[cy:Ceffyl]] [[da:Hest]] [[pdc:Gaul]] [[de:Hauspferd]] [[nv:Łįįʼ]] [[et:Hobune]] [[el:Άλογο]] [[eml:Cavàl]] [[es:Equus caballus]] [[eo:Ĉevalo]] [[eu:Zaldi]] [[fa:اسب]] [[fr:Cheval]] [[gd:Each]] [[gl:Cabalo]] [[hak:Mâ]] [[ko:말 (동물)]] [[hr:Domaći konj]] [[io:Kavalo]] [[id:Kuda]] [[ia:Cavallo]] [[os:Бæх]] [[is:Hestur]] [[it:Equus caballus]] [[he:סוס הבית]] [[jv:Jaran]] [[ka:ცხენი]] [[kw:Margh]] [[ht:Chwal]] [[ku:Hesp]] [[la:Equus]] [[lv:Zirgs]] [[lt:Arklys]] [[lij:Cavallo]] [[li:Taam peerd]] [[hu:Ló]] [[mk:Коњ]] [[mg:Soavaly]] [[ml:കുതിര]] [[mt:Żiemel]] [[mr:घोडा]] [[cdo:Mā]] [[nah:Cahuāyoh]] [[myv:Лишме]] [[nl:Paard (dier)]] [[nds-nl:Peerd]] [[cr:ᑳᐸᓚᑲᔅᐧᑫᐤ]] [[ja:ウマ]] [[no:Hest]] [[nn:Hest]] [[nrm:J'va]] [[oc:Equus cavallus]] [[nds:Peerd]] [[pl:Koń]] [[pt:Cavalo]] [[ro:Cal]] [[qu:Kawallu]] [[ru:Лошадь]] [[sah:Сылгы]] [[sco:Horse]] [[scn:Cavaddu]] [[simple:Horse]] [[sk:Kôň (podrod)]] [[sl:Domači konj]] [[sr:Домаћи коњ]] [[sh:Konj]] [[fi:Hevonen]] [[sv:Häst]] [[tl:Kabayo]] [[ta:குதிரை]] [[th:ม้า]] [[tg:Асп]] [[tr:At]] [[uk:Кінь]] [[fiu-vro:Hopõn]] [[wa:Tchivå]] [[yi:פערד]] [[bat-smg:Arklīs]] [[zh:马]]