Hunting 38791 226118636 2008-07-16T22:09:03Z ClueBot 4928500 Reverting possible vandalism by [[Special:Contributions/67.42.136.153|67.42.136.153]] to version by Okiefromokla. False positive? [[User:ClueBot/FalsePositives|Report it]]. Thanks, [[User:ClueBot]]. (441912) (Bot) {{Otheruses4|the hunting of prey by human society}} {{Redirect|Hunter}} [[Image:37-svaghi, caccia,Taccuino Sanitatis, Casanatense 4182..jpg|thumb|280px|[[Boar]] hunting, [[tacuinum sanitatis]] casanatensis (14th century)]] '''Hunting''' is the practice of pursuing [[animal]]s for [[food]], [[recreation]], or [[trade]]. In modern use, the term refers to regulated and legal hunting, as distinguished from [[poaching]], which is the killing, trapping or capture of animals contrary to law. Hunted animals are referred to as [[game (food)|game]] animals, and are usually large or small [[mammals]], [[Bird migration|migratory]] [[gamebird]]s, or [[Resident bird|non-migratory gamebirds]]. Hunting can also involve the elimination of [[vermin]] as a means of [[pest control]]. Hunting advocates claim that hunting can be a necessary<ref>Williams, Ted. "Wanted: More Hunters," ''Audubon'' magazine, March 2002, [http://magazine.audubon.org/incite/incite0203.html copy] retrieved 2007-10-26.</ref> component of modern [[wildlife management]], for example to help maintain a population of healthy animals within an environment's ecological [[carrying capacity]] when natural checks such as predators are absent.<ref>{{cite web|last = Harper|first = Craig A|title = Quality Deer Management Guidelines for Implementation|publisher = Agricultural Extension Service, The University of Tennessee|url = http://www.utextension.utk.edu/publications/pbfiles/PB1643.pdf|format = [[PDF]]| accessdate = 2006-12-20}}</ref> In the United States, wildlife managers are frequently part of hunting regulatory and licensing bodies, where they help to set rules on the number, manner and conditions in which game may be hunted. The pursuit, capture and release, or capture for food of [[fish]] is called [[fishing]], which is not commonly categorized as a kind of hunting. [[Trapping (Animal)|Trapping]] is also usually considered a separate activity. Neither is it considered hunting to pursue animals without intent to take them, as in [[wildlife]] [[photography]] or [[birdwatching]]. The practice of ''hunting'' for [[plant]]s or [[mushrooms]] is a colloquial term for [[hunter-gatherer|gathering]]. == History == === Paleolithic === {{see|Hunting hypothesis}} Hunting has an extremely long history and may well pre-date the rise of species ''[[Human evolution|Homo sapiens]]''. While our earliest [[Hominidae|Hominid]] ancestors were probably frugivore or omnivore, there is evidence that early [[Homo genus|Homo]], and possibly already [[Australopithecine]]<ref>In 1992, trace element studies of the strontium/calcium ratios in robust australopithecine fossils suggested the possibility of animal consumption, as did a 1994 using stable carbon isotopic analysis. {{cite web | author = Billings, Tom | assessdate = 2007-01-06 | title = Comparative Anatomy and Physiology Brought Up to Date--continued, Part 3B) | url = http://www.beyondveg.com/billings-t/comp-anat/comp-anat-3b.shtml}}</ref> species have used larger animals for [[subsistence]], and that hunting may have been one of the multiple [[environmental factor]]s leading to replacement of [[holocene]] [[megafauna]] by smaller [[herbivores]].<ref>{{cite journal | last = Surovell | first = Todd | authorlink = | coauthors = Nicole Waguespack and P. Jeffrey Brantingham | title = Global archaeological evidence for proboscidean overkill | journal = Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences | volume = 102 | issue = 17 | pages = 6231–6236 | publisher = The National Academy of Sciences (USA) | date = 2005-04-13 | url = http://www.pnas.org/cgi/reprint/102/17/6231 | doi = 10.1073/pnas.0501947102 | id = | format = [[PDF]] | accessdate = 2007-01-01 | pmid = 15829581 }}</ref> Of the closest surviving relatives of the human species, ''[[Chimpanzee|Pan]]'', the [[Common Chimpanzee]] has an [[omnivore|omnivorous]] [[diet (nutrition)|diet]] including troop [[predation|hunting]] [[behavior]] based on beta males led by an [[alpha male]], while [[Bonobo]]s, on the other hand have a mostly [[frugivorous]] diet and [[egalitarian]], [[nonviolent]] behavior. While it is undisputed that early humans were hunters, the importance of this fact for the final steps in the emergence of the ''[[Homo (genus)|Homo]]'' genus out of earlier [[Australopithecines]], with its [[bipedalism]] and production of [[stone tool]]s (from about 2.5 million years ago), and eventually also [[control of fire]] (from about 1.5 million years ago), are emphasized in the "[[hunting hypothesis]]", and de-emphasized in scenarios that stress the [[omnivore]] status of humans as their recipe for success, and [[social interaction]], including [[mating behaviour]] as essential in the emergence of [[behavioral modernity]]. With the establishment of [[language]], [[culture]] and [[origin of religion|religion]], hunting became a [[Theme (literature)|theme]] of [[storytelling|stories]] and [[Mythology|myths]], besides [[ritual]]s such as [[dance]] and [[animal sacrifice]]. Hunting was a crucial component of [[hunter-gatherer]] societies before the [[domestication]] of [[livestock]] and the dawn of [[Neolithic Revolution|agriculture]], beginning about 11,000 years ago. By the [[Mesolithic]], hunting strategies had diversified with the developent of the [[Bow (weapon)|bow]] (by 18,000 years ago) and the [[domestication of the dog]] (about 15,000 years ago). There is fossil evidence for spear use in Asian hunting dating from approximately 16,200 years ago.<ref>{{cite conference | first = Vasiliy N. | last = Zenin | authorlink = | coauthors = Evgeny N. MASCHENKO, Sergey V. LESHCHINSKIY, Aleksandr F. PAVLOV, Pieter M. GROOTES, and Marie-Josée NADEAU | title = THE FIRST DIRECT EVIDENCE OF MAMMOTH HUNTING IN ASIA (LUGOVSKOYE SITE, WESTERN SIBERIA) (L) | booktitle = 3rd International Mammoth Conference | pages = | publisher = John Storer, Government of Yukon (John. Storer@gov.yk.ca) | date = May 24-29, 2003 | location = Dawson City, Yukon Territory, Canada | url = http://www.yukonmuseums.ca/mammoth/abstrt-z.htm | doi = | id = | accessdate = 2007-01-01}}</ref> The North American megafauna extinction was coincidental with the [[Younger Dryas impact event]], making hunting a less critical factor in prehistoric species loss than had been previously thought.<ref>American Geophysical Union paper PP43A-01, [http://www.agu.org/meetings/sm07/sm07-sessions/sm07_PP43A.html abstract] retrieved 2007-10-26</ref> Many species of animals have been hunted and [[Reindeer|caribou/wild reindeer]] "may well be the species of single greatest importance in the entire anthropological literature on hunting"<ref name=Burch>"In North America and Eurasia the species has long been an important resource--in many areas ''the'' most important resource--for peoples inhabiting the northern [[Taiga|boreal forest]] and tundra regions. Known human dependence on caribou/wild reindeer has a long history, beginning in the Middle Pleistocene (Banfield 1961:170; Kurtén 1968:170) and continuing to the present....The caribou/wild reindeer is thus an animal that has been a major resource for humans throughout a tremendous geographic area and across a time span of tens of thousands of years." Ernest S. Burch, Jr. [http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0002-7316%28197207%2937%3A3%3C339%3ATCRAAH%3E2.0.CO%3B2-1&size=LARGE&origin=JSTOR-enlargePage The Caribou/Wild Reindeer as a Human Resource.] ''American Antiquity'', Vol. 37, No. 3 (Jul., 1972), pp. 339-368.</ref> (see also [[Reindeer Age]]). Hunter-gathering lifestyles remained prevalent in the [[New World]] and [[Sub-Saharan Africa]] (with the notable exception of [[Agriculture in Mesoamerica|Aztec]] and [[Incan agriculture]]) until the European [[Age of Discovery]], and they persist in some [[tribal societies]], albeit in rapid decline. Peoples that preserved paleolithic hunting-gathering until the recent past include some [[List of indigenous peoples in Brazil|indigenous peoples of the Amazonas]] ([[Aché]]), some Central and Southern African [[Bushmen]] ([[Hadza people]], [[Khoisan]]), some peoples of [[New Guinea]] ([[Fayu]]), the [[Mlabri]] of Thailand and Laos, the [[Vedda people]] of Sri Lanka and a handful of [[uncontacted peoples]]. ===Antiquity=== [[Image:Diane de Versailles Leochares.jpg|thumb|right|''Artemis with a Hind'', a [[Ancient Rome|Roman]] copy of an [[Ancient Greece|Ancient Greek]] [[sculpture]], circa 325 BC, by [[Leochares]]]] Even as [[domestication#Animal Domestication|animal domestication]] became relatively widespread, hunting was usually a significant contributor to the human food supply, even after the development of [[agriculture]]. The supplementary meat and materials from hunting included [[protein]], [[bone]] for implements, [[sinew]] for cordage, [[fur]], [[feathers]], [[rawhide]] and [[leather]] used in clothing. The earliest hunting tools would have included rocks, [[spears]], the [[atlatl]], [[Bow (weapon)|bow]] and [[arrow]]s. On ancient reliefs, especially from Mesopotamia, kings are often depicted as hunters of big game such as lions, especially from a [[war chariot]]. The cultural and psychological importance of hunting in ancient societies is represented by deities such as the horned god [[Cernunnos]], or lunar goddesses of [[classical antiquity]], Greek [[Artemis]] or Roman [[Diana (mythology)|Diana]]. [[Taboo]]s are often related to hunting, and mythological association of prey species with a divinity could be reflected in hunting restrictions such as a 'reserve' surrounding a temple, [[Euripides]]' tale of Artemis and [[Acteon]], for example, may be seen as a caution against disrespect of prey or impudent boasting. Hunting is still vital in marginal climates, especially those unsuited for [[pastoral]] uses or agriculture. [[Inuit]] peoples in the Arctic trap and hunt animals for clothing. From the skins of sea mammals, they may make kayaks, clothing, and footwear. With domestication of the [[dog]], [[Bird of prey|birds of prey]] and the [[ferret]], various forms of animal-aided hunting developed including venery ([[scent hound]] hunting, such as [[fox hunting]]), [[coursing]] ([[sight hound]] hunting), [[falconry]] and ferreting. These are all associated with [[medieval hunting]]; in time various [[dog breed]]s were selected for very precise tasks during the hunt, reflected in such names as [[Pointing breed|pointer]] and [[setter]]. === Hunting in pastoral and agricultural societies === [[Image:Ladies Hunting.png|thumb|left|''Ladies Hunting, Costumes of the fifteenth century'', from a miniature in a ms. copy of ''Ovid's Epistles''. No 7231 ''bis.'' Bibl. nat<sup>le</sup> de Paris]] Even as agriculture and [[animal husbandry]] became more prevalent, hunting often remained as a part of human culture where the environment and social conditions allowed. Hunting may be used to kill animals which prey upon domestic animals or to attempt to [[Extirpation|extirpate]] animals seen by humans as competition for resources such as water or forage. As hunting moved from a subsistence activity to a social one, two trends emerged. One was that of the specialist hunter with special training and equipment. The other was the emergence of hunting as a [[sport]] for those of an upper [[social class]]. The meaning of the word "'''game'''" in [[middle English]] evolved to include an animal which is hunted. As [[game (food)|game]] became more of a luxury than a necessity, the stylized pursuit of it also became a luxury. Dangerous hunting, as for lions or wild boars, usually on horseback (or from a [[chariot]]) had a function similar to [[Tournament (medieval)|tournaments]] and manly sports. Hunting was considered to be an honourable, somewhat competitive pastime to help the aristocracy practice skills of [[war]] in times of peace. [[Image:Nobleman in Hunting Costume preceded by his Servant trying to find the Scent of a Stag.png|thumb|right|''Nobleman in Hunting Costume, preceded by his Servant, trying to find the Scent of a Stag'', from a manuscript of the 14th century]] In most parts of [[medieval]] [[Europe]], the upper class obtained the sole rights to hunt in certain areas of a feudal territory. Game in these areas was certainly used as a source of food and furs, often provided via professional huntsmen; but it was also expected to provide a form of recreation for the [[aristocracy]]. The importance of this proprietary view of game can be seen in the [[Robin Hood]] legends, in which one of the primary charges against the outlaws is that they "hunt the King's deer". Hunting played an important role in the culture of the [[Antebellum|antebellum South]]. In most [[Southern United States|southern states]], members of the slaveowning elite attempted to mimic the English aristocracy by imposing a variety of hunting laws and, in a few cases, by creating private game reserves. {{Fact|date=April 2008}} In general, these efforts failed due to the determined efforts of slaves and poor whites to hunt. Consequently, beginning in the early 19th century, members of the elite began importing the idea of "sport" from England. This allowed them to construct a cultural difference between their approach to hunting, which focused on pursuit and the thrill of the chase, and the hunting methods used by poor whites and slaves, which focused on the acquisition of skins, hides, and fresh meat. ===Hunting with dogs=== [[Image:Hunting dogs with catch.jpg|thumb|right|Hunting dogs with pheasants]] Although various animals have been used to aid the hunter, none has been as important as the dog. The domestication of the dog has led to a [[Symbiosis|symbiotic relationship]] in which the dog has lost its evolutionary independence to man in exchange for support. The word for hunting in Ancient Greek, ''kynègia'', is derived from ''kynos'' 'dog'. In the [[Ottoman Empire|Ottoman empire]], some of the elite force of [[Janissaries]], the ruler's guard, were ''Sekban'', or dog guards.{{Fact|date=April 2008}} Dogs today are used to find, chase and retrieve [[game (food)|game]] and sometimes to kill it. [[Hunting dog]]s allow man to pursue and kill prey that would otherwise be very difficult or dangerous to hunt. ===Modern sport hunting=== In time, hunting came to be seen as a sporting activity. Ultimately, the rising [[middle class]] or [[bourgeoisie]] adopted the practice and retained its image. Although recreational hunters may choose to be selective hunters, many people hunt to enjoy the outdoors. Others enjoy game as an alternative to store bought meat. The advent of recreational hunting [[Conservation movement#Contributions by hunters|spurred]] the advent of the modern environmental conservation movement.{{Fact|date=April 2008}} Hunters such as [[Aldo Leopold]], [[John Muir]], and [[Teddy Roosevelt]], became the founding fathers of the modern [[Conservation movement]]. ==Hunting and religion== {{see|Homo Necans}} Since prehistory, the importance of hunting for most cultures was reflected in their religions. For example, many old (often [[zoomorph]]) deities are either predators or prey of man. In pagan religions, specific rituals may be present before or after a hunt, the rituals done may vary according to the species hunted or the season the hunt is taking place. Often a hunting ground, or the hunt for one or more species, was reserved or prohibited in the context of a temple cult. ===Indian religions=== The first Precept of [[Buddhism]] is the respect for all sentient life. The general approach by all Buddhists is to avoid killing any living creatures. The [[Gautama Buddha|Buddha]] explained the issue by saying "all fear death; comparing others with oneself, one should neither kill nor cause to kill". The [[Hinduism|Hindu]] doctrine of [[Ahimsa]] is generally antagonistic to hunting. [[Jainism]] teaches to have tremendous respect for all of life. Prohibitions for hunting and meat eating are the fundamental conditions for being a [[Jain]]. ===Christianity and Judaism=== From early Christian times, hunting has been forbidden to [[Roman Catholic Church]] clerics. Thus the "Corpus Juris Canonici" (C. ii, X, De cleric. venat.) says "We forbid to all servants of God hunting and expeditions through the woods with hounds; and we also forbid them to keep hawks or falcons." The [[Fourth Council of the Lateran]], held under [[Pope Innocent III]], decreed (canon xv): "We interdict hunting or hawking to all clerics." The decree of the [[Council of Trent]] is worded more mildly: "Let clerics abstain from illicit hunting and hawking" (Sess. XXIV, De reform., c. xii), which seems to imply that not all hunting is illicit, and canonists generally make a distinction declaring noisy (''clamorosa'') hunting unlawful but not quiet (''quieta'') hunting. Ferraris (s.v. "Clericus", art. 6) gives it as the general sense of canonists that hunting is allowed to clerics if it be indulged in rarely and for sufficient cause, as necessity, utility or honest recreation, and with that moderation which is becoming to the [[Ecclesiastical government|ecclesiastical state]]. Ziegler, however (De episc., l. IV, c. xix), thinks that the interpretation of the canonists is not in accordance with the letter or spirit of the laws of the Church. Nevertheless, although a distinction between lawful and unlawful hunting is undoubtedly permissible, it is certain that a bishop can absolutely prohibit all hunting to the clerics of his diocese, as was done by synods at Milan, Avignon, Liège, Cologne and elsewhere. [[Benedict XIV]] (De synodo diœces., l. II, c. x) declared that such synodal decrees are not too severe, as an absolute prohibition of hunting is more conformable to the [[Canon law|ecclesiastical law]]. In practice, therefore, the synodal statutes of various localities must be consulted to discover whether they allow quiet hunting or prohibit it altogether. It is important to note that the Bible places no such restrictions on any Christian; however, the animal must be properly drained of blood before consuming it.{{Fact|date=April 2008}} Hence [[Protestantism|Protestant]] clerics, Catholic lay parishioners, and Protestants have no religious restrictions on hunting. This is in accord with what is found in the Bible [[Acts of the Apostles|book of Acts]] 15:28-29. Jewish hunting law, based on the [[Torah]], is similar, permitting hunting of non-preying animals that are additionally considered [[Kosher]] for food, although hunting preying animals for food is strictly prohibited under Rabbinic law. Hence birds of prey are specifically prohibited, being non-Kosher. ==National hunting traditions== ===Shikar (India)=== During the feudal and colonial epoch on the Indian continent, hunting was a true 'regal sport' in the numerous [[princely states]], as many (Maha)rajas, Nawabs, as well as British officers maintained a whole corps of ''shikari''s, who were native professional hunters. They would be headed by a master of the hunt, who might be styled ''Mir-shikar''. Often these were recruited from the normally low-ranking local tribes because of their [[traditional knowledge]] of environment and hunting techniques. Big game, such as Bengal tigers, might be hunted from the back of an [[elephant]]. Indian [[Norm (sociology)|social norms]] are generally antagonistic to hunting, while a few [[sect]]s like the [[Bishnoi]] lay special emphasis on the conservation of particular species like the [[antelope]]. India's [[Wildlife Protection Act of 1972]] bans the killing of all wild animals. However, the Chief Wildlife Warden may, if he is satisfied that any wild animal from a specified list has become dangerous to human life or is so disabled or diseased as to be beyond recovery, permit any person to hunt such animal. In such a case, the body of any wild animal killed or wounded becomes government property.<ref> [http://www.helplinelaw.com/docs/wildlife/01.php Indian Wildlife Protection Act, 1972] </ref> ===Safari===<!-- This section is linked from [[Safari]] --> [[Image:Kenyan hunters.jpg|thumb|right|In 1977 [[Kenya]] chose to ban all hunting in favor of other tourism.]] A '''[[safari]]''', from [[Swahili language|Swahili]] word meaning a long journey, is an overland journey (especially in [[Africa]]). '''Safari''' as a distinctive way of hunting was popularized by US author [[Ernest Hemingway]] and president [[Theodore Roosevelt]]. A safari may consist of several days or even weeks-long journey and camping in the [[The Bush (Australian)|bush]] or [[jungle]], while pursuing [[Game (food)|big game]]. Nowadays, it's often used to describe tours through African [[List of African national parks|national park]]s to watch or hunt wildlife. Hunters are usually tourists, accompanied by (licensed and highly regulated) professional hunter ("PH"), local guides, [[Skinner (profession)|skinners]] and [[Porter (carrier)|porters]] in more difficult terrains. A special safari type is the ''solo-safari'' where all the [[hunting license|license]] acquiring, [[game stalker|stalking]], preparation and outfitting is done by the hunter himself. '''Photo-safaris''' were popular even before the advent of [[ecotourism]]. The synonym '''bloodless hunt''' for hunting with the use of film and a still photo camera was first used by the Polish photographer [[Włodzimierz Puchalski]].{{Fact|date=April 2008}} ===United Kingdom=== [[Image:JohnLeechExcitedNimrod1850.jpg|thumb|right|Fox hunting in 1850s England]] :''See also: [[Hunting in the United Kingdom]]'' [[Fox hunting]] is the type of hunting most closely associated with the [[United Kingdom]]. Originally a form of [[vermin]] control to protect livestock, it became a popular social activity for newly wealthy upper classes in [[Victoria of the United Kingdom|Victorian]] times, and a traditional rural activity for riders and foot followers alike. The complicated rituals of the fox hunt are addressed in the article [[fox hunting]]. Similar to fox hunting in many ways is the chasing of [[hare]] with [[hounds]]. [[Sight hound]]s such as [[greyhounds]] may be used to run down hare in '''coursing''' with [[scent hound]]s such as [[beagle]]s used for '''beagling''', the hunting of hares on foot. Other sorts of [[foxhound]]s may also be used for hunting [[stag|deer]] or [[american mink|mink]]. These forms of hunting have been controversial in the UK. [[Animal welfare]] supporters believe that hunting causes unnecessary suffering to foxes, horses and hounds. Proponents argue that it is both culturally and economically important. Using dogs to chase wild mammals in this way was made illegal in February 2005 by the [[Hunting Act 2004]]. The issues involved are addressed in the article '''[[fox hunting legislation]]'''. Hunting [[deer]] by foot without hounds is called [[game stalker|game stalking]]. The open season for [[grouse]] in the UK begins on [[August 12]], the so-called ''[[Glorious Twelfth]]''. The definition of game in the United Kingdom is governed by the [[List of Acts of Parliament of the United Kingdom Parliament, 1800-1899#1831|Game Act 1831]]. ====The British Shooting Tradition==== The '''shooting''' of game birds, especially [[pheasant]]s is a widespread sport in the UK, with the [[British Association for Shooting and Conservation]] saying that over a million people per year participate in shooting, though this figure includes [[Game (food)|game]] shooting, [[Clay Pigeon Shooting|clay shooting]] and [[Shooting sports|target shooting]].<ref>[http://www.basc.org.uk/content/shooting/ BASC site]</ref> Shooting, as opposed to traditional hunting, requires little questing for game - around 35 million birds are released onto shooting estates every year, some having been [[factory farming|intensively reared]]. Shoots can be elaborate affairs with guns placed in assigned positions with assistants to help load shotguns. When in position, "beaters" move through the areas of cover swinging sticks or flags to drive the game out. Such events are often called "drives". ===United States=== [[Image:Bear hunting Kodiak FWS.jpg|thumb|right|Carrying a [[bear]] trophy head at the [[Kodiak Archipelago]]]] North American hunting predates the United States by thousands of years, and was an important part of many [[pre-Columbian]] [[Native Americans in the United States|Native American]] cultures. [[Native Americans in the United States|Native Americans]] retain some hunting rights and are exempt from some laws as part of Indian treaties and otherwise under [[federal law]]—examples include [[eagle feather law]]s and exemptions in the [[Marine Mammal Protection Act]]. This is considered particularly important in [[Alaska Native]] communities. Regulation of hunting is primarily regulated by [[state law]]; additional regulations are imposed through [[United States environmental law]] in the case of [[migratory birds]] and [[endangered species]]. Regulations vary widely from state to state, and govern the areas, time periods, techniques and methods by which specific game animals may be hunted. Some states make a distinction between protected species and unprotected species (often [[vermin]] or [[varmint]]s) for which there are no hunting regulations. Hunters of protected species require a [[hunting license]] in all states, for which completion of a hunting safety course is sometimes a prerequisite. Typically game animals are divided into several categories for regulatory purposes. Typical categories, along with example species, are as follows: *[[Game (food)|Big game]]: [[white-tailed deer]], [[mule deer]], [[moose]], [[elk]], [[Reindeer|reindeer (caribou)]], [[bear]], [[bighorn sheep]], [[pronghorn]], [[boar]], [[javelina]] as well as exotic species often found in [[canned hunt]]s *Small Game: [[rabbit]], [[hare]], [[squirrel]], [[oppossum]], [[raccoon]] *Furbearers: [[beaver]], [[red fox]], [[mink]], [[pine martin]], [[musk rat]], [[bobcat]] *[[Predation|Predators]]: [[cougar]] (mountain lion/panther), [[coyote]] *[[Upland game bird]]: [[grouse]], [[turkey]], [[chukar]], [[pheasant]], [[bobwhite quail]], [[dove]] *[[Waterfowl]]: [[duck]]s including [[mallard]], [[goose|geese]] including [[Canada goose]] Hunting big game typically requires a "tag" for each animal harvested. Tags must be purchased in addition to the hunting license, and the number of tags issued to an individual is typically limited. In cases where there are more prospective hunters than the quota for that species, tags are usually assigned by lottery. Tags may be further restricted to a specific area or "wildlife management unit." Hunting migratory waterfowl requires a "duck stamp" from the [[United States Fish and Wildlife Service|Fish and Wildlife Service]]. [[Image:Camp on Schoodic Lake, ME.jpg|thumb|left|Hunting camp with [[Field dressing deer|dressed deer]] at Schoodic Lake, [[Maine]] in 1905]] Harvest of animals other than big game is typically restricted by a "bag limit" and a "possession limit." A bag limit is a maximum number of a specific animal species that an individual can harvest in a single day. A possession limit is a maximum number of a specific animal species that can be in an individual's possession at any time. Guns usage in hunting is also typically regulated by game category, area within the state, and time period. Regulations for big game hunting often specify a minimum [[caliber]] or [[muzzle energy]] for [[firearm]]s. The use of [[rifle]]s is often banned for safety reasons in areas with high [[population density]] or limited [[Terrain|topographic relief]]. Regulations may also limit or ban the use of lead in ammunition because of environmental concerns. Specific seasons for [[bow (weapon)|bow]] hunting or [[Muzzleloader|muzzle-loading]] [[black powder]] guns are often established to limit competition with hunters using more effective weapons. Hunting in the United States is not associated with any particular class or culture. In fact, 78% of Americans support legal hunting,<ref>[http://www.responsivemanagement.com/download/news/newsrls_09_06.pdf Results] from a 2006 poll done by Responsive Management</ref> but relatively few Americans actually hunt. At the beginning of the 21st century, 6% of Americans hunted. Southerners in states along the eastern seaboard hunted at a rate slightly below the national average (5%), and while hunting was more common in other parts of the South (9%), these rates did not surpass those of the Plains states, where 12% of Midwesterners hunted. Hunting in other areas of the country fell below the national average.<ref> National statistics from [[United States Department of the Interior|US Department of the Interior]], Fish and Wildlife Service and [[United States Department of Commerce|US Department of Commerce]], [[United States Census Bureau|US Census Bureau]], 2001 National Survey of Fishing, Hunting and Wildlife Associated Recreation, 27.</ref> Overall in the 1996&ndash;2006 period, the number of hunters over the age of 16 declined by 10%, a drop attributable to a number of factors including [[Habitat destruction|habitat loss]] and changes in recreation habits.<ref>Jackson, Patrick. [http://www.delawareonline.com/apps/pbcs.dll/article?AID=/20070906/NEWS/709060368/1006/NEWS ''Number of hunters is dwindling&mdash;Urbanization and cultural changes discourage newcomers to the sport''], The News Journal (Wilmington, Delaware) 2007-09-06, retrieved 2007-10-30.</ref> Regulation of hunting within the United States dates from the 19th century. Some modern hunters see themselves as [[Conservation movement|conservationists]] and sportsmen in the mode of [[Theodore Roosevelt]] and the [[Boone and Crockett Club]]. Local hunting clubs and national organizations provide hunter education and help protect the future of the sport by buying land for future hunting use. Some groups represent a specific hunting interest, such as [[Ducks Unlimited]], [[Pheasants Forever]] or [[Delta Waterfowl]]. Many hunting groups also participate in lobbying the federal government and state government. Each year, nearly $200 million in hunters' federal excise taxes are distributed to state agencies to support wildlife management programs, the purchase of lands open to hunters, and hunter education and safety classes. Since 1934 the sale of [[Federal Duck Stamps]], a required purchase for migratory [[waterfowl]] hunters over 16 years old, has raised over $700 million to help purchase more than 5.2 million acres (8,100&nbsp;sq&nbsp;mi/20,000 km²) of habitat for the [[National Wildlife Refuge System]] lands that support waterfowl and many other wildlife species, and are often open to hunting. States also collect monies from hunting licenses to assist with management of [[Game (food)|game animals]], as designated by law. A key task of Federal and state [[Park Ranger|park rangers]] and [[game warden]]s is to enforce laws and regulations related to hunting, including species protection, hunting seasons, and hunting bans. '''Varmint hunting''' is an American phrase for the selective killing of non-game animals seen as pests. While not always an efficient form of pest control, varmint hunting achieves selective control of pests while providing recreation and is much less regulated. Varmint species are often responsible for detrimental effects on crops, livestock, [[landscaping]], infrastructure, and pets. Some animals (such as wild [[rabbit]]s or [[squirrel]]s) may be utilized for fur or meat, but often no use is made of the carcass. Which species are "varmints" depends on the circumstance and area. Common varmints may include various rodents, [[coyotes]], [[crow]]s, [[fox]]es, [[feral cats]], and feral hogs. Some animals once considered varmints are now protected, such as [[wolf|wolves]]. In the US state of [[Louisiana]], a non-native rodent known as a [[nutria]] have become so destructive to the local ecosystem that the state has initiated a bounty program to help control the population. ====The American Fair Chase Tradition==== [[Image:Theodor Kittelsen-En uheldig bjørnejakt.jpg|thumb|300px|''En uheldig bjørnejakt'' (An Unfortunate Bear Hunt) by [[Theodor Kittelsen]]]] The principles of the ''Fair Chase''<ref>Interpretations of the Fair Chase can be found on the web sites of various hunter's organizations, such as the [http://www.boone-crockett.org/huntingEthics/ethics_fairchase.asp?area=huntingEthics Boone and Crockett Club] and [http://www.huntfairchase.com/ Hunt Fair Chase]. See also [http://www.donmeredith.ca/outdoorsmen/FairChase.html ''What's Fair?''], by Don Meredith, retrieved 2007-10-30.</ref> have been a part of the American hunting tradition for over 100 years. The role of the hunter-conservationist, popularized by [[Theodore Roosevelt]], has been central to the development of the modern Fair Chase tradition. Today, 95% of American hunters{{Fact|date=November 2007}} see hunter ethics as an important part of the hunting tradition. ====Hunting ranches==== Indian [[Blackbuck]], [[Nilgai]], [[exotic]] [[deer]] [[antelope]], [[Greater Kudu]] and [[Barasingha]] can now be found on hunting [[ranches]] in [[Texas]], [[USA]] where they are shot for [[sport]] hunting. [[Hunters]] can pay upwards of $4000 as fees for hunting a Barasingha. ===Russia=== {{main|Hunting in Russia}} ==Wildlife management== Hunting gives [[Wildlife management|resource managers]] an important tool<ref>[http://www.uga.edu/scwds/documents/chardonnet2002.pdf (article link)] Chardonnet P, des Clers B, Fischer J, Gerhold R, Jori F, Lamarque F. ''The Value of Wildlife''; Rev. sci. tech. Off. Int. Epiz., 2002, 21(1),15-51, posted by the Southeastern Cooperative Wildlife Disease Study, Accessed 12/12/2006</ref><ref>Herring, Hal. [http://www.nature.org/magazine/autumn2006/features/art18601.html ''Today’s sportsmen and sportswomen are a powerful force for conservation''], The Nature Conservancy Magazine, retrieved 2007-10-30.</ref> in managing populations that might exceed the carrying capacity of their habitat and threaten the well-being of other species or, in some instances, damage human health or safety.<ref>The Hunting section of the [http://www.fws.gov/ U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service] site includes articles and statistics relating to wildlife management.</ref> Hunting reduces [[intraspecific competition]] for food and shelter, reducing mortality among the remaining animals. Some environmentalists assert that (re)introducing [[predator]]s would achieve the same end with greater efficiency and less negative effect. Others disagree, citing hunting as more selective. For science on this topic see: [[Aldo Leopold]]. Management agencies sometimes rely on hunting to control specific animal populations, as has been the case with deer in North America. These hunts may sometimes be carried out by professional shooters although others may include amateur hunters. A large part of managing populations involves managing the number and, sometimes, the size or age of animals harvested so as to ensure the sustainability of the population. Tools which are frequently used to control harvest are bag limits and season closures, although gear restrictions such as archery-only seasons are becoming increasingly popular in an effort to reduce hunter success rates.{{Fact|date=April 2008}} Violations of hunting laws and regulations are normally punishable by law and, collectively, such violations are known as [[poaching]]. ===Bag limits=== {{main|Bag limits}} '''Bag limits''' are provisions under the law which control how many animals of a given species or group of species can be killed although there are often species for which bag limits do not apply. There are also jurisdictions where bag limits are not applied at all or are not applied under certain circumstances. Where bag limits are used, however, there can be daily or seasonal bag limits. For example, [[ducks]] can often be harvested at a rate of six per hunter per day.<ref>[http://www.fws.gov/southeast/news/2003/n03-015.html US Fish and Wildlife Service 2003 proposed bag limits for waterfowl]</ref> Big game, like [[moose]], most often have a seasonal bag limit of one animal per hunter.<ref>[http://www.bowhunts.com/moose_reg.html An overview of moose hunting regulations in Canada]</ref> Bag limits may also regulate the size, sex or age of animal that a hunter can kill. In many cases, bag limits are designed to more equitably allocate harvest among the hunting population rather than to protect animal populations. The phrase "bag limits" comes from the custom among hunters of small game to carry successful kills in a small bag, similar to a fishing kreel. ===Closed season=== A '''closed season''' is a time during which hunting an animal of a given species is contrary to law. Typically, closed seasons are designed to protect a species when they are most vulnerable or, sometimes, to protect them during their breeding season. By extension, the period that is not the closed season is known as the '''open season'''. ==Hunting methods== [[Image:Indians Hunting Buffalo in the Winter.jpg|thumb|Native Americans hunting bison, from an 1855 illustration]] Historical, subsistence and sport hunting techniques can differ radically, with modern hunting regulations often addressing issues of where, when and how hunts are conducted. Techniques may vary depending on government regulations, a hunter's personal ethics, local custom, firearms and the animal being hunted. Often a hunter will use a combination of more than one technique, and some are used primarily in [[poaching]] and [[wildlife management]], explicitly forbidden to sport hunters. *'''[[Bait (luring substance)|Baiting]]''' is the use of '''decoys''', lures, scent or food to attract animals *'''[[Hunting blind|Blind]]''' or '''stand hunting''' is waiting for animals from a concealed or elevated position *'''[[Calling]]''' is the use of animal noises to attract or drive animals *'''Camouflage''' is the use of visual concealment (or scent) to blend with the environment *'''[[Hunting dog|Dogs]]''' may be used to [[coursing|course]] or to help flush, herd, drive, track, point at, pursue or retrieve prey *'''Driving''' is the herding of animals in a particular direction, usually toward another hunter in the group *'''Flushing''' is the practice of scaring animals from concealed areas *'''Glassing''' is the use of optics (such as binoculars) to more easily locate animals *'''Glue''' is an indiscriminate passive form to kill birds<ref>http://www.gepec.org/barraca-i-filat/index_eng.html Catalonian fiat, with picture</ref> *'''Netting''', including active netting with the use of [[cannon netting|cannon nets]] and [[rocket net]]s *'''Scouting''' includes a variety of tasks and techniques for finding animals to hunt *'''[[Spotlighting]]''' or '''shining''' is the use of artificial light to find or blind animals before killing *'''[[Game stalker|Stalking]]''' or '''still hunting''' is the practice of walking quietly, in search of animals or in pursuit of an individual animal *'''[[Tracking (hunting)|Tracking]]''' is the practice of reading physical evidence in pursuing animals *'''[[Animal trapping|Trapping]]''' is the use of devices (snares, pits, deadfalls) to capture or kill an animal *'''[[Persistence hunting]]''' is the use of running and tracking to pursue the prey to exhaustion. <ref>Nancy L. Struna, People of Prowess: Sport, Leisure, and Labor in Early Anglo-America(1996), ISBN-10: 0252065522</ref> ==Trophy hunting== [[Image:Usov.jpg|right|thumbnail|[[Princely Family of Liechtenstein|Royal Liechtenstein]] trophy collection at [[Úsov]] Château, the [[Czech Republic]]]] {{main|Trophy hunting}} Trophy hunting is the selective seeking of wild game. It may also include the controversial hunting of captive or semi-captive animals expressly bred and raised under controlled or semi-controlled conditions so as to attain trophy characteristics (canned hunts). ===History=== In the 19th century, southern and central European sport hunters often pursued game only for a [[trophy]], usually the head or pelt of an animal, which was then displayed as a sign of prowess. The rest of the animal was typically discarded. Some cultures, however, disapprove of such waste. In [[Nordic countries]], hunting for trophies was -- and still is -- frowned upon. Hunting in North America in the 19th century was done primarily as a way to supplement food supplies, although it is now undertaken mainly for sport. The [[Hunting#Safari|safari]] method of hunting was a development of sport hunting that saw elaborate travel in Africa, India and other places in pursuit of trophies. In modern times, [[trophy hunting]] persists and is a significant industry in some areas. ===Controversy=== Trophy hunting is most often criticised when it involves rare or [[endangered]] animals.<ref>[http://edmi.parliament.uk/EDMi/EDMDetails.aspx?EDMID=28737&SESSION=875 Early Day Motion on trophy hunting]</ref>. Opponents may also see trophy hunting as an issue of [[morality]]<ref>see, for example, [http://flaflooga.com/trophy_hunting.php this internet page]</ref> or [[cruelty to animals|animal cruelty]], criticising the killing of living creatures for recreation. Advocates of trophy hunting disagree, saying that modern regulations explicitly address issues of unnecessary harassment and that the vast majority of the edible portions of the prey animal are consumed by hunters themselves or are given to local inhabitants for use in traditional ways. There is also debate about the extent to which trophy hunting benefits the local economy. Hunters argue that fees paid contribute to the local economy and provide value to animals that would otherwise be seen as competition for grazing, livestock, and crops.<ref>Martin, Glen. [http://sfgate.com/cgi-bin/article.cgi?file=/c/a/2005/10/06/MNG1UF392D1.DTL ''The lion, once king of vast African savanna, suffers alarming decline in population''], San Francisco Chronicle, October 6, 2005. Retrieved 2007-10-30.</ref> This analysis is disputed by opponents of trophy hunting.<ref>League Against Cruel Sports. [http://www.league.org.uk/uploads/documents/doc_279.pdf ''The Myth of Trophy Hunting as Conservation''], December 2004. Retrieved 2007-10-30.</ref> Some argue that the animals are worth more to the community for ecotourism, than hunting. <ref>The [http://www.ecotourism.org/ International Ecotourism Society] has published articles along this line.</ref> ==Economics of hunting== [[Image:Dmaurer with mulie buck 2007.jpg|thumb|right|[[North Dakota]] hunter with a Mule Deer buck. Many in the [[midwestern United States]] enjoy hunting.]] A variety of [[industry|industries]] benefit from hunting and support hunting on economic grounds. In Tanzania, it is estimated that a safari hunter spends 50-100 times that of the average eco-tourist. The average photo tourist may demand luxury accommodations. In contrast, the average safari hunter stays in tented camps. Safari hunters are also more likely to use remote areas, uninviting to the average eco-tourist. They argue that these hunters allow for anti-poaching activities and revenue for local communities.{{Fact|date=April 2008}} In the United Kingdom, the game hunting of birds as an industry is said to be extremely important to the rural economy: The Cobham Report of 1997 suggested it to be worth around [[Pound sterling|£]]700 million, and hunting and shooting lobby groups now claim it to be worth over a billion.{{Fact|date=April 2008}} Hunting also has a significant financial impact in the United States, with many companies specializing in hunting [[sports equipment|equipment]] or specialty [[tourism]]. Today's hunters come from a broad range of economic, social, and cultural backgrounds. In 2001, over 13 million hunters averaged eighteen days hunting and spent over $20.5 billion on their sport. {{Fact|date=April 2008}}[[The Outdoor Channel]] and [[OLN]] are [[cable television]] channels airing programs such as [[Hunter's Handbook TV]] which teach hunting safety and showcase new hunting destinations or products such as [[recreational vehicles]], specialty clothing or [[firearms]]. In the U.S., proceeds from hunting licenses contribute to state game management programs including preservation of wildlife habitat. ==Depictions in popular culture== [[Image:Huckleberry-finn-with-rabbit.jpg|thumb|left|[[List of characters in the Tom Sawyer series#Huckleberry Finn|''Huckleberry Finn]]'', illustration by [[E. W. Kemble]] from the original 1884 edition of the book by [[Mark Twain]]]] In addition to positive portrayals of hunting and hunters on television shows aimed at hunters, hunting is also frequently portrayed in movies and popular culture as part of a broader [[social commentary]], such as in the [[Michael Cimino]] film, ''[[The Deer Hunter]]'', where it takes on psychological symbolism as a prelude to war.<ref>{{cite web| author= Tim Dirks| title = The Deer Hunter (1978)|work= review|publisher=|date= 1996-2000| url=http://felc.gdufs.edu.cn/comparativeCulture/film_culture/filmsite/deer.html|accessdate= 2006-12-21}}</ref> Some of the most widespread depictions of hunting have been through [[animation]], particularly in feature-length movies such as the 1942 film ''[[Bambi]]''<ref>[http://www.history.vt.edu/Barrow/Hist2104/readings/bambi.html (article link)]Ralph H. Lutts, "The Trouble with Bambi: Walt Disney's Bambi and the American Vision of Nature", Forestry and Conservation History 36(October): 160-171, Internet posting courtesy of Dr. Mark V. Barrow, Jr. of the Dept of History, Virginia Tech accessed 12/16/06, with extensive [http://www.history.vt.edu/Barrow/Hist2104/readings/bambinotes.html footnotes]</ref><ref>[http://www.lib.berkeley.edu/MRC/disney.html#bambi UC Berkley's Disney bibliography, with direction to ''Bambi'']</ref> and shorter [[Looney Tunes]] [[cartoon]]s featuring [[Bugs Bunny]] and [[Elmer Fudd]]. Such [[anthropomorphism]] of prey animals or "varmints" is frequently used as social [[satire]], with the audience intended to sympathize with the hunted animal and the socially powerful hunter portrayed as incompetent or a [[machismo|macho]] [[jester|buffoon]]. At the other end of the spectrum [[Ted Nugent]] portrays the hunter as a [[rock and roll]] [[iconoclast]]. Hunting may also be depicted in a matter-of-fact way, as in the 1990 film ''[[Dances with Wolves]]'' or the 1970 ''[[Little Big Man]]'' which contrast modern hunters with a romantic [[noble savage]]. Filmed depictions of hunting by aboriginal cultures like American Indians tend to be more sympathetic. Hunting is portrayed as necessary subsistence, as is the case in many [[Inuit]] and [[Alaskan Bush]] communities today.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://tunt.blogspot.com/2005/03/30-hunting-for-subsistence.html |title=Hunting For Subsistence. |date=2005-03-28 |accessdate=2007-05-15}}</ref> Varmint hunting of prairie dogs is depicted in John Ross' novel ''Unintended Consequences''. A favorable depiction of hunting is found in L. Neil Smith's science fiction novel ''Pallas''. Hunting is central to many works by [[Ernest Hemingway]] and even used as an extended metaphor in the [[new age]] [[self-help]] fiction of [[Carlos Castaneda]]'s ''Journey to Ixtlan''. == Notes and references == ===Citations=== {{reflist|2}} ===General information=== '''Print Sources on Hunting in the American South''' * Dickson D. Bruce, Jr., Mississippi Quarterly (Spring 1977). * Kenneth S. Greenberg, Honor and Slavery: Lies, Duels, Noses, Masks, Dressing as a Woman, Gifts, Strangers, Humanitarianism, Death, Slave Rebellions, the Pro-Slavery Argument, Baseball, Hunting, and Gambling in the Old South (1996). * Steven Hahn, Radical History Review (1982). * Charles H. Hudson, Jr., in Indians, Animals, and the Fur Trade, ed., Shephard Krech III (1981). * Stuart A. Marks, Southern Hunting in Black and White: Nature, History, and Ritual in a Carolina Community (1991). * Ted Ownby, Subduing Satan: Religion, Recreation, and Manhood in the Rural South, 1865-1920 (1990). * Wiley C. Prewitt, “The Best of All Breathing: Hunting and Environmental Change in Mississippi, 1900-1980” M.A. thesis, (1991). * Nicolas W. Proctor, Bathed in Blood: Hunting and Mastery in the Old South (2002). * Jacob F. Rivers III, Cultural Values in the Southern Sporting Narrative (2002). * Timothy Silver, A New Face on the Countryside: Indians, Colonists, and Slaves in South Atlantic Forests, 1500-1800 (1990). * Richard C. Stedman and Thomas A. Heberlein, Rural Sociology (2001). * Nancy L. Struna, People of Prowess: Sport, Leisure, and Labor in Early Anglo-America (1996). ==See also== {{commons}} * [[Animal Conservation]] * [[Animal rights]] * [[Anti-Hunting]] * [[Bambi effect]] * [[Big-game hunter]] * [[Blood sport]] * [[Bowhunting]] * [[Bushfood]] * [[Bushmeat]] * [[Closed season]] * [[Tapetum lucidum|Eyeshine]] * [[Human hunting]] * [[Hunt Saboteurs Association]] (HSA) * [[Hunting horn]] * [[Hunting season]] * [[Jäger]] * [[National Rifle Association]] * [[Safari Club International]] == External links == <!-- Please read [[WP:LINKS]], [[WP:COI]], [[WP:SPAM]] and [[WP:NOT]], at a minimum, before adding links to this section. Rather than simply adding external links, take the time instead to expand the article with information from an external site and quote that site in the references section. External links not conforming to the guidelines noted will be deleted mercilessly --> *[http://www.hsus.org/web-files/PDF/hsp/soa_ii_chap08.pdf The Science and Sociology of Hunting: Shifting Practices and Perceptions in the United States and Great Britain] from [http://www.hsus.org/press_and_publications/humane_bookshelf/the_state_of_the_animals_ii_2003.html The State of the Animals II: 2003] ISBN 0-9658942-7-4 * [http://www.tpwd.state.tx.us/ Texas Parks and Wildlife Commission as an example of state agencies] [[Category:Conservation]] [[Category:Dog sports]] [[Category:Hunting|*]] [[Category:Survival skills]] {{Link FA|eo}} [[af:Jag]] [[ar:صيد]] [[be:Паляванне]] [[be-x-old:Паляванне]] [[bs:Lov]] [[bg:Лов]] [[ca:Caça]] [[cv:Сунар]] [[cs:Lov]] [[da:Jagt]] [[de:Jagd]] [[et:Jahipidamine]] [[el:Κυνήγι]] [[es:Caza]] [[eo:Ĉasado]] [[fa:شکار]] [[fr:Chasse]] [[gl:Cinexética]] [[ko:수렵]] [[hr:Lov]] [[id:Perburuan]] [[is:Veiðar]] [[it:Caccia]] [[he:ציד]] [[lv:Medniecība]] [[lb:Juegd]] [[lt:Medžioklė]] [[nl:Jacht (activiteit)]] [[ja:狩猟]] [[no:Jakt]] [[nn:Jakt]] [[nrm:Cache (partie)]] [[pl:Polowanie]] [[pt:Caça]] [[ro:Vânătoare]] [[qu:Chaku]] [[ru:Охота]] [[simple:Hunting]] [[sk:Lov]] [[sl:Lov]] [[sr:Лов]] [[fi:Metsästys]] [[sv:Jakt]] [[chr:ᎠᏂᏃᎯᎵᏙᎲ]] [[tr:Avcılık]] [[uk:Полювання]] [[zh:狩獵]]