Ibn al-Nafis
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{{Infobox_Muslim scholars |
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notability = [[List of Islamic studies scholars|Muslim scholar]]|
era = [[Islamic Golden Age]]|
color = #cef2e0 |
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name = '''Ala al-Din Abu al-Hassan Ali ibn Abi-Hazm al-Qarshi al-Dimashqi''' |
title= '''Ibn al-Nafis''' |
birth = [[1213]] CE |
death = [[17 December]] [[1288]] CE <br> 11 [[Dhu al-Qi'dah]] [[7th century AH|687 AH]] |
Ethnicity = [[Arab]] |
Region = [[Syria]] and [[Egypt]] |
Maddhab = [[Shafi`i]] |
school tradition= [[Sunni Islam]], Nafisian physiology |
main_interests = [[Islamic medicine|Medicine, Anatomy, Pathology, Physiology, Surgery]], [[Ophthalmology in medieval Islam|Ophthalmology]], [[Islamic studies|Islamic Studies]], [[Fiqh]], [[Sharia]], [[Qur'an]], [[Science of hadith|Science of Hadith]], [[Kalam]], [[Early Islamic philosophy|Philosophy]], [[Islamic astronomy|Astronomy, Cosmology]], [[Islamic eschatology|Eschatology]], [[Futurology]], [[Geography]], [[Geology]], [[Arabic grammar|Grammar, Linguistics]], [[Historiography of early Islam|History]], [[Arabic literature|Literature]], [[Logic in Islamic philosophy|Logic]], [[Muslim psychology|Psychology]], [[Islamic science|Science]], [[Science fiction|Science Fiction]], [[Early Muslim sociology|Sociology]] |
notable idea = Father of [[Cardiovascular physiology|circulatory physiology]]. Founder of Nafisian systems of [[anatomy]], [[physiology]], [[psychology]] and [[Pulse|pulsology]] which replaced [[Avicenna|Avicennian]] and [[Galen]]ic doctrines. Discovered [[circulatory system]], [[pulmonary circulation]], [[coronary circulation]], [[capillary]] circulation, [[metabolism]], etc. Discredited Avicennian and Galenic theories on [[humorism]], [[pulse]], [[bone]]s, [[muscle]]s, [[intestine]]s, [[Sensory system|sensory organs]], [[Bile|bilious]] [[Canal (anatomy)|canals]], [[esophagus]], [[stomach]], etc. Wrote the first [[science fiction]] [[novel]], which was also the first [[theological]] novel and one of the first [[philosophical novel]]s. Introduced a more [[Logic in Islamic philosophy|logical]] classification for the [[science of hadith]]. |
works = ''Commentary on Anatomy in Avicenna's Canon, The Comprehensive Book on Medicine, Theologus Autodidactus, A Short Account of the Methodology of Hadith, Commentary on Compound Drugs, The Polished Book on Experimental Ophthalmology, The Choice of Foodstuffs, Synopsis of Medicine, An Essay on Organs, Reference Book for Physicians, The Summary of Law, Road to Eloquence, The Segments, The Little Papers'' |
influences = [[Hippocrates]], [[Aristotle]], [[Galen]], [[Muhammad]], [[Muhammad ibn Idris ash-Shafi`i|al-Shafi`i]], [[Hunayn ibn Ishaq]], [[al-Kindi]], [[al-Razi]], [[Abulcasis]], [[Avicenna]], [[al-Ghazali]], [[Ibn Zuhr]], [[Ibn Tufail]] |
influenced = [[Abu Hayyan Al Gharnati]], Tāj al-Dīn al-Subkī, Ibn Qadi Shuhba, Umarī, al-Safadī, [[al-Dhahabi]], [[Ibn Kathir]], [[Ibn Khaldun]], Andrea Alpago, [[Michael Servetus]], [[Realdo Colombo]], [[William Harvey]] |
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'''Ala al-Din Abu al-Hassan Ali ibn Abi-Hazm al-Qarshi al-Dimashqi''' ([[Arabic]]: علاء الدين أبو الحسن عليّ بن أبي حزم القرشي الدمشقي ) (born [[1213]] CE - died [[1288]] CE / [[7th century AH|687 AH]]), commonly known as '''Ibn al-Nafis''' ([[Arabic]]: ابن النفيس ), was an [[Arab]] [[Muslim]] [[polymath]]—a [[Islamic medicine|physician, anatomist, physiologist, surgeon]], [[Ophthalmology in medieval Islam|ophthalmologist]], [[Hafiz (Quran)|Hafiz]], [[Muhaddith|Hadith scholar]], [[Shafi`i]] [[Fiqh|jurist]] and [[Sharia|lawyer]], [[Sunni Islam|Sunni]] [[Kalam|theologian]], [[Early Islamic philosophy|Islamic philosopher]], [[Logic in Islamic philosophy|logician]], [[novel]]ist, [[Muslim psychology|psychologist]], [[Early Muslim sociology|sociologist]], [[Islamic science|scientist]], [[science fiction]] writer, [[Islamic astronomy|astronomer, cosmologist]], [[futurist]], [[geologist]], [[Arabic grammar|grammarian, linguist]] and [[Historiography of early Islam|historian]]—who was born in [[Damascus]], [[Syria]], and worked in [[Cairo]], [[Egypt]].
Ibn al-Nafis is most famous for being the first physician to describe the [[pulmonary circulation]],<ref>S. A. Al-Dabbagh (1978). "Ibn Al-Nafis and the pulmonary circulation", ''[[The Lancet]]'' '''1''': 1148.</ref> and the [[capillary]]<ref name=Paul/> and [[coronary circulation]]s,<ref name=Nagamia/><ref name=Oudkerk/> which form the basis of the [[circulatory system]], for which he is considered the father of [[Cardiovascular physiology|circulatory physiology]]<ref>Chairman's Reflections (2004), "Traditional Medicine Among Gulf Arabs, Part II: Blood-letting", ''Heart Views'' '''5''' (2): 74-85 [80].</ref> and "the greatest [[physiologist]] of the [[Middle Ages]]."<ref>[[George Sarton]] ([[cf.]] Dr. Paul Ghalioungui (1982), "The West denies Ibn Al Nafis's contribution to the discovery of the circulation", ''Symposium on Ibn al-Nafis'', Second International Conference on Islamic Medicine: Islamic Medical Organization, Kuwait) <br> ([[cf.]] [http://www.islamset.com/isc/nafis/drpaul.html The West denies Ibn Al Nafis's contribution to the discovery of the circulation], ''Encyclopedia of Islamic World'')</ref> He was also an early proponent of [[Biomedical research|experimental medicine]], postmortem [[autopsy]], and human [[dissection]],<ref>Ingrid Hehmeyer and Aliya Khan (2007), "Islam's forgotten contributions to medical science", ''Canadian Medical Association Journal'' '''176''' (10): 1467-1468 [1467].</ref><ref>[http://encyclopedia.farlex.com/Islamic+medicine Islamic medicine], ''[[Hutchinson Encyclopedia]]''.</ref> first described the concept of [[metabolism]],<ref name=Roubi/> and developed his own new Nafisian<ref>{{Harv|Fancy|2006|p=245}}</ref> systems of [[anatomy]], [[physiology]], [[psychology]] and [[Pulse|pulsology]] to replace the [[Avicenna|Avicennian]] and [[Galen]]ic doctrines, while discrediting many of their erroneous theories on the [[humorism|four humours]], [[Pulse|pulsation]],<ref>{{Harv|Fancy|2006|pp=3 & 6}}</ref> [[bone]]s, [[muscle]]s, [[intestine]]s, [[Sensory system|sensory organs]], [[Bile|bilious]] [[Canal (anatomy)|canals]], [[esophagus]], [[stomach]], and the [[anatomy]] of almost every other part of the [[human body]].<ref name=Oataya/> Ibn al-Nafis also drew [[diagram]]s to illustrate different body parts in his new physiological system.<ref>Dr Ibrahim Shaikh (2001), [http://muslimheritage.com/topics/default.cfm?ArticleID=209 Who Discovered Pulmonary Circulation, Ibn Al-Nafis or Harvey?], FSTC.</ref>
Besides his medical contributions, he wrote works on the [[Islam]]ic religious disciplines, notably ''A Short Account of the Methodology of Hadith'', which introduces a more rational and [[Logic in Islamic philosophy|logical]] classification for the [[science of hadith]].<ref>{{Harv|Fancy|2006|pp=67-77}}</ref> He also wrote works on fictional [[Arabic literature]], notably ''Theologus Autodidactus'', which is considered one of the earliest [[novel]]s, one of the first [[philosophical novel]]s, the first [[theological]] novel,<ref name=Meyerhof/> the first [[science fiction]] novel, and one of the first stories to feature a [[feral child]], [[desert island]] and [[coming of age]] plot, through which he expressed many of his religious, philosophical and scientific [[Theme (literature)|themes]] on a wide variety of subjects.<ref name=Roubi/> Both of these works were mainly an attempt by Ibn al-Nafis at reconciling [[reason]] with [[revelation]], both by highlighting the [[rationality]] of Islamic beliefs and by promoting the use of reason in the science of hadith.<ref>{{Harv|Fancy|2006|pp=42, 60, 67-77}}</ref>
==Overview==
===Biography===
He was born in [[1213]] in [[Damascus]], [[Syria]]. He attended the Medical College Hospital ([[Bimaristan]] al-Noori) in Damascus. Besides medicine, Ibn al-Nafis was also learned in many other subjects, including [[Arabic literature]], [[Fiqh]] (jurisprudence), [[Kalam]] (theology) and [[early Islamic philosophy]]. He became an expert on the [[Shafi`i]] school of jurisprudence and an expert [[physician]].
[[Image:ibn_al-nafis_page.jpg|300px|thumb|The opening page of one of Ibn al-Nafis's medical works. This is probably a copy made in [[India]] during the 17th or 18th centuries.]]
In [[1236]], Ibn al-Nafis moved to [[Cairo]], [[Egypt]]. He worked at the Al-Nassri Hospital, and subsequently at the Al-Mansouri Hospital, where he became the "Chief of Physicians".<ref name=Iskandar-Selin/> In [[1242]], by which time he was about 29 years old, he published his most famous work, the ''Commentary on Anatomy in Avicenna's Canon'', which contained many new anatomical discoveries, most importantly the pulmonary and coronary circulations. Soon afterwards, he begun work on ''The Comprehensive Book on Medicine'', for which he had already published 43 volumes by [[7th century AH|641 AH]] ([[1243]]-[[1244]] CE), by which time he was about 31 years old. Over the next several decades, he would write down notes for 300 volumes, though he was only able to publish 80 volumes before he died.<ref name=Iskandar-602-3>{{Harv|Iskandar|1974|pp=602-603}}</ref> Nevertheless, even in its incomplete state, ''The Comprehensive Book on Medicine'' was the largest [[encyclopedia]] up until that time, and still remains one of the largest medical encyclopedias to date.
Ibn al-Nafis grew up in a time of political turmoil in Syria and Egypt, during the [[Crusades]] and [[Mongol invasions]]. After the [[Battle of Baghdad (1258)|sack of Baghdad]] in 1258, Syria was soon temporarily occupied by the [[Mongol Empire]] in 1259, who were then subsequently repelled by the Egyptian [[Sultan]] [[Baibars]] at the [[Battle of Ain Jalut]] in 1260. Like other traditionalist Muslims in his time, Ibn al-Nafis believed that these invasions may have been a divine punishment from God against Muslims deviating from the [[Sunnah]].<ref name=Fancy-49-59>{{Harv|Fancy|2006|pp=49 & 59}}</ref> Between 1260-1277, he became the personal physician of Sultan Baibars.<ref name=Iskandar-Selin/>
Ibn al-Nafis died on [[17 December]] [[1288]] CE (11 [[Dhu al-Qi'dah]] [[7th century AH|687 AH]]), and posthumously donated his house, library and clinic to the Mansuriya Hospital.<ref name=Iskandar-Selin/>
===Religious background===
Ibn al-Nafis was an orthodox [[Sunni Islam|Sunni Muslim]] and a scholar of the [[Shafi`i]] school of [[Fiqh]] (Islamic jurisprudence) and [[Sharia]] (Islamic law). He wrote a number of works on [[philosophy]], and was particularly interested in reconciling [[reason]] with [[revelation]] and blurring the line between the two. Unlike some of his contemporaries and predecessors, he made no distinction between philosophy and theology. Ibn al-Nafis adhered to the teachings of the [[Qur'an]] and accepted the authority of the [[hadith]]s, but required each hadith to be [[Rationality|rationally]] acceptable.<ref>{{Harv|Fancy|2006|p=41}}</ref>
Ibn al-Nafis, who grew up in a time of political turmoil during the [[Crusades]] and [[Mongol invasions]], commented on these conflicts and, like other traditionalist Muslims in his time, believed that these invasions may have been a divine punishment from God against Muslims deviating from the [[Sunnah]]. As a result, the [[Early Islamic philosophy#Falsafa|falsafa]], some of whom held ideas incompatible with the Sunnah, became targets of criticism from a number of traditionalist Muslims. On the other hand, Ibn al-Nafis, who was a traditionalist himself, made an attempt at reconciling [[reason]] with [[revelation]] in some of his works to show that there is harmony between religion and philosophy. Being a traditionalist, Ibn al-Nafis also disliked the misuse of [[wine]] as [[self-medication]], while citing both medical and religious reasons against it, arguing that "I will not meet God, the Most High, with any wine in me." His image as a God-fearing and Sunnah-abiding religious scholar, an intelligent rational philosopher, and an accomplished medical physician, had a positive impression on both traditionalists and rationalists alike.<ref name=Fancy-49-59/> The fact that Ibn al-Nafis' student was [[Abu Hayyan Al Gharnati]], a famous [[Imam]] and [[Hafiz (Quran)|Hafiz]] at the time, also appealed to traditionalists such as [[al-Dhahabi]].<ref>{{Harv|Fancy|2006|pp=65-6}}</ref>
===Latin translations===
The ''Sharh al-Adwiya al-Murakkaba'' (''Commentary on Compound Drugs'') was a commentary on the last part of [[Avicenna]]'s ''[[The Canon of Medicine]]'' concerning [[pharmacopoeia]], which was written by Ibn al-Nafis sometime before he wrote his ''Commentary on Anatomy in Avicenna's Canon'' in 1242. The ''Commentary on compound drugs'', however, did contain criticisms of Galen's doctrines on the heart and the blood vessels and dealt with the [[circulatory system]] to some extent. This work was later translated into [[Latin]] by Andrea Alpago of [[Belluno]] (d. 1520), who had lived in Syria for about 30 years before returning to [[Italy]] with a collection of medical Arabic books. A [[Printing press|printed]] version of his translation was available in [[Venice]] from 1547.<ref>C. D. O'Malley (1957), "A Latin translation of Ibn Nafis (1547) related to the problem of the circulation of the blood", ''Journal of the History of Medicine and Allied Sciences'' '''12''' (2), pp. 248-249. <br> ([[cf.]] Dr. Albert Zaki Iskandar (1982), "Comprehensive Book on the Art of Medicine", ''Symposium on Ibn al Nafis'', Second International Conference on Islamic Medicine: Islamic Medical Organization, Kuwait) <br> ([[cf.]] Dr. Albert Zaki Iskandar, [http://www.islamset.com/isc/nafis/iskandar.html Comprehensive Book on the Art of Medicine], ''Encyclopedia of Islamic World'')</ref>
Ibn al-Nafis' work on the [[pulse]], where he criticized the Avicennian and Galenic theories and corrected them, was also translated into Latin by Andrea Alpago sometime before 1522 in printed in Venice in 1547.<ref name=Iskandar/>
It is known that Ibn al-Nafis' ''Commentary on Anatomy in Avicenna's Canon'', which first described the pulmonary and coronary circulations, was also available in Venice as an Arabic manuscript,<ref>Stephen Mason (2003), "Religious Reform and the Pulmonary Transit of the Blood", ''History of Science'' '''41''', p.459-471 [465.</ref> and it is believed that it may have also been translated into Latin by Andrea Alpago. Along with Latin translations of his ''Commentary on compound drugs'' and his work on the pulse, it may have had an influence on the descriptions of pulmonary circulation given by [[Michael Servetus]] (d. 1553), [[Realdo Colombo]] (d. 1559) and [[William Harvey]] (1578-1657).<ref>[http://www.nlm.nih.gov/hmd/arabic/mon4.html Anatomy and Physiology], Islamic Medical Manuscripts, [[United States National Library of Medicine]].</ref> Servetus was himself a [[nontrinitarian]] who is said to have been interested in [[Islam]] and familiar with the [[Qur'an]].<ref name=Susan>{{citation|first=Susan|last=Ritchie|year=2004|title=The Islamic Ottoman Influence on the Development of Religious Toleration in Reformation Transylvania|volume=3|pages=59-70|url=http://www.zaytuna.org/seasonsjournal/seasons3/59-70%20Transylvania.pdf |accessdate=2008-02-04}}</ref>
Edward D. Coppola wrote:<ref>Edward D. Coppola (1957), "The Discovery of the Pulmonary Circulation", ''Bullet. Hist. Mid.'' '''31''', pp. 44-77 [67, 70-71, 74].</ref>
{{quote|"A possible way by which Ibn an-Nafis' theory of the pulmonary circulation could have reached the West [...] Andrea Alpago knew of Ibn an-Nafis, had read his exposition on the Vth canon of Avicenna, his exposition on the book of Samarcandi and was familiar with certain of Ibn an-Nafis' ideas concerning the cardio-vascular system. [...] It is possible that somewhere among the unpublished manuscripts of Andrea Alpago is to be found a rendering of Ibn an-Nafis' description of the lesser circulation. Certainly such manuscripts are extant. [...] It is possible that these and other manuscripts left by Andreas Alpago may yet come to light, and that among them we eventually may find a description of the pulmonary circulation by Ibn an-Nafis."}}
[[Joseph Schacht]] wrote:<ref>[[Joseph Schacht]] (1957), "Ibn Al-Nafis, Servetus and Colombo", ''Al-Andalus'' '''22''', pp. 319-336 [330].</ref>
{{quote|"A possible influence of the theory of Ibn al-Nafis on the three sixteenth century authors in the light of what we now know of Andrea Alpago, cannot be ruled out any longer. [...] Servetus shows a specific knowledge of the theory of Ibn al-Nafis on whom he is dependent more than his two contemporaries; he made additions of his own, partly anatomical, partly theoretical, which recur, elaborated and partly modified, in Colombo. [...] Colombo probably had direct knowledge of the theory of Ibn al-Nafis."}}
===Legacy===
During and after his lifetime, Ibn al-Nafis' 80-volume medical [[encyclopedia]], ''The Comprehensive Book on Medicine'', had eventually replaced ''[[The Canon of Medicine]]'' of [[Avicenna]] (Ibn Sina) as a medical authority in the [[Islamic Golden Age|medieval Islamic world]]. Muslim biographers, historians and [[review]]ers from the 13th century onwards considered Ibn al-Nafis the greatest physician in history, with some referring to him as "the second Ibn Sina" and others considering him even greater than all his predecessors. [[Al-Dhahabi]] (d. 1348) and al-Isnawī (d. 1370) considered him "unsurpassed in medicine during his lifetime and unparalleled in his preparation of medicinal [[Therapy|treatments]] and medical [[inference]]s", while the biographers Tāj al-Dīn al-Subkī (d. 1370) and Ibn Qadi Shuhba wrote:<ref>{{Harv|Fancy|2006|pp=58 & 61-62}}</ref>
{{quote|"As for medicine, there has never been anyone on this earth like [Ibn al-Nafīs]. Some say that after Ibn Sīnā there has never been one like [Ibn al-Nafīs], while some say that he was better than Ibn Sīnā in practical treatment."}}
A number of later Arabic commentaries on ''The Canon of Medicine'', including ones by Sadid al-Din Muhammad ibn Mas'ud al-Kazaruni in 1344 and Ali ibn Abdallah Zayn al-Arab al-Misri in 1350, understood and repeated Ibn al-Nafis' descriptions of the pulmonary circulation, suggesting that knowledge of his discovery was fairly widespread among Muslim physicians in the Islamic world.<ref name=Iskandar-603/>
Shortly after his ''Commentary on Anatomy in Avicenna's Canon'' was re-discovered in modern times, [[George Sarton]], the "father of the [[history of science]]", wrote the following on the significance of Ibn al-Nafis' discovery of pulmonary circulation to the [[history of medicine]]:<ref name=Paul/>
{{quote|"If the authenticity of Ibn al-Nafis' theory is confirmed his importance will increase enormously for he must be considered one of the main forerunners of [[William Harvey]] and the greatest physiologist of the [[Middle Ages]]."}}
==''Commentary on Anatomy in Avicenna's Canon''==
In [[1924]], an [[Egypt]]ian [[physician]], Dr. Muhyo Al-Deen Altawi, discovered a manuscript from [[1242]], titled ''Sharh Tashrih al-Qanun Ibn Sina'' (''Commentary on Anatomy in Avicenna's Canon''), in the Prussian State Library in [[Berlin]] while studying the history of [[Islamic medicine|Arab Medicine]] at the medical faculty of [[University of Freiburg|Albert Ludwig's University]] in [[Germany]]. This script is considered one of the best scientific books in which Ibn al-Nafis covers in detail the topics of [[anatomy]], [[pathology]] and [[physiology]]. In this work, his [[experiment]]al approach to physiology is evident as he writes:<ref name=Iskandar-604/>
{{quote|"...In determining the use of each organ we shall rely necessarily on verified examinations and straightforward research, disregarding whether our opinions will agree or disagree with those of our predecessors."}}
===Preface===
The [[preface]] is divided into five topics:<ref>{{citation|first=Emilie|last=Savage-Smith|title=Attitudes Toward Dissection in Medieval Islam|journal=Journal of the History of Medicine and Allied Sciences|year=1995|volume=50|issue=1|publisher=[[Oxford University Press]]|pages=67-110 [101]}}</ref>
#"On the differentiation of animals with regard to bodily parts"
#"On the benefits of the science of anatomy/dissection"
#"On enumerations of the uses of the parts"
#"On the principles through which the science concerned with the uses of the parts is derived by the method of anatomy/dissection"
#"On what is anatomy/dissection (''tashrih'') and its tools"
Ibn al-Nafis writes the following on the fifth topic regarding [[autopsy]] and [[dissection]]:<ref>{{citation|first=Emilie|last=Savage-Smith|title=Attitudes Toward Dissection in Medieval Islam|journal=Journal of the History of Medicine and Allied Sciences|year=1995|volume=50|issue=1|publisher=[[Oxford University Press]]|pages=67-110 [101-2]}}</ref>
{{quote|"The fifth topic concerning what is anatomy/dissection (''tashrih'') and its tools: As for the dissection (''tashriti'') of the bones and articulations and similar things, it can be done easily on a corpse, whatever the cause of its death. But it is easier when, after some time has passed following its death, whatever skin is on it has decayed until die bones remain, with the articulation of the joints exposed. So in this matter, there is little need for much work in order to learn the form of its bones and its articulations."}}
{{quote|"As for the dissection of the [[heart]] and [[arteries]] and [[diaphragm]] and [[lung]]s, etc., one [must] be informed about the manner of their movements and whether the motion of the arteries is synchronous with the movement of the heart or is different, and similarly, the movement of the lungs along with that of the diaphragm. It is a given fact that it can be learned only dirough dissection (''tashrfti'') of the living, but that is difficult because of the disturbance of the living due to its feeling of pain."}}
{{quote|"As for the dissection of the small [[vessel]]s which are in the skin and what is nearby, it is difficult in the living for the reason we have just explained. Similarly, in those who have died by a disease or the like, and especially one of the diseases with which a scarcity of blood or humours is associated, such as in [[diarrhea]] (''ishal''), [[emaciation]] (''diqq''), and [[haemorrhaging]] (''nazaf''), then those vessels disappear from view. Dissection of these vessels is easiest when it is on a corpse which had died by [[asphyxiation]], for asphyxiation moves the [[blood]] and [[pneuma]] to the extremities, and so these vessels become [[Engorgement|engorged]] and [[Swelling (medical)|swollen]]. And it is necessary that it [the dissection] occur immediately following the death, because if the time is long, there will be [[coagulation]] of the blood in these vessels so that its volume decreases and then it is accompanied by a decrease in the swelling of those vessels."}}
===Circulatory system===
The theory that was accepted, prior to Ibn al-Nafis, was placed by [[Galen]] in the 2nd century and improved by [[Avicenna]] in the 11th century. Galen had theorized that the blood reaching the right side of the [[heart]] went through invisible pores in the cardiac [[septum]], to the left side of the heart, where it mixed with [[air]] to create spirit, and was then distributed to the body. According to Galen's views, the venous system was quite separate from the [[arterial]] system, except when they came in contact through the unseen pores.
Ibn al-Nafis proved this Galenic-Avicennian doctrine wrong in this work and presented the earliest descriptions of [[pulmonary circulation]] and [[coronary circulation]], which form the basis of the [[circulatory system]]. He extended this with the first correct description of the [[pulse]] and a precursor to the [[capillary]] circulation.
Dr. Paul Ghalioungui summarizes the fundamental changes Ibn al-Nafis made to the incorrect Galenic-Avicennian theory that led to his discovery of the circulatory system as follows:<ref name=Paul>Dr. Paul Ghalioungui (1982), "The West denies Ibn Al Nafis's contribution to the discovery of the circulation", ''Symposium on Ibn al-Nafis'', Second International Conference on Islamic Medicine: Islamic Medical Organization, Kuwait ([[cf.]] [http://www.islamset.com/isc/nafis/drpaul.html The West denies Ibn Al Nafis's contribution to the discovery of the circulation], ''Encyclopedia of Islamic World'')</ref>
#"Denying the existence of any pores through the [[interventricular septum]]."
#"The flow of [[blood]] from the [[right ventricle]] to the [[lung]]s where its lighter parts filter into the [[pulmonary vein]] to mix with [[Earth's atmosphere|air]]."
#"The notion that blood, or spirit from the mixture of blood and air, passes from the lung to the [[left ventricle]], and not in the opposite direction."
#"The assertion that there are only two [[Ventricle (heart)|ventricles]], not three as stated by [[Avicenna]]."
#"The statement that the ventricle takes its [[Nutrition|nourishment]] from blood flowing in the [[Blood vessel|vessels]] that run in its substance (i.e. the coronary vessels) and not, as Avicenna maintained, from blood deposited in the right ventricle."
#"A premonition of the [[capillary]] circulation in his assertion that the pulmonary vein receives what comes out of the [[pulmonary artery]], this being the reason for the existence of perceptible passages between the two."
====Pulmonary circulation====
Based on his anatomical knowledge, Ibn al-Nafis stated that:
<blockquote>"...the blood from the right chamber of the heart must arrive at the left chamber but there is no direct pathway between them. The thick septum of the heart is not perforated and does not have visible pores as some people thought or invisible pores as Galen thought. The blood from the right chamber must flow through the vena arteriosa ([[pulmonary artery]]) to the lungs, spread through its substances, be mingled there with air, pass through the arteria venosa ([[pulmonary vein]]) to reach the left chamber of the heart and there form the vital spirit..."</blockquote>
Elsewhere in his book, he said:
...
<blockquote>"The heart has only two [[ventricle (heart)|ventricles]] ...and between these two there is absolutely no opening. Also dissection gives this lie to what they said, as the septum between these two cavities is much thicker than elsewhere. The benefit of this blood (that is in the right cavity) is to go up to the lungs, mix with what is in the lungs of air, then pass through the arteria venosa to the left cavity of the two cavities of the heart..."</blockquote>
In describing the anatomy of the [[lungs]], Ibn al-Nafis stated:
<blockquote>"The lungs are composed of parts, one of which is the [[bronchi]]; the second, the branches of the arteria venosa; and the third, the branches of the vena arteriosa, all of them connected by loose porous flesh."</blockquote>
He then added:
<blockquote>"... the need of the lungs for the vena arteriosa is to transport to it the blood that has been thinned and warmed in the heart, so that what seeps through the pores of the branches of this vessel into the [[alveoli]] of the lungs may mix with what there is of air therein and combine with it, the resultant composite becoming fit to be spirit, when this mixing takes place in the left cavity of the heart. The mixture is carried to the left cavity by the arteria venosa." </blockquote>
====Coronary circulation====
Ibn al-Nafis' next most important discovery is [[coronary circulation]], the second phase of the [[circulatory system]].<ref name=Nagamia/><ref name=Oudkerk>Matthijs Oudkerk (2004), ''Coronary Radiology'', "Preface", [[Springer Science+Business Media]], ISBN 3540436405.</ref> He was the first to realize that the [[nutrition]] of the [[heart]] is extracted from the small [[blood vessel]]s passing through its wall. He wrote:<ref name=Nagamia>Husain F. Nagamia (2003), "Ibn al-Nafīs: A Biographical Sketch of the Discoverer of Pulmonary and Coronary Circulation", ''Journal of the International Society for the History of Islamic Medicine'' '''1''': 22–28.</ref>
{{quote|"Again his [Avicenna's] statement that the blood that is in the right side is to nourish the heart is not true at all, for the nourishment to the heart is from the blood that goes through the vessels that permeate the body of the heart..."}}
====Capillary circulation====
Ibn al-Nafis discovered a precursor to the "[[capillary]] circulation in his assertion that the pulmonary vein receives what comes out of the [[pulmonary artery]], this being the reason for the existence of perceptible passages between the two."<ref name=Paul/> Capillary circulation was not known in Europe for several centuries until [[Marcello Malpighi]] in 1661.
====Pulsation====
Ibn al-Nafis rejected the incorrect Galenic theory on the [[pulse]] and instead proposed his own accurate theory of pulsation. Galen believed that "every part of an artery pulsates simultaneously" and that the motion of the pulse was due to natural motions (the arteries expanding and contracting naturally) as opposed to foced motions (the heart causing the arteries to either expand or contract). Ibn al-Nafis rejected this view after discovering that pulsation is a result of both natural and forced motions, and that the "forced motion must be the contraction of the arteries caused by the expansion of the heart, and the natural motion must be the expansion of the arteries." He notes that the "arteries and the heart do not expand and contract at the same time, but rather the one contracts while the other expands" and vice versa. He also recognized that the purpose of the pulse is to help disperse the blood from the heart to the rest of the body. Ibn al-Nafis briefly summarizes his new theory of pulsation:<ref>{{Harv|Fancy|2006|pp=224-8}}</ref>
{{quote|"The primary purpose of the expansion and contraction of the heart is to absorb the cool air and expel the wastes of the spirit and the warm air; however, the ventricle of the heart is wide. Moreover, when it expands it is not possible for it to absorb air until it is full, for that would then ruin the temperament of the spirit, its substance and texture, as well as the temperament of the heart. Thus, the heart is necessarily forced to complete its fill by absorbing the spirit."}}
He writes several advantages to this theory, such as the following:<ref>{{Harv|Fancy|2006|p=229}}</ref>
{{quote|"To benefit the spirit by moving towards the heart sometimes, and at other times towards the arteries, and maintain its subtlety and substance, and not get [adversely] affected by ... a lengthy rest in the arteries."}}
{{quote|"The heart must be extremely hot in order to generate properly the spirit from the blood and the cool air, and the arteries must be cold in nature ... Thus, if the spirit were to reside always in the heart, it would burn out because of the excessive heat, and if it were to reside always in the arteries, it would become cold and thick."}}
===Other anatomical and physiological discoveries===
While the most important discoveries in the ''Sharh Tashrih al-Qanun Ibn Sina'' (''Commentary on Anatomy in Avicenna's Canon'') were the pulmonary and coronary circulations, this work also contains many other discoveries and discredits many erroneous theories advocated in ''[[The Canon of Medicine]]'' by [[Avicenna]] (Ibn Sina) and [[Galen]]. Besides the examples given in this article, the ''Commentary on Anatomy in Avicenna's Canon'' contains numerous other discoveries, criticisms and corrections on the anatomy and physiology of almost every part of the human body, including the bones, muscles, intestines, [[Sensory system|sensory organs]], bilious canals, [[esophagus]], [[stomach]], etc.<ref name=Oataya>Dr. Sulaiman Oataya (1982), "Ibn ul Nafis has dissected the human body", ''Symposium on Ibn al-Nafis'', Second International Conference on Islamic Medicine: Islamic Medical Organization, Kuwait ([[cf.]] [http://www.islamset.com/isc/nafis/index.html Ibn ul-Nafis has Dissected the Human Body], ''Encyclopedia of Islamic World'').</ref>
====Brain====
Ibn al-Nafis quotes another error made by Galen, who believed that "[[blood]] reaches the [[brain]] itself at the section called [[Prosencephalon|forebrain]] through the [[Dura mater|duramater]] which divides the vault longitudinally into two equal halves at the [[sagittal suture]]." Ibn al-Nafis criticized this theory and corrected it as follows:<ref name=Oataya/>
{{quote|"The blood permeates first to the back ventricle ([[Rhombencephalon|hindbrain]]) then to the other two [[Ventricle (heart)|ventricles]]. [[Dissection]] confirms this and disproves what they say. The [[permeation]] of [[Artery|arteries]] into the [[Skull|cranium]] is well known not to be from the front ventricle."}}
====Canals====
Another example concerns an incorrect theory on the anatomy of the [[Bile|bilious]] [[Canal (anatomy)|canals]] that was supported by Galen and Avicenna, and later repeated by [[Leonardo da Vinci]] and even [[Vesalius]] during the [[early modern period]]. Ibn al-Nafis was the only physician in pre-modern times to prove this theory wrong:<ref name=Oataya/>
{{quote|"He [Galen] claims that another canal goes from the [[Gallbladder|gall bladder]] to the [[Intestine|intestinal]] cavaties. This is completely wrong. We have seen the gall bladder several times and failed to see anything going from it either to the [[stomach]] or to the intestines."}}
====Heart====
Another correction he made concerned the incorrect Galenic and Avicennian theories of [[bone]]s being present beneath the human [[heart]]. Ibn al-Nafis proved them both wrong through his own observations and wrote the following criticism on their theories:<ref name=Oataya/>
{{quote|"This is not true. There are absolutely no bones beneath the heart as it is positioned right in the middle of the [[Thoracic cavity|chest cavity]] where there are no bones at all. Bones are only found at the [[chest]] periphery not where the heart is positioned."}}
====Muscles====
Ibn al-Nafis made the following correction concerning human [[muscle]]s, where he also briefly refers to his then forthcoming encyclopedia ''The Comprehensive Book on Medicine'':<ref name=Oataya/>
{{quote|"The most important muscles of a human body total 529, details of which you will read in a book we are writing on medicine with full investigations into their shapes, functions, [[tendon]]s, and origins. The forthcoming book will also contain details about proper [[anatomy]] since what is said about it here, is short and brief."}}
====Nerves====
Ibn al-Nafis corrects another theory on the [[nerve]]s stated by Avicenna, who believed that the [[glossopharyngeal nerve]], [[vagus nerve]] and [[accessory nerve]] arise from the nerve [[ganglion]] and that they are attached to the [[Sigmoid colon|sigmoid]] and [[facial nerve]]s through membranous [[fascia]] so that these five nerves look like one nerve emerging as three branches from the back [[foramen lacerum]]. While examining this theory, Ibn al-Nafis performed the earliest known dissection on the human brain, after he wrote the following criticism on this theory:<ref name=Oataya/>
{{quote|"About what he [Ibn Sina] said concerning the sixth nerve being attached to the [[facial nerve|fifth]] through membranous facia, I have not so far found a good reason for that attachment, and I have not even verified it. This sixth pair [a confluence of the glossopharyngeal, vagus and accessory nerves] both arises and emerges from behind the fifth, so there is no way it could be attached to it."}}
Another example was Galen's incorrect theory on the [[optic nerve]], in which he stated that the optic nerve "which comes from the right side of the brain goes to the right eye, and the nerve which comes from the left side goes to the left eye." Ibn al-Nafis also proved this theory wrong and stated:<ref name=Oataya/>
{{quote|"In fact it is not like that, [but] each nerve goes to the opposite side."}}
===Other contributions===
====Embryology and Generation====
Ibn al-Nafis criticized previous [[Aristotelianism|Aristotelian]], Galenic and Avicennian explanations of [[embryology]] and proceeds to develop his own theories on embryology and [[generation]]. He believed that when a male and female [[semen]] mix, and when they create a mixed [[matter]] that has an appropriate temperament to receive an animal or human [[soul]], [[God]] issues a soul to this matter, which then develops into an [[embryo]] that grows and generates [[organ (anatomy)|organ]]s.<ref>{{Harv|Fancy|2006|pp=147-8}}</ref> He further writes:
{{quote|"Galen believes that each of the two semen has in it the active faculty to fashion and the passive faculty to be fashioned, however the active faculty is stronger in the male semen while the passive in the female semen. The investigators amongst the ''falasifa'' believe that the male semen only has the active faculty, while the female
only has the passive faculty. ... As for our opinion on this, and God knows best, neither of the two semen has in it an active faculty to fashion."<ref>{{Harv|Fancy|2006|p=236}}</ref>}}
He then shows that once the male semen and female semen are brought together in the womb, the female semen quenches the hot fire of the male semen through its own cool and wet nature. Once the two semen are mixed, he says:<ref>{{Harv|Fancy|2006|p=237}}</ref>
{{quote|"They modify one another’s temperament and [the mixture] obtains a temperament that is prepared for the
emanation of the soul from their Supreme Creator."}}
====Philosophy and Psychology====
The commentary also dealt with the [[early Islamic philosophy]] and [[Muslim psychology]] related to [[Islamic medicine]]. Ibn al-Nafis developed his own theories on [[hylomorphic]] psychology and philosophy, mostly on a [[Kalam|theological]] basis.<ref>{{Harv|Fancy|2006|pp=239-40}}</ref>
In particular, he made a distinction between the [[soul]] and the [[spirit]], and he developed his own theory on the soul. He also crtiticized the ideas of Avicenna and [[Aristotle]] on the soul originating from the [[heart]]. Ibn al-Nafis rejected this idea and instead argued that the soul "is related to the entirety and not to one or a few [[organ (anatomy)|organ]]s." He further criticized Aristotle's idea that every unique soul requires the existence of a unique source, in this case the heart. Ibn al-Nafis concluded that "the soul is related primarily neither to the spirit nor to any organ, but rather to the entire matter whose temperament is prepared to receive that soul" and he defined the soul as nothing other than "what a human indicates by saying [[I (pronoun)|‘I’]]."<ref>{{Harv|Fancy|2006|p=209-10}}</ref>
He also identified the "psychic faculties" with [[cognition]], [[sensation]], [[imagination]], and [[animal locomotion]],<ref>{{Harv|Fancy|2006|p=172}}</ref> and disproved Aristotle's notion that these come from the heart rather than the [[brain]]. After Ibn al-Nafis discovered that the brain and nerves are cooler than the heart and arteries, he argued that the psychic faculties come from the brain on this basis.<ref>{{Harv|Fancy|2006|p=215}}</ref> He further wrote that it is the brain which controls sensation, movement and cognition.<ref>{{Harv|Fancy|2006|p=216}}</ref>
==''The Comprehensive Book on Medicine''==
The most voluminous of his books is ''Al-Shamil fi al-Tibb'' (''The Comprehensive Book on Medicine''), a medical encyclopedia which Ibn al-Nafis begun immediately after he completed his ''Commentary on Anatomy in Avicenna's Canon'' in 1242.<ref name=Iskandar-Selin>Albert Z. Iskandar, "Ibn al-Nafis", in Helaine Selin (1997), ''Encyclopaedia of the History of Science, Technology, and Medicine in Non-Western Cultures'', [[Kluwer Academic Publishers]], ISBN 0792340663.</ref> He had already published 43 volumes by [[7th century AH|641 AH]] ([[1243]]-[[1244]] CE). Over the next several decades, he would wrote down notes for 300 volumes, though he was only able to publish 80 volumes before he died in 1288.<ref name=Iskandar-602-3/> Even in its incomplete state, however, ''The Comprehensive Book on Medicine'' is one of the largest known medical encyclopedias in history, and was much larger than the more famous ''[[The Canon of Medicine]]'' by [[Avicenna]]. However, only several volumes of ''The Comprehensive Book on Medicine'' have survived.<ref>{{Harv|Fancy|2006|p=61}}</ref>
===Surgery===
To date, three surviving manuscripts comprising volumes 33, 42 and 43 of ''The Comprehensive Book on Medicine'' have been found in [[Damascus]] and at the Lane Medical Library of [[Stanford University]]. One of the three surviving manuscripts (MS Z 276) of ''The Comprehensive Book on Medicine'' is dedicated to [[surgery]], and is divided into three ''talim''. The first ''talim'' is twenty chapters in length and deals with the "general and absolute principles of surgery", the second ''talim'' deals with [[Islamic medicine#Surgical instruments|surgical instruments]], and the third examines every type of surgical operation known to him. Only the first five chapters of the first ''talim'' has been translated into [[English language|English]] and their contents are listed as follows:<ref name=Iskandar>Dr. Albert Zaki Iskandar (1982), "Comprehensive Book on the Art of Medicine", ''Symposium on Ibn al Nafis'', Second International Conference on Islamic Medicine: Islamic Medical Organization, Kuwait ([[cf.]] [http://www.islamset.com/isc/nafis/iskandar.html Comprehensive Book on the Art of Medicine], ''Encyclopedia of Islamic World'')</ref>
# "On the different stages of surgical operations, and the role of the patient in each stage"
# "On the role of the physician during the time of presentation, the time of operative treatment, and the time of preservation"
# "On a detailed discussion of the role of the physician during the time of presentation"
# "On relating the things to which the physician should pay attention during the time of operative treatment"
# "On the patient's posture during surgical treatment"
Ibn al-Nafis states that in order for a surgical operation to be successful, full attention needs to be given to three stages of the operation. The first stage is the pre-operation period which he calls the "time of presentation" when the surgeon carries out a [[diagnosis]] on the affected area of the patient's body. The second stage is the acutal operation which he calls the "time of operative treatment" when the surgeon repairs the affected [[Organ (anatomy)|organs]] of the patient. The third stage is the post-operation period which he calls the "time of preservation" when the patient needs to take care of himself and be taken care of by [[nurse]]s and doctors until he recovers "by the will of God". For each stage, he gives detailed descriptions on the roles of the surgeon, patient and nurse, and the manipulation and maintenance of the surgical instruments being used.<ref name=Iskandar/> ''The Comprehensive Book on Medicine'' was also the earliest book dealing with the [[decubitus]] of a patient.<ref name=Iskandar-603>{{Harv|Iskandar|1974|p=603}}</ref>
===Urology===
Sections of the book also dealt with [[urology]], including the issues of [[sexual dysfunction]] and [[erectile dysfunction]]. Ibn al-Nafis was one of the first to prescribe clinically [[Drug test|tested drugs]] as [[medication]] for the treatment of these problems. His treatments were mainly oral [[drugs]], though a few patients were also treated through [[topical]] or [[Transurethral resection of the prostate|transurethral]] means.<ref>A. Al Dayela and N. al-Zuhair (2006), "Single drug therapy in the treatment of male sexual/erectile dysfunction in Islamic medicine", ''Urology'' '''68''' (1), p. 253-254.</ref>
==''Theologus Autodidactus''==
''Al-Risalah al-Kamiliyyah fil Siera al-Nabawiyyah'' (''The Treatise of Kamil on the Prophet's Biography''), also known as ''Risālat Fād il ibn Nātiq'' (''The Book of Fādil ibn Nātiq''), was the first [[Kalam|theological]] [[novel]],<ref name=Meyerhof>[[Muhsin Mahdi]] (1974), "''The Theologus Autodidactus of Ibn at-Nafis'' by Max Meyerhof, Joseph Schacht", ''Journal of the American Oriental Society'' '''94''' (2), p. 232-234.</ref> written by Ibn al-Nafis and later translated in the West as ''Theologus Autodidactus''. This work is one of the first [[Arabic literature|Arabic novels]], the first [[science fiction]] novel, and the earliest example of a [[desert island]] story and [[coming of age]] story.<ref name=Roubi>Dr. Abu Shadi Al-Roubi (1982), "Ibn Al-Nafis as a philosopher", ''Symposium on Ibn al-Nafis'', Second International Conference on Islamic Medicine: Islamic Medical Organization, Kuwait ([[cf.]] [http://www.islamset.com/isc/nafis/drroubi.html Ibn al-Nafis As a Philosopher], ''Encyclopedia of Islamic World'').</ref> This novel was written sometime between 1268 and 1277 CE.<ref>{{Harv|Fancy|2006|p=207}}</ref>
===Plot===
The plot of this novel was the earliest example of a [[desert island]] story, a [[coming of age]] story, and a [[science fiction]] story. The [[protagonist]] of the story is Kamil, an [[Autodidacticism|autodidactic]] adolescent [[feral child]] who is [[Abiogenesis|spontaneously generated]] in a [[cave]] and living in seclusion on a deserted island.<ref name=Roubi/> He eventually comes in contact with the outside world after the arrival of [[castaway]]s who get [[shipwreck]]ed and stranded on the island,<ref>{{Harv|Fancy|2006|pp=109 & 150}}</ref> and later take him back to the [[Civilization|civilized world]] with them. The [[plot]] gradually develops into a coming-of-age story and then becomes the earliest example of a science fiction novel when it eventually reaches its [[Climax (narrative)|climax]] with a catastrophic [[Eschatology|doomsday]] [[apocalypse]].<ref name=Roubi/>
===Themes===
Ibn al-Nafis uses the plot to express many of his own religious, philosophical and scientific [[Theme (literature)|themes]] on a wide variety of subjects, including [[biology]], [[cosmology]], [[empiricism]], [[epistemology]], [[experiment]]ation, [[futurology]], [[geology]], [[Islamic eschatology]], [[natural philosophy]], the [[philosophy of history]] and [[sociology]], the [[philosophy of religion]], [[physiology]], [[psychology]], and [[teleology]]. Ibn al-Nafis was thus an early pioneer of the [[philosophical novel]]. Through the story of Kamil, Ibn al-Nafis attempted to establish that the human [[mind]] is capable of [[Deductive reasoning|deducing]] the natural, philosophical and religious [[truth]]s of the universe through [[reasoning]] and [[Logic in Islamic philosophy|logical thinking]]. The "truths" presented in the story include the necessity of [[God]]'s existence, the life and teachings of the [[prophets of Islam]], and an analysis of the past, present, and future, including the origins of the [[Human|Homo Sapien]] species and a general [[Futurology|prediction of the future]] on the basis of [[historicism]] and historical [[determinism]]. The final two chapters of the story resemble a science fiction plot, where the [[Islamic eschatology|end of the world, doomsday]], [[Qiyamah|resurrection]] and [[Akhirah|afterlife]] are predicted and scientifically explained using his own [[Empiricism|empirical]] knowledge of [[Islamic medicine|biology]], [[Islamic astronomy|astronomy, cosmology]] and [[Islamic science|geology]]. One of the main purposes behind ''Theologus Autodidactus'' was to explain Islamic religious teachings in terms of [[Islamic science|science]] and philosophy through the use of a fictional narrative, hence this was an attempt at reconciling reason with revelation and blurring the line between the two.<ref name=Roubi/>
Ibn al-Nafis described the book as a defense of "the system of Islam and the Muslims' doctrines on the missions of Prophets, the religious laws, the resurrection of the body, and the transitoriness of the world." He presents rational arguments for bodily [[resurrection]] and the [[immortality]] of the human [[soul]], using both demonstrative [[reasoning]] and material from the hadith corpus to prove his case.<ref name=Fancy-42-60/> The novel also includes references to his new physiology and his theories of [[pulmonary circulation]] and pulsation, which he uses to justify bodily resurrection. Some have thus argued that it was his attempts at attempting to prove bodily resurrection that led him to his discovery of the pulmonary circulation.<ref>{{Harv|Fancy|2006|pp=232-3}}</ref> Later Islamic scholars viewed this work as a response to [[Avicenna]]'s [[Metaphysics|metaphysical]] claim that bodily resurrection cannot be proven through reason, a view that was earlier criticized by [[al-Ghazali]].<ref name=Fancy-42-60>{{Harv|Fancy|2006|pp=42 & 60}}</ref>
The plot of ''Theologus Autodidactus'' was intended to be a response to [[Ibn Tufail]] (Abubacer), who wrote the first fictional Arabic novel ''[[Hayy ibn Yaqdhan]]'' (''Philosophus Autodidactus'') which was itself a response to [[al-Ghazali]]'s ''[[The Incoherence of the Philosophers]]''. Ibn al-Nafis thus wrote the narrative of ''Theologus Autodidactus'' as a rebuttal of Abubacer's arguments in ''Philosophus Autodidactus''. Both of these narratives had protagonists (Hayy in ''Philosophus Autodidactus'' and Kamil in ''Theologus Autodidactus'') who were autodidactic individuals spontaneously generated in a cave and living in seclusion on a desert island, both being the earliest examples of a desert island story. However, while Hayy lives alone with animals on a desert island for the rest of the story in ''Philosophus Autodidactus'', the story of Kamil extends beyond the desert island setting in ''Theologus Autodidactus'', developing into a coming-of-age plot and eventually becoming the first example of a science fiction novel. The purpose behind this changing story structure in ''Theologus Autodidactus'' was to refute Abubacer's argument that [[autodidacticism]] can lead to the same religious truths as [[revelation]], whereas Ibn al-Nafis believed that religious truths can only be attained through revelation, which is represented through Kamil's interactions with other humans.<ref>{{Harv|Fancy|2006|pp=95-102}}</ref>
===Biomedical portions===
''Theologus Autodidactus'' also contains some passages that are of significance to [[medicine]], particularly [[physiology]] and [[biology]], such as the following statement:<ref name=Roubi/>
{{quote|"Both the body and its parts are in a continuous state of dissolution and [[Nutrition|nourishment]], so they are inevitably undergoing permanent change."}}
This is seen as the first example of the concept of [[metabolism]], which is comprised of [[catabolism]], where [[Tissue (biology)|living matter]] is broken down into simple [[Chemical substance|substances]], and [[anabolism]], where [[food]] builds up into living matter.<ref name=Roubi/>
''Theologus Autodidactus'' also criticizes the idea of [[wine]] being used as [[self-medication]], an idea believed by Ancient Greek physicians as well as some unorthodox Muslim physicians in his time, despite the Islamic prohibition of [[alcohol]]. The novel further argues that the consumption of alcohol, along with the prevalence of [[homosexuality]] among a small minority of Muslims at the time, were the cause of the [[Mongol invasions]] into Islamic lands as a divine punishment.<ref>{{Harv|Fancy|2006|p=152}}</ref>
The novel also contains a reference to the pulmonary circulation which Ibn al-Nafis had previously described in his ''Commentary on Anatomy in Avicenna's Canon'', which is briefly described by the character Kamil when he observes the heart:<ref>{{Harv|Fancy|2006|pp=233-4}}</ref>
{{quote|"[Its] right ventricle is filled with blood and its left ventricle is filled with spirit."}}
Another passage has a reference to Ibn al-Nafis' theory of pulsation:<ref>{{Harv|Fancy|2006|p=234}}</ref>
{{quote|"Its left ventricle is filled with spirit, and this ventricle contracts, thereby sending
this spirit in the arteries to the organs. Then it expands, and this spirit returns to it."}}
Ibn al-Nafis makes use of his new systems of anatomy, physiology and psychology which he had developed in his previous works in order to defend his views on bodily resurrection in ''Theologus Autodidactus''. This may have been one of the reasons that initially motivated his discovery of the pulmonary circulation.<ref>{{Harv|Fancy|2006|pp=233-9}}</ref>
==''A Short Account of the Methodology of Hadith''==
Ibn al-Nafis wrote ''Al-Mukhtasar fi Ilm Usoulil Hadith'' (''A Short Account of the Methodology of Hadith''), a treatise on the [[science of hadith]]. The work is notable for its use of [[ijtihad]] (reason) in the evaluation of a [[hadith]] (narration or report) and its [[isnad]] (chain of transmission), unlike other contemporary hadith scholars, notably Ibn al-Salāh, who relied on traditional methods of classifying a hadith and its isnad. Ibn al-Nafis, on the other hand, sought to demonstrate the use of [[rationality]] and [[Logic in Islamic philosophy|logic]] to classify the hadiths and to find whether there are any [[contradiction]]s within them. Later traditionalists, however, disagreed with the use of reason in the science of hadith, including the hadith scholar [[al-Dhahabi]] and the polymath [[Ibn Khaldun]], who argued that "there is no place for the [[intellect]] in them, save that the intellect may be used in connection with them to relate problems of detail with basic principles."<ref>{{Harv|Fancy|2006|pp=67-72}}</ref>
===Classification===
While traditional hadith scholars identified hadiths into three categories; [[sahih]] (sound), [[hasan]] (fair) and [[da'if]] (weak); Ibn al-Nafis instead classified them into four logical categories: decidedly true (''maclūm al-sidq''), probably true (''yuz annu bihi'l-sidq''), probably false (''yuz annu bihi'l-kadhb'') and decidedly false (''maclūm al-kadhb''). He used [[reason]] and logic to judge the veracity or falsity of a report:<ref>{{Harv|Fancy|2006|pp=72-3}}</ref>
{{quote|"As for the report whose truthfulness is certain but not on account of the veracity of the reporter, [it is of the following types]: it may be congruous to a report known to be true. For example, if one reports something that is in agreement witha report of [[God]], or the [[Muhammad|Prophet]], or is something that [all] Muslims agree upon... Likewise, what is reported may be known to be true on account of its agreement with [[fact]]. The knowledge of that may be self-evident, for example if it is said that two is half of four, or that the whole is greater than the parts. Or it may not be self-evident, for example when one says that since we have a creator, the world must be created. As for the report that is known to be false, it may be due to knowing the truth about another report that contradicts it, either by being its opposite or by being incompatible with it. For example, if one reported something that contradicted the saying of God, or his Prophet or the saying of the [[consensus]] of Muslims. It may also be false if it is known to contradict facts. Knowledge of that kind could be theoretical speculation such as the reports that the [[Bid‘ah|innovators]] disseminate in texts on [[anthropomorphism]]... or it could be self-evidently false, for example if one were to say, ‘The part is greater than the whole!‘"}}
According to traditional hadith scholars of his time, all [[sahih]] hadiths, especially those reported in the canonical [[Sahih Bukhari]] and [[Sahih Muslim]] [[hadith collection]]s, should instantly be classified as definitely true on the basis of a reliable [[isnad]] (chain of transmission). Ibn al-Nafis disagreed and instead classified most of those same sahih hadiths as "probably true" instead of "decidedly true", as he denied the absolute and unconditional validity of the sahih hadiths that was becoming the norm during his time. He argues thad, while a report emanating from Muhammad is always "decidedly true", most hadiths do not reach them directly from Muhamamd and so they can only be classified as "probably true" or "probably false" based on their isnad. He states that the only hadiths that are "decidedly true" are the multiply transmitted [[mutawatir]] (consecutive) hadiths. Since most sahih hadiths do not meet the criteria of mutawatir, he rejects the absolute soundness of the Sahih Bukhari and Sahih Muslim collections, placing a strong emphasis on mutawatir hadiths:<ref>{{Harv|Fancy|2006|pp=73-4}}</ref>
{{quote|"As for the reports that are at our disposal now, most of what we adhere to are only highly probable [ghālib al-zann] and not indubitable knowledge [al-cilm al-muh aqqaq], contrary to [the majority of] people who say: “Everything that Muslim and Bukhārī agree upon is decidedly certain because the scholars agree on the soundness of these two books.” But the truth is that that is not the case! For the agreement is only over the permissible actions that are found in these two [texts], but that does not preclude what is in these two from being suspect in its soundness."}}
This was a view that was held by a majority of [[ulema]] (legal scholars) in his time, but this view was not shared by traditional hadith scholars in his time who did not differentiate between hadiths that were "sahih" and "mutawatir". Ibn al-Nafis further classified the da'if (weak) hadiths as "probably false", and the only hadiths he classified as "decidedly false" were the ones where there was a known liar among the chain of transmission, the ones contradicting a "definitely true" hadith, and the ones dealing with [[anthropomorphism]]:<ref>{{Harv|Fancy|2006|p=74-6}}</ref>
{{quote|"As for lies in the meaning of a hadīth, that is as if one said: “The messenger of God said such-and-such,” when the messenger of God actually said, “I do not say that.” Likewise, when something transmitted on the authority of the messenger of God seems absurd rationally [''caqlan''] or through law [''sharcan''], then it is permissible to interpret it and reduce it to a likely meaning."}}
With his emphasis on reason throughout the text, he wished to highlight the importance of ''ilm al-dirāya'' (content analysis) which was practiced by the early hadith scholars but was absent from the hadith scholarship of his time who put far more emphasis on isnad instead. He disagreed with their definition of a sahih hadith as a hadith from the canonical sahih collections, but instead he defined a sahih hadith as a "decidedly true" hadith that is "free from being challenged on account of its transmitters [''rijālihi''], its content [''matnihi''] and its meaning [''macnāhi''], while having a continuous chain of transmitters" and without any anthropomorphic content.<ref>{{Harv|Fancy|2006|p=77}}</ref>
==Other works==
So far, the titles of at least 37 of his works are known, which add up to at least more than a hundred volumes in total, though only a fraction of his works have survived (or yet to be discovered) and even fewer have been [[printed]] (or translated).<ref>{{Harv|Fancy|2006|p=205}}</ref><ref name=Takrouri/>
===''A Summary of Medicine''===
Ibn al-Nafis' ''Al-Mujaz fi al-Tibb'' (''A Summary of Medicine'') was a 500-page book on medicine. Parts of the book dealt with [[otolaryngology]], and one chapter in particular first described the ear infections [[otitis media]] and [[otitis externa]]. He described the latter as an "outer ear canal infection" where the "ear was painful and tender, slightly swollen and producing a smelly coloured discharge" and with a "degree of hearing impairment." It was here that he introduced the concept of dividing a condition into an early [[Acute (medicine)|acute]] stage and a later [[Chronic (medical)|chronic]] stage, which remains similar to modern classifications of ear diseases. In some of the preparations and remedies he described for their treatment, he introduced the use of [[vinegar]], which is still used for ear infections in modern times.<ref>{{cite web|author=Mohamed Hussein Benamer|title=Ibn Al-Nafis and Vinegar|date=17 June, 2005|url=http://www.muslimheritage.com/topics/default.cfm?ArticleID=520|accessdate=2008-02-08}}</ref>
===''The Choice of Foodstuffs''===
Another famous book, embodying a number of original contributions, was on the effects of [[diet]] on health, entitled ''Kitab al-Mukhtar fi al-Aghdhiya'' (''The Choice of Foodstuffs''). His approach to [[health]] placed a greater emphasis on diet, [[nutrition]], and controlling the [[food]] consumed by a patient, rather than the [[prescription]]s of [[drug]]s.<ref name=Takrouri/>
===''The Polished Book on Experimental Ophthalmology''===
Ibn al-Nafis wrote a large textbook on [[Ophthalmology in medieval Islam|ophthalmology]] called ''The Polished Book on Experimental Ophthalmology'' in which he made a number of original contributions to the field. The book is divided into two sections: "On the Theory of Ophthalmology" and "Simple and Compounded Ophthalmic Drugs".<ref name=Iskandar-Selin/>
Ibn al-Nafis discovered that the [[muscle]] behind the [[eye]]ball does not support the [[ophthalmic nerve]], that they do not get in contact with it, and that the [[optic nerve]]s [[transect]] but do not get in touch with each other. He also discovered many new treatments for [[glaucoma]] and the weakness of [[Visual system|vision]] in one eye when the other eye is affected by [[disease]].<ref name=Takrouri>Mohamad S. M. Takrouri (King Khalid University Hospital Riyadh), [http://www.angelfire.com/md/Takrouri/Ibn_alNafis.htm Medical aspects of Ala al-Din Abu'l-Hasan Ali Ibn Abi'l-Haram al-Qurashi (Ibn al-Nafis)'s contributions to science]</ref>
===Medical commentaries===
The most famous known work of Ibn al-Nafis is his 20-volume commentary on [[Avicenna]]'s ''[[The Canon of Medicine]]'', in which Ibn al-Nafis "elucidated the scientific problems, pointed out the logical conclusions, and explained the medical difficulties" in the text according to the biographers Umarī and al-Safadī. The most famous part of his commentary is the ''Sharh Tashrih al-Qanun Ibn Sina'' (''Commentary on Anatomy in Avicenna's Canon''), in which Ibn al-Nafis made his discovery of [[pulmonary circulation]]<ref>{{Harv|Fancy|2006|p=62}}</ref> and [[coronary circulation]].<ref name=Nagamia/> The other four surviving volumes of the commentary are called ''A Commentary on Generalities, A Commentary on Materia Medica and Compund Drugs, A Commentary on Head-to-Toe Diseases'', and ''A Commentary on Diseases Which Are Not Specific to Certain Organs''. In the first of these volumes, ''A Commentary on Generalities'', he repeats his account of the pulmonary circulation.<ref name=Iskandar-603/>
He also wrote the ''Kitab al-Mujiz'' or ''Mujiz al-Qanun'' (''Epitome of the Kitab al-Qanun''), another work based on the ''Canon'', but rather than a commentary, this was an edited version of the original ''Canon'' for medical students. The sections on anatomy and physiology, however, were removed from the text due to the inaccuracy of those segments, and he also did not include his own commentaries in this work, hence it has no mention of his descriptions on the pulmonary or coronary circulations. This work was popular in the Islamic world and was translated into several other languages, including [[Turkish language|Turkish]] and [[Hebrew]], and several commentaries were written on his edited version of the ''Canon''.<ref name=Iskandar-604>{{Harv|Iskandar|1974|p=604}}</ref>
He also wrote a number of commentaries on the topic of medicine. His commentaries include one on [[Hippocrates]]' book, and several volumes on [[Avicenna|Ibn Sina]]'s ''[[The Canon of Medicine|Qanun Fil Tibb]]'' (''The Canon of Medicine''). Additionally, he wrote a commentary on [[Hunayn ibn Ishaq]]'s book. In his commentaries on Avicenna and his commentary on Hippocrates, entitled ''Sharh Fusul Buqrat'' (''Commentary on Hippocrates' Aphorisms''), he wrote an introductory note on them, making obvious his rebellious nature against established authorities as he states that he has decided to:<ref name=Iskandar-604/>
{{quote|"throw light on and stand by true opinions, and forsake those which are false and erase their traces..."}}
===Other medical writings===
His other medical works include the ''Risalat al-A'ada'a'' (''An Essay on Organs'') and ''Al-Shamel fi al-Tibb'' (''Reference Book for Physicians'').<ref name=Takrouri/>
===Environmental science===
Ibn al-Nafis wrote a treatise on [[environmental science]], which covered a number of subjects related to [[pollution]], such as [[air pollution]], [[water pollution]], [[soil contamination]], [[municipal solid waste]] mishandling, and [[environmental impact assessment]]s of certain localities.<ref>L. Gari (2002), "Arabic Treatises on Environmental Pollution up to the End of the Thirteenth Century", ''Environment and History'' '''8''' (4), pp. 475-488.</ref>
===Fiqh jurisprudence and Sharia law===
Ibn al-Nafis wrote several books dealing with [[Fiqh]] jurisprudence and [[Sharia]] law, including the ''Theologus Autodidactus'' and a commentary on Abu Ishaq al-Shirazi's ''Al-Tanbeeh'' (''Exhortation'').<ref name=Roubi/>
One of his most famous books on [[law]] is ''Mujaz al-Qanun'' (''The Summary of Law''). He also wrote a number of other commentaries on the topic of law.
===Linguistics===
Ibn al-Nafis wrote two books on [[Arabic grammar|Arabic linguistics]]. One was his original work, ''Tareeq al-Fasaha'' (''Road to Eloquence''), while the other was a commentary on the linguist Said bin al-Hassan al-Rab'i al-[[Baghdadi]]'s ''Al-Fusous'' (''The Segments'').<ref name=Roubi/>
===Logic===
Ibn al-Nafis wrote two books on [[logic in Islamic philosophy]]. One of these works deals with [[Logic in Islamic philosophy#Avicennian logic|Avicennian logic]] as a commentary of [[Avicenna]]'s ''Al-Isharat'' (''The Signs'') and ''Al-Hidayah'' (''The Guidance''). His other work on logic, ''Al-Wurayqat'' (''The Little Papers''), deals with [[Organon|Aristotelian logic]] as a commentary on [[Aristotle]]'s ''[[Organon]]'' and ''[[Rhetoric (Aristotle)|Rhetoric]]''.<ref name=Roubi/>
His ''Theologus Autodidactus'' and ''A Short Account of the Methodology of Hadith'' also deal with the use of logic in [[Islamic theology]].
===Philosophy===
In [[early Islamic philosophy]], Ibn al-Nafis wrote commentaries on [[Avicennism|Avicennian philosophy]], specifically [[Avicenna]]'s ''Hidaya f'il-Hikma'' and the ''Kitab al-Isharat wa al-Tanbihat'' (''Book of Directives and Remarks'') in ''[[The Book of Healing]]'', though neither of these commentaries have survived.<ref>{{citation|first=Max|last=Meyerhof|contribution=Ibn al-Nafis|editor1-first1=M. Th.|editor1-last=Houtsma|editor1-first=E.|editor1-last=van Donzel|year=1993|title=E. J. Brill's First Encyclopaedia of Islam, 1913-1936|pages=94-95 [95]|publisher=[[Brill Publishers]]|isbn=9004082654}}</ref>
==Notes==
{{reflist|2}}
==References==
*{{Citation
|last=Bayon
|first=H. P.
|year=1941
|title=Significance of the demonstration of the Harveyan circulation by experimental tests
|journal=Isis
|volume=33
|pages=443-453
}}
*{{Harvard reference
|last=Fancy
|first=Nahyan A. G.
|year=2006
|title=Pulmonary Transit and Bodily Resurrection: The Interaction of Medicine, Philosophy and Religion in the Works of Ibn al-Nafīs (d. 1288)
|journal=Electronic Theses and Dissertations
|publisher=[[University of Notre Dame]]
|url=http://etd.nd.edu/ETD-db/theses/available/etd-11292006-152615
}}
*{{Harvard reference
|last=Iskandar
|first=Albert Z.
|year=1974
|contribution=Ibn al-Nafis
|title=[[Dictionary of Scientific Biography]]
|volume=9
|pages=602-606
}}
==See also==
*[[Islamic science]]
*[[Islamic medicine]]
*[[Early Islamic philosophy]]
*[[Arabic literature]]
*[[List of Arab scientists and scholars]]
*''[[Medical Encyclopedia of Islam and Iran]]''
*[[Circulatory system]]
{{Islamic studies}}
{{Medieval Philosophy}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:Nafis, Ibn}}
[[Category:History of medicine]]
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