Incarceration 522042 219661186 2008-06-16T08:35:08Z Timeshifter 482887 [[WP:UNDO|Undid]] revision 219100574 by [[Special:Contributions/67.187.235.219|67.187.235.219]] ([[User talk:67.187.235.219|talk]]) {{limitedgeographicscope}} [[Image:Prisoner population rate UN HDR 2007 2008.PNG|thumb|World map showing number of prisoners per 100,000 citizens.<ref name=un> [http://hdrstats.undp.org/indicators/265.html Human Development Report 2007/2008 - Prison population (per 100,000 people)]. [[United Nations Development Programme]].</ref>]] '''Incarceration''' is the detention of a person in [[jail]] or [[prison]]. People are most commonly incarcerated upon suspicion or conviction of committing a [[crime]]. Incarceration rates, when measured by the United Nations, are considered distinct and separate from the imprisonment of [[political prisoners]] and others not charged with a specific crime. Historically, the frequency of imprisonment, its duration, and severity have varied considerably. There has also been much debate about the motives for incarceration, its effectiveness and fairness, as well as debate regarding the related questions about the nature and [[etiology]] of [[crime|criminal]] behavior. == Punishment vs. Rehabilitation == The above mentioned opinions often inform debates about the goal of incarceration: should the emphasis be on [[punishment]] or [[rehabilitation (penology)|rehabilitation]]? Arguments have been made on both sides of the issues, and larger societal perspectives have shifted from one side to the other over the years. Those who favor [[punishment]] often contend that the practice serves both as [[revenge]] for the wronged and as a [[deterrent]] against further crime. On the other hand, those who favor rehabilitation argue that by trying to change a criminal's behavior, [[recidivism]] rates can be reduced, and both the criminal and society can benefit from improvement. == Justice studies == [[Image:Crime-Determinants of.svg|right|frame|The index of the unequal distribution of wealth and the index of family disintegration, the best predictors of incarceration rates.]] [[Penology]] and justice studies emphasize description and analysis of antecedents of criminal behavior and outcomes of consequences imposed by criminal justice on the criminal behavior. An example of a modern quantitative study of factors influencing the criminal behavior is the study by Krus and Hoehl (1994). In the study by Krus and Hoehl, variables that might explain differences in incarceration rates among populations were located by a computer-aided search of the compendium of world rankings, compiled by the [[Facts on File]] Corporation and the World Model Group, containing over 50,000 records on more than 200 countries. They argued that predictor variables explained about 69% of variance in the international incarceration rates. Cited as especially important were unequal distribution of wealth (the explanation perhaps favored by [[liberal]]s) and family disintegration (the explanation perhaps favored by [[Conservatism|conservatives]]). According to Krus and Hoehl, these variables act in concert: the presence of one variable does not always precipitate crime, but the presence of both variables often does precipitate crime. == Incarceration rates by country == [[Image:Incarceration rates worldwide.gif|thumb|400px|The stats source is the World Prison Population List (7th edition). Prisoners per 100,000 population.<ref name=RoyWalmsley> [http://nicic.org/Library/022140 World Prison Population List. 7th edition]. By Roy Walmsley. Published in 2007. [[International Centre for Prison Studies]]. School of Law, [[King's College London]]. For editions 1 through 7: [http://www.aic.gov.au/stats/other/wpl.html].</ref><ref name=WorldPrisonBrief> [http://www.kcl.ac.uk/depsta/law/research/icps/worldbrief/wpb_stats.php World Prison Brief - Highest to Lowest Figures]. [[International Centre for Prison Studies]]. School of Law, [[King's College London]]. Compare many nations. Select from menu: prison population total, prison population rate, percentage of pre-trial detainees / remand prisoners within the prison population, percentage of female prisoners within the prison population, percentage of foreign prisoners within the prison population and occupancy rate.</ref><ref name=undp> [http://hdrstats.undp.org/indicators/265.html Human Development Report 2007/2008 - Prison population (per 100,000 people)]. UNDP ([[United Nations Development Programme]]), using data from the World Prison Population List.</ref>]] The [[Incarceration in the United States#Incarceration rate|United States' incarceration rate]] is the highest in the world, at 737 persons imprisoned per 100,000<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ojp.usdoj.gov/bjs/pub/pdf/p05.pdf|title=Prisoners in 2005|author=Paige M. Harrison and Allen J. Beck, Ph.D.|date=November 2006|format=PDF|publisher=U.S. Department of Justice, Office of Justice Programs, Bureau of Justice Statistics|pages=13}}</ref>. A report released 2/28/08 indicates that in the United States more than 1 in 100 adults is now confined in an American jail or prison.<ref>[http://www.pewcenteronthestates.org/uploadedFiles/One%20in%20100.pdf Layout 1<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref> The United States has 5% of the world's population and 25% of the world's incarcerated population.[http://www.homeoffice.gov.uk/rds/pdfs2/r188.pdf] In 2006 the incarceration rate in [[England]] and [[Wales]] is 139 persons imprisoned per 100,000 residents, while in [[Norway]] it is 59 inmates per 100,000, whilst the Australian imprisonment rate is 163 prisoners per 100,000 residents, and the rate of imprisonment in New Zealand last year was 179 per 100,000. In 2001 the incarceration rate in [[China]] was 111 per 100,000 in 2001 (sentenced prisoners only), although this figure is highly disputed. Chinese human rights activist [[Harry Wu]], who spent 19 years in forced-labor camps for criticizing the government, estimates that 16 to 20 million of his countrymen are incarcerated, including common criminals, political prisoners, and people in involuntary job placements. Even ten million prisoners would mean a rate of 793 per 100,000.<ref>This sentence is copied verbatim from http://www.straightdope.com/columns/040206.html</ref> [[Ireland]] has the lowest prison population with 3417 [[prisoners]] incarcerated. Ireland has relatively low crime rates and those rates continue to fall. Ireland received 101 reports of [[homicide]] in 2003. Also reported were 4763 cases of assault and 2463 sexual offences.<ref name="AnGarda">An Garda Síochána Annual Report-http://www.garda.ie/statistics/report2003/annrepstats2003.pdf</ref> [[Denmark]] also has low [[incarceration]] rate with a total of 3774 inmates in the country.<ref name="WorldPrison">World Prison Population List by Roy Walmsley-http://www.homeoffice.gov.uk/rds/pdfs2/r188.pdf</ref> Denmark has 59 people in prison for every 100,000 citizens.<ref name="WorldPrison"/> 62 violent crimes such as rape, murder, robbery, and aggravated [[assault]] were reported. There were 322 Property Crimes reported. [[India]] has the lowest incarceration rates with only 281,000 prisoners in their jails.<ref name="WorldPrison"/> This is just a fraction of their total population, 1,129,866,154.<ref name="WorldPrison"/> India reported 1,764,630 crimes in 2007.<ref name="WorldPrison"/> There were 236,313 assaults and 111,296 [[burglaries]].<ref name="NationMaster">http://www.nationmaster.com/country/in-india/cri-crime</ref> In many countries, it is common for prisoners to be paroled after serving as little as one third of their sentences. In the U.S., most states strictly limit parole, requiring that at least half of a sentence be served. For certain heinous crimes, there is no parole and the full sentence must be served. == Duration of incarceration == {{main|Sentence (law)}} Trends in [[criminal sentencing in the United States]] include a move toward determinate as opposed to indeterminate sentencing. {{Expand-section|date=June 2008}} == Conditions of incarceration == Severe punishments (such as beatings, prolonged sleep deprivation, sensory deprivation, chaining) have been often inflicted on prisoners. There are many reasons given for justification of such punishment. In the 16th century, the [[Bishop of Trier]], [[Peter Binsfeld|Binsfeld]], in his ''Tractatus de Confessionibus Maleficorum'' (1596) claimed that :: ''since the sinfulness of the world increases, God also allows increasing the severity of punishments.'' A movement to abolish cruel treatment of prisoners began during the [[Age of Enlightenment]] and continued throughout the 19th and 20th centuries. However, there have been continual arguments for severe punishments, perhaps increasing somewhat in the early years of the 21st century. Contemporary justifications for such punishment often revolve around the "rights of the victims". Often underlying these perspectives are opinions that stress the vindictive eye-for-the-eye notions of the [[Old Testament]] and Qur'an <ref>Aslam Abdullah (2006, www.beliefnet.com) in ''Demystifying Muslim Justice'' observes that " most Americans' impression of Islamic justice is a rather barbaric image of retribution harshly and violently administered. Ask even educated Americans to explain the law in Muslim countries, and they'll inevitably talk about hands and heads summarily being severed. In fact, Islamic justice shares much with Christianity and Judaism. These similarities are not surprising, considering that our penal systems are influenced by common scriptural foundations. The Qur'an's most basic passage pertaining to punishment is a familiar one to Christians and Jews alike: "And We prescribed for them therein: The life for the life, and the eye for the eye, and the nose for the nose, and the ear for the ear, and the tooth for the tooth, and for wounds equality." That said, even in Talmudic times, this was never intended for Jews to be taken literally, and has always been interpreted by the Rabbis to indicate that appropriate compensation be paid in the form of money.</ref>, over the notion that the primary goal of incarceration should be the reform and reeducation of prisoners to facilitate their re-integration into society. Within the framework of [[penology]], the trend toward increasing the severity of punishments is reflected in publications such as Block's (1997, p. 12) advocacy of policy initiatives aimed at increasing the unpleasantness of prison life that would likely be ''"a cost-effective method of fighting crime”'' and [[Joseph Arpaio|Arpaio]] and Sherman's 1996 book claiming that the increase in the severity of treatment of prisoners will result in decrease in [[recidivism]].<ref>The opinion that increasing the severity of punishments will result in decrease of recidivism is not supported by some metastudies of this issue. Contrary to this popular opinion, the majority of research studies indicates that penal policies stressing rehabilitation over punishment result in lower recidivism rates. Most empirical studies consistently find that the employment status after the release from prison is the strongest predictor of recidivism. Thus, e.g., ''Pennsylvania's 2000 Legislative Report on Recidivism'' concludes that ''"most studies found that boot camps have not been very successful in achieving the goal of reducing crime"'' and that the fact that ''"employed offenders are almost three times as likely to succeed indicates that providing vocational training and employment opportunities for offenders should be a high priority."''</ref> Arpaio and Sherman proposed to increase the severity of imprisonment by the construction of tent prison camps in the [[Mojave Desert]] where summer temperatures reach 120 degrees Fahrenheit, by serving prisoners foul-tasting food, by humiliating prisoners by cross-dressing, and by reinstatement of the [[chain gang]]s. Mauer (1999, pp. 92-93) documents some other the measures used to implement the ''increasing the unpleasantness of prison life'' policies that include shooting around prisoners to keep them moving, forced consumption of milk of magnesia, placing naked inmates in ''strip cells,'' and handcuffing inmates for long periods of time. === Incarceration and torture === As noted above, cruel treatment has long been a feature of incarceration. Taken to extremes, such treatment might be described as [[torture]]. Torture has, for much of history, been seen as a tolerable or even necessary component of imprisonment, whether performed as [[punishment]] or as part of [[interrogation]]. Recent controversial cases described by critics as torture of incarcerated persons include the [[Abu Ghraib torture and prisoner abuse|Abu Ghraib]] military prison in [[Iraq]] and the [[Camp X-Ray|Guantanamo Bay, Cuba]] scandal. Please see the main [[torture]] page for further information. == References == * ABC News/Washington Post poll (2004). Conducted by TNS of Horsham, Pa, on a random national sample of 1,005 adults with a three-point error margin. * [[Joseph Arpaio|Arpaio]], J. and Sherman, L. (1996) ''How to win the war against crime.'' Arlington: The Summit Publishing Group. * Binsfeld, P. (1596) ''Tractatus de confessionibus maleficorum et sagarum.'' Trier, Germany: Heinrich Bock. * Block, M. K. (1997) ''Supply side imprisonment policy.'' Washington: National Institute of Justice. * [[Cesare, Marquis of Beccaria|Beccaria, C.]] (1764) ''An essay on crimes and punishments.'' New York: Gould & Van Winkle, 1809. * Daneau, L. (1564) ''Les Sorciers, dialogue très utile et très necessaire pour ce temps.'' In Levack, B. (1992) ''The literature of witchcraft: articles on witchcraft, magic, and demonology.'' Garland. ISBN 0-8153-1026-9. * Geiler, J. (1508) ''Die Emeis.'' Strassburg: Johann Grüninger. * Kurian, G.T. (1991) ''The New Book of World Rankings.'' New York: Facts on File, Inc. * Krus, D.J. (1999) Die Harte des Strafvollzugs: Entbindung in Ketten. ''Zeitschrift fur Sozialpsychologie und Gruppendynamik in Wirtschaft und Gesellschaft,'' 24Jg/Heft 4, S.12-16 [http://www.visualstatistics.net/Readings/Torture/Torture.htm (Request reprint in English,][http://www.visualstatistics.net/Readings/Torture/Torture%20in%20German.htm in German).] * Krus, D. J., & Hoehl, L .S. (1994) Issues associated with international incarceration rates. ''Psychological Reports,'' 75, 1491-1495 [http://www.visualstatistics.net/Readings/Incarceration%20Rates/Incarceration%20Rates.htm (Request reprint).] * Mauer, M. (1991) ''American Behind Bars: A Comparison of International Rates of Incarceration.'' Washington, D.C.: The Sentencing Project. * Mauer, M. (1999) ''Race to incarcerate.'' New York: The New Press. * Mǖllendorf, P. (1911) ''Geschichte der Spanischen Inquisition.'' Leipzig, Germany. * Rhyne, C. E., Templer, D. I., Brown, L. G., & Peters, N. B. (1995) Dimensions of suicide: perceptions of lethality, time, and agony. ''Suicide & Life Threatening Behavior,'' 25(3), 373-380. * Sindelar, B. (1986) ''Hon na carodejnice v zapadni a stredni Evrope v 16.-17.stoleti.'' Prague: Nakladatelstvi Svoboda. == Notes == <div style="font-size: 95%"><references /> <!-- Dead note "a": Among the ecclesiastic writers, Lambert Daneau, professor of Calvinist theology at Geneva in his (1564) book ''Les Sorciers, dialogue très utile et très necessaire pour ce temps'' proposed the ''final solution'' of the witch problem. He held that witches represent a major danger for humanity and recommended their "mass extermination," often done in the ''bruloirs'', large ovens built to expedite the burning of victims of the criminal justice proceedings (Mǖllendorf, 1911, p. 100; Sindelar, 1986, p.182). In Spain, these ovens were called "quemadero" or "brassero." This method of torture is likely close to the upper limit of methods designed to inflict pain. In a study on the agony of dying (Rhyne, et.al., 1995), according to forensic pathologists, the most excruciating way to die is by fire, followed by cutting the throat, and stabbing the abdomen. --> <!-- Dead note "b": Similar recommendations, made centuries earlier, were disputed by [[Johann Geiler von Kaisersberg|Johann Geiler]] who maintained in his (1508) book ''Die Emeis'' (The Ants) that devil anesthetizes his adherents so they would not feel any pain. --> == See also == *[[Incarceration in the United States]] *[[Sentencing Project]]. U.S. and international info on incarceration. *[[Supreme crime]] == External links == *[http://www.hrw.org/backgrounder/usa/race Race and Incarceration in the United States]. [[Human Rights Watch]] Press Backgrounder. February 27, 2002. Many tables. [[Category:Criminal law]] [[Category:Imprisonment and detention]] [[Category:Sociology]] [[Category:Human rights abuses]] [[Category:Torture]] [[Category:Violence]] [[fr:Emprisonnement en droit français]] [[oc:Empresonament]]