India 14533 225813130 2008-07-15T15:00:22Z El C 92203 Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/Reconfirmer|Reconfirmer]] ([[User talk:Reconfirmer|talk]]) to last version by Rjwilmsi {{sprotect2}}{{featured article}} {{otheruses1|the modern Republic of India}} {{Infobox Country |color = blue |native_name = भारत गणराज्य*<br> ''{{lang|inc-Latn|Bhārat Gaṇarājya}}'' |conventional_long_name = Republic of India |common_name = India |image_flag = Flag of India.svg |image_coat = Emblem_of_India.svg |symbol_type = National Emblem |national_motto = ''"[[Satyameva Jayate]]"'' <small>([[Sanskrit]])</small><br /> {{lang|sa|सत्यमेव जयते}}&nbsp; <small>([[Devanāgarī]])<br />"Truth Alone Triumphs"<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.india.gov.in/knowindia/state_emblem.php |title=State Emblem -''Inscription'' |accessdate=2007-06-17 |publisher=[[National Informatics Centre|National Informatics Centre(NIC)]]}}</ref> </small> |image_map = Location India.svg |national_anthem = ''[[Jana Gana Mana]]''<small><br />Thou art the ruler of the minds of all people</small><ref>{{cite web |title=''National Anthem'' - Know India portal |url=http://india.gov.in/knowindia/national_anthem.php |accessdate=2007-08-31 |publisher=[[National Informatics Centre|National Informatics Centre(NIC)]]|date=2007}}</ref> |other_symbol_type = <span class="plainlinks">[[National anthem|National Song]]<ref>{{cite web |url=http://parliamentofindia.nic.in/ls/debates/vol12p1.htm |title=CONSTITUENT ASSEMBLY OF INDIA&nbsp;— VOLUME XII |publisher=[[National Informatics Centre|National Informatics Centre(NIC)]] |accessdate=2007-06-29 |date=[[24 January]] [[1950]] |work=Constituent Assembly of India: Debates |publisher=parliamentofindia.nic.in, National Informatics Centre |quote=The composition consisting of the words and music known as Jana Gana Mana is the National Anthem of India, subject to such alterations in the words as the Government may authorise as occasion arises; and the song Vande Mataram, which has played a historic part in the struggle for Indian freedom, shall be honoured equally with Jana Gana Mana and shall have equal status with it.}}</ref> |other_symbol = ''[[Vande Mataram]]''<small><br />I bow to thee, Mother</small><ref>{{cite web |title=''National Song'' - Know India portal |url=http://india.gov.in/knowindia/national_song.php |accessdate=2007-08-30 |publisher=[[National Informatics Centre|National Informatics Centre(NIC)]] |date=2007}}</ref> |languages_type = [[Official language]]s:<br />[[Official languages of India|Scheduled languages]]: |languages = {{collapsible list |title=[[Official languages of India#Hindi and English|Hindi, English]] |[[Hindi]] in the Devanagari script is the official language of the union<ref>{{cite web |title=The Union: Official Language |url=http://india.gov.in/knowindia/official_language.php |accessdate=2007-06-24 |work=[[Ministry of Home Affairs (India)|Ministry of Home Affairs]], [[Government of India]] |publisher=[[National Informatics Centre|National Informatics Centre(NIC)]] |date=2007}}</ref> and [[English language|English]] the "subsidiary official language".<ref name="English-subsidiary">{{cite web |title=Notification No. 2/8/60-O.L., dated 27 April, 1960 |work=[[Ministry of Home Affairs (India)|Ministry of Home Affairs]], [[Government of India]] |publisher=[[National Informatics Centre|National Informatics Centre(NIC)]] |url=http://www.rajbhasha.gov.in/preseng.htm |accessmonthday=July 4 |accessyear=2007}}</ref>}} {{collapsible list |title=[[Official languages of India#The Official languages of the Eighth Schedule to the Constitution|8th Schedule:]] |[[Assamese language|Assamese]] |[[Bengali language|Bengali]] |[[Bodo language|Bodo]] |[[Dogri language|Dogri]] |[[Gujarati language|Gujarati]] |[[Hindi]] |[[Kannada language|Kannada]] |[[Kashmiri language|Kashmiri]] |[[Konkani language|Konkani]] |[[Maithili language|Maithili]] |[[Malayalam language|Malayalam]] |[[Meitei language|Manipuri]] |[[Marathi language|Marathi]] |[[Nepali language|Nepali]] |[[Oriya language|Oriya]] |[[Punjabi language|Punjabi]] |[[Sanskrit]] |[[Santali language|Santali]] |[[Sindhi language|Sindhi]] |[[Tamil language|Tamil]] |[[Telugu language|Telugu]] |[[Urdu]]<ref>Official Languages Resolution, 1968, [http://www.rajbhasha.gov.in/dolresolutioneng.htm para. 2].</ref>}} |capital = [[New Delhi]] <!-- |latd=28 |latm=34 |latNS=N |longd=77 |longm=12 |longEW=E --> |largest_city = [[Mumbai]] |demonym = [[Demographics of India|Indian]] |government_type = [[Federal republic]]<ref name="CIA">{{cite web |title=CIA Factbook: India |work=[[CIA Factbook]] |publisher=[[Central Intelligence Agency]] |url=https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/in.html |accessdate=2007-03-10}}</ref><br />[[Parliamentary system|Parliamentary democracy]]<ref name="IndiaGlance">{{cite web |title=India at a Glance |work=Know India Portal |publisher=[[National Informatics Centre|National Informatics Centre(NIC)]]|url=http://india.gov.in/knowindia/india_at_a_glance.php |accessdate=2007-12-07}}</ref> |leader_title1 = [[President of India|President]] |leader_name1 = [[Pratibha Patil]] |leader_title2 = [[Prime Minister of India|Prime Minister]] |leader_name2 = [[Manmohan Singh]] |area_km2 = 3,287,590<sup>‡</sup> |area_sq_mi = 1,269,346 <!--Do not remove per [[WP:MOSNUM]]--> |area_rank = 7th |area_magnitude = 1 E12 |percent_water = 9.56 |population_estimate = 1,132,446,000<ref name="CIA"/> |population_estimate_year = 2008 |population_estimate_rank = 2nd |population_census = 1,027,015,248 |population_census_year = 2001 |population_density_km2 = 329 |population_density_sq_mi = 852 <!--Do not remove per [[WP:MOSNUM]]--> |population_density_rank = 31st |GDP_PPP_year = 2007 |GDP_PPP = [[United States dollar|$]]&nbsp;2.965 [[1000000000000 (number)|trillion]]<ref>[https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/in.html CIA - The World Factbook - India<!--Bot generated title-->]</ref> |GDP_PPP_rank = 4th |GDP_PPP_per_capita = [[United States dollar|$]]&nbsp;2700 |GDP_PPP_per_capita_rank = 165th |GDP_nominal = [[United States dollar|$]]&nbsp;1.089 [[1000000000000 (number)|trillion]] |GDP_nominal_rank = 12th |GDP_nominal_year = 2007 |GDP_nominal_per_capita = [[United States dollar|$]]&nbsp;977 |GDP_nominal_per_capita_rank = 132nd |HDI_year = 2007 |HDI = {{increase}} 0.619 |HDI_rank = 128th |HDI_category = <font color="#ffcc00">medium</font> |Gini = 36.8<ref name="CIA_GINI" /> |Gini_year = 2004 |sovereignty_type = [[Indian independence movement|Independence]] |sovereignty_note = from [[British Raj|British colonial rule]] |established_event1 = Declared |established_date1 = [[15 August]] [[1947]] |established_event2 = [[Republic]] |established_date2 = [[26 January]] [[1950]] |currency = [[Indian rupee]] (₨) |currency_code = INR |time_zone = [[Indian Standard Time|IST]] |utc_offset = +5:30 |time_zone_DST = not observed |utc_offset_DST = +5:30 |cctld = [[.in]] |calling_code = 91 |footnotes = {{Collapsible list |state=uncollapsed |title='''Non-numbered Footnotes:''' |'''*''' ''Bharat Ganarajya'', that is, the Republic of India in [[Hindi]],<ref name="IndiaGlance"/> written in the ''[[Devanāgarī]]'' script. See also [[Official names of India|other official names]] |'''‡''' This is the figure as per the [[United Nations]] though the Indian government lists the total area as 3,287,260 square kilometers.<ref>{{cite web |title=Total Area of India |url=http://lcweb2.loc.gov/frd/cs/profiles/India.pdf |accessdate=2007-09-03 |format=PDF |work=[[Country Studies]], India |publisher=[[Library of Congress]]{{ndash}} [[Federal Research Division]] |date=December 2004 |quote=The country’s exact size is subject to debate because some borders are disputed. The Indian government lists the total area as 3,287,260 square kilometers and the total land area as 3,060,500 square kilometers; the United Nations lists the total area as 3,287,263 square kilometers and total land area as 2,973,190 square kilometers.}}</ref>}} }} '''India''' ([[Hindi]]: भारत ''{{lang|inc-Latn|Bhārat}}''; see also [[Official names of India|other Indian languages]]), officially the '''Republic of India''' (Hindi: भारत गणराज्य ''{{lang|inc-Latn|Bhārat Gaṇarājya}}''), is a country in [[South Asia|South]] [[Asia]]. It is the [[List of countries and outlying territories by total area|seventh largest]] country by geographical area, the [[List of countries by population|second most populous]] country, and the most populous [[liberal democracy|democracy]] in the world. Bounded by the [[Indian Ocean]] on the south, the [[Arabian Sea]] on the west, and the [[Bay of Bengal]] on the east, India has a coastline of {{km to mi|7517|abbrev=yes|precision=0}}.<ref name=sanilkumar>{{Harvnb|Kumar|Pathak|Pednekar|Raju|2006|p=531}}</ref> It borders [[Pakistan]] to the west;<ref name="Afghanistan">Footnote: The [[Government of India]] also considers [[Afghanistan]] to be a [[border]]ing country. This is because it considers the entire state of [[Jammu and Kashmir]] to be a part of India including the portion bordering Afghanistan. A [[ceasefire]] sponsored by the [[United Nations]] in 1948 froze the positions of Indian and [[Pakistan]]i held territory. As a consequence, the region bordering Afghanistan is in [[Pakistan Occupied Kashmir|Pakistan-administered territory]].</ref> [[People's Republic of China|China]], [[Nepal]], and [[Bhutan]] to the north-east; and [[Bangladesh]] and [[Myanmar|Myanmar (Burma)]] to the east. India is in the vicinity of [[Sri Lanka]], the [[Maldives]], and [[Indonesia]] in the [[Indian Ocean]]. Home to the [[Indus Valley Civilization]] and a region of historic [[trade route]]s and vast empires, the [[Indian subcontinent]] was identified with its [[Economic history of India|commercial]] and [[Culture of India|cultural]] wealth for much of its long history.<ref>Oldenburg, Phillip. 2007. "India: History," [http://encarta.msn.com/ Microsoft® Encarta® Online Encyclopedia 2007]© 1997-2007 Microsoft Corporation.</ref> Four major world religions, [[Hinduism]], [[Buddhism]], [[Jainism]] and [[Sikhism]] originated here, while [[Zoroastrianism]], [[History of the Jews in India|Judaism]], [[Christianity in India|Christianity]] and [[Islam in India|Islam]] arrived in the first millennium [[Common Era|CE]] and shaped the region's diverse culture. Gradually annexed by the [[Honourable East India Company|British East India Company]] from the early eighteenth century and colonised by the [[British Raj|United Kingdom]] from the mid-nineteenth century, India became a modern [[nation state]] in 1947 after a [[Indian independence movement|struggle for independence]] that was marked by widespread [[nonviolent resistance]]. India has the [[List of countries by GDP (nominal)|world's twelfth largest economy]] at market exchange rates and the [[List of countries by GDP (PPP)|fourth largest]] in [[Purchasing power parity|purchasing power]]. Economic reforms have transformed it into the second [[List of countries by GDP (real) growth rate|fastest growing large economy]];<ref name="ERS"/> however, it still suffers from [[List of countries by percentage of population living in poverty|high levels]] of [[Poverty in India|poverty]],<ref name = "gov.in-prmar07PDF">[http://www.planningcommission.gov.in/news/prmar07.pdf Poverty estimates for 2004-05], Planning commission, [[Government of India]], March 2007. Accessed: [[August 25]], [[2007]]</ref> [[Literacy|illiteracy]], and [[Malnutrition#Statistics|malnutrition]]. A [[religious pluralism|pluralistic]], [[Languages of India|multilingual]], and [[multiethnic society]], India is also home to a diversity of [[Fauna of India|wildlife]] in a variety of [[Protected areas of India|protected habitats]]. ==Etymology== {{main|Names of India}} The name ''India'' ({{pronEng|ˈɪndiə}}) is derived from ''[[Indus River|Indus]]'', which is derived from the [[Old Persian]] word ''[[Hindu]]'', from [[Sanskrit]] ''Sindhu'', the historic local appellation for the [[Indus River]].<ref>"India", ''Oxford English Dictionary'', second edition, 2100a.d. Oxford University Press</ref> The ancient [[Greeks]] referred to the Indians as ''Indoi'' (Ινδοί), the people of the Indus.<ref name="basham">{{cite book |first=A. L. |last=Basham |title=[[The Wonder That Was India]] |publisher=South Asia Books |year=2000 |id=ISBN 0283992573}}</ref> The [[Constitution of India]] and common usage in various Indian languages also recognise ''Bharat'' ({{Audio|hi-Bharat.ogg|pronunciation}}, {{IPA|/bʰɑːrət̪/}}) as an official name of equal status.<ref>{{cite web| title=Official name of the Union|url=http://indiacode.nic.in/coiweb/fullact1.asp?tfnm=00%201|work=Courts Informatics Division, [[National Informatics Centre]], Ministry of Comm. and Information Tech |quote=Name and territory of the Union- India, that is Bharat, shall be a Union of States.|accessdate=2007-08-08}}</ref> ''[[Hindustan]]'' ({{Audio-IPA-nohelp|Hindustan.ogg|/hin̪d̪ust̪ɑːn/}}), which is the [[Persian language|Persian]] word for “Land of the Hindus” and historically referred to [[North India|northern India]], is also occasionally used as a synonym for all of India.<ref>{{cite web |title = Hindustan |url = http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9040520/Hindustan |accessdate = 2007-06-18 |publisher = [[Encyclopædia Britannica]], Inc. |date= 2007}}</ref> ==History== {{main|History of India|History of the Republic of India}} [[Stone Age]] rock shelters with paintings at the [[Bhimbetka rock shelters]] in [[Madhya Pradesh]] are the earliest known traces of human life in India. The first known permanent settlements appeared over 9,000 years ago and gradually developed into the [[Indus Valley Civilization]],<ref>{{cite web |title = Introduction to the Ancient Indus Valley |url=http://www.harappa.com/indus/indus1.html |accessdate = 2007-06-18 |date= 1996 |publisher = Harappa}}</ref> dating back to 3300&nbsp;[[Common Era|BCE]] in western India. It was followed by the [[Vedic period]], which laid the foundations of [[Hinduism]] and other cultural aspects of early Indian society, and ended in the 500s BC. From around 550&nbsp;BCE, many independent kingdoms and republics known as the [[Mahajanapadas]] were established across the country.<ref>{{cite book | author= Krishna Reddy | title = Indian History | date= 2003 | publisher = Tata McGraw Hill | location = New Delhi | isbn = 0070483698 | pages = p. A107 }}</ref> [[Image:Indischer Maler des 6. Jahrhunderts 001.jpg|thumb|left|Paintings at the [[Ajanta Caves]] in [[Aurangabad]], [[Maharashtra]], 6th century.]] In the [[3rd century BC|third century&nbsp;BCE]], most of South Asia was united into the [[Maurya Empire]] by [[Chandragupta Maurya]] and flourished under [[Ashoka the Great]].<ref>{{cite web |title = Maurya dynasty |url = http://www.livius.org/man-md/mauryas/mauryas.html |author = Jona Lendering |accessdate = 2007-06-17}}</ref> From the third century CE, the [[Gupta Empire|Gupta dynasty]] oversaw the period referred to as ancient "[[Golden Age of India|India's Golden Age]]."<ref>{{cite web |url=http://india.gov.in/knowindia/ancient_history4.php|title=Gupta period has been described as the Golden Age of Indian history|accessdate=2007-10-03 |publisher= ''[[National Informatics Centre]] (NIC)''}}</ref><ref>Heitzman, James. (2007). "[http://encarta.msn.com/encyclopedia_761571624/Gupta_Dynasty.html#s3 Gupta Dynasty,]" Microsoft® Encarta® Online Encyclopedia 2007</ref> Among the notable [[South India]]n empires were the [[Chalukya dynasty|Chalukyas]], [[Rashtrakuta Dynasty|Rashtrakutas]], [[Hoysala Empire|Hoysalas]], [[Pallava]]s, [[Pandyan Kingdom|Pandyas]], and [[Chola Dynasty|Cholas]]. [[Science and technology in ancient India|Science, engineering]], [[Indian art|art]], [[Indian literature|literature]], [[Science and technology in ancient India#Astronomy|astronomy]], and [[Indian philosophy|philosophy]] flourished under the patronage of these kings. Following invasions from Central Asia between the tenth and twelfth centuries, much of north India came under the rule of the [[Delhi Sultanate]], and later the [[Mughal Empire]]. Mughal emperors gradually expanded their Kingdoms to cover large parts of the subcontinent. Nevertheless, several indigenous kingdoms, such as the [[Vijayanagara Empire]], flourished, especially in the south. In the eighteenth century, the Mughal supremacy declined and the [[Maratha Empire]] became the dominant power. From the sixteenth century, several [[Europe]]an countries, including [[Portugal]], the [[Netherlands]], [[France]], and the [[United Kingdom]], started arriving as traders and later took advantage of the fractious nature of relations between the kingdoms to establish [[colony|colonies]] in the country. By 1856, most of India was under the control of the [[Honourable East India Company|British East India Company]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://india.gov.in/knowindia/history_freedom_struggle.php|title=History : Indian Freedom Struggle (1857-1947)|accessdate=2007-10-03 |publisher= [[National Informatics Centre|National Informatics Centre (NIC)]] |quote=And by 1856, the British conquest and its authority were firmly established.}}</ref> A year later, a nationwide insurrection of rebelling military units and kingdoms, variously referred to as the [[Indian Rebellion of 1857|India's First War of Independence]] or [[Indian Rebellion of 1857|Sepoy Mutiny]], seriously challenged the British Company's control but eventually failed. As a consequence, India came under the direct rule of the [[Monarchy of the United Kingdom|British Crown]] as a colony of the [[British Empire]]. [[Image:Nehru Gandhi 1937 touchup.jpg|thumb|left|[[Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi|Mahatma Gandhi]] (right) with [[Jawaharlal Nehru]], 1937. Nehru would go on to become India's first prime minister in 1947.]] During the first half of the twentieth century, a nationwide [[Indian independence movement|struggle for independence]] was launched by the [[Indian National Congress]] and other political organizations. In the 1920s and 1930, a movement led by [[Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi|Mahatma Gandhi]], and displaying commitment to ''[[ahimsa]]'', or non-violence, millions of protesters engaged in mass campaigns of [[civil disobedience]].<ref name="CONCISE ENCYCLOPEDIA 3">{{cite book |title = Concise Encyclopedia|publisher = [[Dorling Kindersley|Dorling Kindersley Limited]] |year = 1997 |pages = p. 455 |isbn = 0-7513-5911-4}}</ref> Finally, on [[15 August]] [[1947]], India gained independence from British rule, but was [[Partition of India|partitioned]] with independent governments for the [[Dominion of India]] and the [[Dominion of Pakistan]] in accordance to wishes of the [[Muslim League]], along the lines of religion to create the [[Indian Muslim nationalism|Islamic]] [[nation state]] of [[Pakistan]].<ref name="CONCISE ENCYCLOPEDIA..">{{cite book |title = Concise Encyclopedia |publisher = [[Dorling Kindersley|Dorling Kindersley Limited]] |year = 1997 |pages = p. 322 |isbn = 0-7513-5911-4}}</ref> Three years later, on [[26 January]] [[1950]], India became a republic and a new [[Constitution of India|constitution]] came into effect.<ref name="CIA">{{cite web |title=CIA Factbook: India |work=[[CIA Factbook]]| url=https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/in.html |accessdate=2007-03-10}}</ref> Since independence, India has suffered from [[Religious violence in India|religious violence]], [[Caste-related violence in India|casteism]] and insurgencies in various parts, but has been able to control them through [[Status of religious freedom in India|tolerance]] and constitutional reforms. [[Terrorism in India]] is also a major security problem, especially in [[Jammu and Kashmir]], [[North-east India]] and recently in major cities like Delhi and Mumbai, [[2001 Indian Parliament attack]] being the most prominent one. India has unresolved territorial disputes with China, which in 1962 escalated into the [[Sino-Indian War]]; and with Pakistan, which resulted in wars in [[Indo-Pakistani War of 1947|1947]], [[Indo-Pakistani War of 1965|1965]], [[Indo-Pakistani War of 1971|1971]], and [[Kargil War|1999]]. India is a founding member of the [[Non-Aligned Movement]] and the [[United Nations]] (as part of British India). In 1974, India conducted an underground [[Smiling Buddha|nuclear test]].<ref name="India is a Nuclear State">{{cite web |title = India Profile |url = http://www.nti.org/e_research/profiles/India/index.html |accessdate = 2007-06-20 |date= 2003 |publisher = [[The Nuclear Threat Initiative|Nuclear Threat Initiative (NTI)]]}}</ref> This was followed by [[Pokhran-II|five more tests]] in 1998, making India a [[List of states with nuclear weapons#Estimated worldwide nuclear stockpiles|nuclear state]].<ref name="India is a Nuclear State"/> Beginning in 1991, significant economic reforms<ref name="Montek">{{cite paper |author = [[Montek Singh Ahluwalia]] |title = Economic Reforms in India since 1991: Has Gradualism Worked? |version = |publisher = Journal of Economic Perspectives |date= 2002 |url = http://planningcommission.nic.in/aboutus/speech/spemsa/msa008.doc |format = MS Word |accessdate = 2007-06-13 }}</ref> have transformed India into [[List of countries by GDP (real) growth rate|one of the fastest-growing economies]] in the world, adding to its global and regional clout.<ref name="ERS">{{cite web |url=http://www.ers.usda.gov/Briefing/India/ |title=India is the second fastest growing economy|accessdate=2007-08-05 |format= |work=Economic Research Service (ERS)|publisher=[[United States Department of Agriculture|United States Department of Agriculture (USDA)]]}}</ref> ==Government== {{main|Government of India}} {{Indian symbols}} The [[Constitution of India]], the longest and the most exhaustive constitution of any independent nation in the world, came into force on January 26, 1950.<ref name="Pylee2004 ">{{cite book |last=Pylee |first=Moolamattom Varkey |title=Constitutional Government in India|year=2004 |publisher=[[S. Chand]] |pages=4|chapter=The Longest Constitutional Document|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=veDUJCjr5U4C&pg=PA4&dq=India+longest+constitution&as_brr=0&sig=ZpqDCkfUoglOQx0XQ8HBpRWkRAk#PPA4,M1|accessdate=2007-10-31|isbn=8121922038|edition=2nd edition}}</ref> The [[Constitution of India#Preamble|preamble]] of the constitution defines India as a [[sovereignty|sovereign]], [[socialism|socialist]], [[secularism|secular]], [[liberal democracy|democratic]] [[republic]].<ref name="Dutt1998">{{cite journal |last=Dutt |first=Sagarika |year=1998 |title=Identities and the Indian state: An overview |journal=Third World Quarterly |volume=19 |issue=3 |pages=411–434 |doi=10.1080/01436599814325}} at p. 421</ref> India has a quasi-federal form of government<ref name="Wheare1964">{{cite book |last=Wheare |first=K.C. |title=Federal Government| edition=4th edition| year=1964 |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |pages=28}}</ref> and a [[bicameralism|bicameral]] [[parliament]] operating under a [[Westminster system|Westminster-style]] parliamentary system. It has three branches of governance: the [[Legislature]], [[Executive (government)|Executive]], and [[Judiciary]]. The [[President of India]] is the official [[head of state]]<ref name="Sharma1950">{{cite journal |last=Sharma |first=Ram |year=1950 |title=Cabinet Government in India |journal=Parliamentary Affairs |volume=4 |issue=1 |pages=116–126}}</ref> elected indirectly by an [[electoral college]]<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.constitution.org/cons/india/p05054.html|title=Election of President|accessdate=2007-09-02|work=The Constitution Of India|publisher=Constitution Society|quote=The President shall be elected by the members of an electoral college}}</ref> for a five-year term.<ref>{{cite book |last=Gledhill |first=Alan |title=The Republic of India: The Development of Its Laws and Constitution| edition=2nd edition| year=1964 |publisher=Stevens and Sons |pages=112}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.constitution.org/cons/india/p05056.html|title=Tenure of President's office|accessdate=2007-09-02|work=The Constitution Of India|publisher=Constitution Society|quote=The President shall hold office for a term of five years from the date on which he enters upon his office}}</ref> The [[Prime Minister of India|Prime Minister]] is, however, the ''de facto'' [[head of government]] and exercises most executive powers.<ref name="Sharma1950"/> The Prime Minister is appointed by the President<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.constitution.org/cons/india/p05075.html|title=Appointment of Prime Minister and Council of Ministers|accessdate=2007-09-02|work=The Constitution Of India|publisher=Constitution Society|quote=The Prime Minister shall be appointed by the President and the other Ministers shall be appointed by the President on the advice of the Prime Minister.}}</ref> and, by convention, is the candidate supported by the [[political party|party]] or [[political alliance]] holding the majority of seats in the lower house of Parliament.<ref name="Sharma1950"/> The legislature of India is the bicameral [[Parliament of India|Parliament]], which consists of the upper house called the [[Rajya Sabha]] (Council of States) and the lower house called the [[Lok Sabha]] (House of People).<ref>{{cite book |last=Gledhill |first=Alan |title=The Republic of India: The Development of Its Laws and Constitution| edition=2nd edition| year=1964 |publisher=Stevens and Sons |pages=127}}</ref> The Rajya Sabha, a permanent body, has 245 members serving staggered six year terms.<ref name="Parliament">{{cite web |url = http://www.india.gov.in/outerwin.htm?id=http://parliamentofindia.gov.in/ |title = ''Our Parliament'' A brief description of the Indian Parliament |accessdate = 2007-06-16 |publisher = www.parliamentofindia.gov.in }}</ref> Most are elected indirectly by the [[States and territories of India|state and territorial]] legislatures in proportion to the state's population.<ref name="Parliament"/> The 543 of the Lok Sabha's 545 members are directly elected by popular vote to represent individual [[constituency|constituencies]] for five year terms.<ref name="Parliament"/> The other two members are nominated by the President from the [[Anglo-Indian]] community if, in his opinion, the community is not adequately represented.<ref name="Parliament"/> The executive branch consists of the President, Vice-President, and the [[Council of Ministers of Republic of India|Council of Ministers]] (the [[Cabinet]] being its executive committee) headed by the Prime Minister. Any minister holding a portfolio must be a member of either house of parliament. In the Indian parliamentary system, the executive is subordinate to the legislature, with the Prime Minister and his Council being directly responsible to the lower house of the parliament.<ref name="manorama">{{cite book |first=K.M. |last=Matthew |title=Manorama Yearbook 2003 |publisher=[[Malayala Manorama]] |id=ISBN 8190046187|pages=pg 524}}</ref> India has a unitary three-tier judiciary, consisting of the [[Supreme Court of India|Supreme Court]], headed by the [[Chief Justice of India]], twenty-one [[High Courts of India|High Courts]], and a large number of trial courts.<ref name="Neuborne2003">{{cite journal |last=Neuborne |first=Burt |year=2003 |title=The Supreme Court of India |journal=International Journal of Constitutional Law |volume=1 |issue=1 |pages=476–510 |doi=10.1093/icon/1.3.476}} at p. 478.</ref> The Supreme Court has [[original jurisdiction]] over cases involving [[Fundamental Rights in India|fundamental rights]] and over disputes between states and the Centre, and appellate jurisdiction over the High Courts.<ref name="SCjurisdiction">{{cite web |url=http://www.supremecourtofindia.nic.in/new_s/juris.htm |title=Jurisdiction of the Supreme Court |accessdate=2007-10-21 |author=Supreme Court of India |publisher=National Informatics Centre}}</ref> It is [[Judicial independence|judicially independent]],<ref name="Neuborne2003"/> and has the power to declare the law and to strike down union or state laws which contravene the Constitution.<ref name="Sripati1998">{{cite journal |last=Sripati |first=Vuayashri |year=1998 |title=Toward Fifty Years of Constitutionalism and Fundamental Rights in India: Looking Back to See Ahead (1950-2000) |journal=American University International Law Review |volume=14 |issue=2 |pages=413–496}} at pp. 423-424</ref> The role as the ultimate interpreter of the Constitution is one of the most important functions of the Supreme Court.<ref name="Pylee2004-2">{{cite book |last=Pylee |first=Moolamattom Varkey |title=Constitutional Government in India | year=2004 |publisher=[[S. Chand]] |pages=314|chapter=The Union Judiciary: The Supreme Court|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=veDUJCjr5U4C&pg=PA314&lpg=PA314&dq=indian+supreme+court+is+interpreter+of+constitution&source=web&ots=EC_OWxDg86&sig=gjLfEY1UInjql72jBtO-VOgoeK4&output=html|accessdate=2007-11-02|isbn=8121922038|edition=2nd edition}}</ref> ==Politics== {{main|Politics of India}} [[Image:NorthBlock.jpg|thumb|right|The [[Secretariat Building|North Block]], in [[New Delhi]], houses key government offices.]] India, at the federal level, is the most populous democracy in the world.<ref name="largestdem1"> {{cite web |url = http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/south_asia/country_profiles/1154019.stm |title = Country profile: India |accessdate = 2007-03-21 |date = [[9 January]] [[2007]] |publisher = [[BBC]] }}</ref><ref name="largestdem2">{{cite web |url = http://www.un.org/esa/population/pubsarchive/india/ind1bil.htm |title = World's Largest Democracy to Reach One Billion Persons on Independence Day |accessdate = 2007-12-06 |work = [[United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs]] |publisher = [[United Nations]]: [[Commission on Population and Development|Population Division]] }}</ref> For most of its democratic history, the federal government has been led by the [[Indian National Congress]] (INC).<ref name="LOC PROFILE"/> State politics have been dominated by several national parties including the INC, the [[Bharatiya Janata Party]] (BJP), the [[Communist Party of India (Marxist)]] (CPI(M)), and various regional parties. From 1950 to 1990, barring two brief periods, the INC enjoyed a parliamentary majority. The INC was out of power between 1977 and 1980, when the [[Janata Party]] won the election owing to public discontent with the [[The Emergency (India)|"Emergency"]] declared by the then Prime Minister [[Indira Gandhi]]. In 1989, a [[Janata Dal]]-led [[National Front (India)|National Front]] coalition in alliance with the [[Left Front]] coalition won the elections but managed to stay in power for only two years.<ref>{{cite book |last = Bhambhri |first = Chandra Prakash |title = Politics in India 1991-92 |publisher = Shipra Publications |year = 1992 |isbn = 978-8185402178 |pages = 118, 143 }}</ref> The years 1996–1998 were a period of turmoil in the federal government with several short-lived alliances holding sway. The BJP formed a government briefly in 1996, followed by the [[United Front (India)|United Front]] coalition. In 1998, the BJP formed the [[National Democratic Alliance (India)|National Democratic Alliance]] (NDA) with several regional parties and became the first non-Congress government to complete a full five-year term.<ref>{{cite web |url = http://www.lse.ac.uk/collections/government/PSPE/pdf/PSPE_WP5_07.pdf |title = The effective space of party competition |author = Patrick Dunleavy, Rekha Diwakar, Christopher Dunleavy |publisher = [[London School of Economics|London School of Economics and Political Science]] |accessdate = 2007-10-01 |format=PDF}}</ref> In the [[Indian general election, 2004|2004 Indian elections]], the INC won the largest number of Lok Sabha seats and formed a government with a coalition called the [[United Progressive Alliance]] (UPA), supported by various left-leaning parties and members opposed to the BJP.<ref>{{cite book |last = Hermann |first = Kulke |coauthors = Dietmar Rothermund |title = A History of India |publisher = Routledge |year = 2004 |isbn = 978-0415329194 |pages = 384 }}</ref> ==Foreign relations and military== {{main|Foreign relations of India|Indian Armed Forces}} [[Image:SU-30MKI-g4sp.jpg|thumb|The [[Sukhoi-30 MKI]] is part of the [[Indian Air Force]].]] Since its independence in 1947, India has maintained cordial relationships with most nations. It took a leading role in the 1950s by advocating the independence of [[List of former European colonies|European colonies]] in Africa and Asia.<ref>[http://www.anc.org.za/ancdocs/history/solidarity/significance.html Significance of the Contribution of India to the Struggle Against Apartheid1 by M. Moolla]</ref> India is a founding member of the [[India and the Non-Aligned Movement|Non-Aligned Movement]].<ref>{{cite web |title=History of Non Aligned Movement |url=http://www.nam.gov.za/background/history.htm |accessdate=2007-08-23}}</ref> After the [[Sino-Indian War]] and the [[Indo-Pakistani War of 1965]], India's relationship with the [[Soviet Union]] warmed at the expense of ties with the [[United States]] and continued to remain so until the end of the [[Cold War]]. India has fought [[Indo-Pakistani wars and conflicts|four wars with Pakistan]], primarily over [[Kashmir]]. India also fought and won an additional war with Pakistan for [[Bangladesh Liberation War|the liberation of Bangladesh]] in 1971. [[Image:BushandSingh02Mar2006.jpg|thumb|left|In recent years, [[United States - India Relations|relations]] between the [[United States]] and India, have improved. Shown here are [[Prime Minister of India|PM]] [[Manmohan Singh]] and [[President of USA|President]] [[George W. Bush]] exchanging handshakes in March, 2006.]] In recent years, India has played an influential role in the [[Association of Southeast Asian Nations|ASEAN]]<ref>http://www.heritage.org/Research/AsiaandthePacific/bg2008.cfm</ref>, [[South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation|SAARC]], and the [[World Trade Organization|WTO]].<ref>http://library.fes.de/pdf-files/bueros/genf/50205.pdf</ref> India is a founding member and long time supporter of the [[United Nations]], with over 55,000 [[Indian Armed Forces|Indian military]] and police personnel having served in thirty-five UN peace keeping operations deployed across four continents.<ref name="UN">{{cite web |title=India and the United Nations |url=http://www.un.int/india/india_and_the_un_pkeeping.html |accessdate=2006-04-22}}</ref> Despite criticism and military sanctions, India has consistently refused to sign the [[Comprehensive Nuclear-Test-Ban Treaty|CTBT]] and the [[Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty|NPT]], preferring instead to maintain sovereignty over its nuclear program. Recent overtures by the Indian government have strengthened relations with the United States, China, and Pakistan. In the economic sphere, India has close relationships with other developing nations in [[South America]], [[Asia]], and [[Africa]]. India maintains the [[List of countries by size of armed forces|third largest military force in the world]], which consists of the [[Indian Army]], [[Indian Navy|Navy]], and [[Indian Air Force|Air Force]].<ref name="CIA"/> Auxiliary forces such as the [[Paramilitary forces of India|Paramilitary Forces]], the [[Indian Coast Guard|Coast Guard]], and the [[Strategic Forces Command]] also come under the military's purview. The [[President of India]] is the supreme commander of the Indian armed forces. India became a [[list of states with nuclear weapons|nuclear power]] in 1974 after conducting an initial nuclear test, [[Smiling Buddha|Operation Smiling Buddha]]. [[Pokhran-II|Further underground testing]] in 1998 led to international military sanctions against India, which were gradually withdrawn after September 2001. India maintains a "[[no first use]]" nuclear policy<ref name="nuclear">{{cite web |url=http://www.afsa.org/fsj/oct02/nair.pdf |title=No More Ambigiuity: India's Nuclear Policy |accessdate=2007-06-07 |format=PDF |work= |author=Brig. Vijai K. Nair ([[Indian Army]])}}</ref> and has a "strong nuclear non-proliferation record" according to the White House,<ref>{{cite web|title=India's Nuclear profile|url=http://www.whitehouse.gov/news/releases/2006/03/20060308-3.html|quote=India has been a peaceful and vibrant democracy with a strong nuclear nonproliferation record|accessdate=2007-10-05 |date=[[March 8]], [[2006]] |work=India Civil Nuclear Cooperation: Responding to Critics|publisher=[[White House]]: Press Release}}</ref> despite not being a signatory to the [[Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty]]. ==Subdivisions== {{main|Subdivisions of India}} India is a [[federal republic]] of twenty-eight [[State (country subdivision)|states]] and seven [[Union Territory|Union Territories]].<ref name="LOC PROFILE"/> All states, the union territory of [[Puducherry]], and the National Capital Territory of [[Delhi]] have elected governments. The other five union territories have centrally appointed administrators and hence are under direct rule of the President. In 1956, under the [[States Reorganisation Act]], states were formed on a linguistic basis.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.commonlii.org/in/legis/num_act/sra1956250/|title= States Reorganisation Act, 1956|work=Constitution of India|publisher=Commonwealth Legal Information Institute|accessdate=2007-10-31}}; See also: [[Political integration of India]] </ref> Since then, this structure has remained largely unchanged. Each state or union territory is divided into basic units of government and administration called [[Districts of India|districts]]. There are [[List of districts of India|nearly 600 districts]] in India.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://districts.gov.in/|title=Districts of India|accessdate=2007-11-25|publisher=[[National Informatics Centre|National Informatics Centre (NIC)]]|work=Government of India}}</ref> The districts in turn are further divided into ''[[tehsil]]s'' and eventually into [[village]]s. {{India states}} '''Major Cities''':<ref>Cities with Compensatory City Allowance (CCA) classification A-1. See [[Status of Indian cities]] for details. [http://finmin.nic.in/the_ministry/dept_expenditure/miscellaneous/hracca.pdf "No.2(21)/E.II.(B)/2004"]. 2006. Ministry of Finance, Department of Expenditure. Government of India. Retrieved on 18 November, 2004</ref> [[Mumbai]] • [[Delhi]] • [[Bangalore]] • [[Kolkata]] • [[Chennai]] • [[Ahmedabad]] • [[Hyderabad, India|Hyderabad]] • ([[Status of Indian cities|others]]) ==Geography== {{main|Geography of India}} {{seealso|Geological history of India|Climate of India}} [[Image:India Geographic Map.jpg|thumb|Topographic map of India.]] India, the major portion of the Indian subcontinent, sits atop the [[Indian Plate|Indian tectonic plate]], a minor plate within the [[Indo-Australian Plate]].<ref name=ali2005-p170-171>{{Harvnb|Ali|Aitchison|2005|pp=170-171}}</ref> India's defining geological processes commenced seventy-five million years ago, when the Indian subcontinent, then part of the southern supercontinent [[Gondwana]], began a northeastwards [[Plate tectonics|drift]]—lasting fifty million years—across the then unformed [[Indian Ocean]].<ref name=ali2005-p172-173>{{Harvnb|Ali|Aitchison|2005|pp=172-173}}</ref> The subcontinent's subsequent collision with the [[Eurasian Plate]] and [[subduction]] under it, gave rise to the [[Himalayas]], the planet's highest mountains, which now abut India in the [[North India|north]] and the [[North-East India|north-east]].<ref name=ali2005-p172-173/> In the former seabed immediately south of the emerging Himalayas, plate movement created a vast [[trough (geology)|trough]], which, having gradually been filled with river-borne sediment,<ref>{{Harvnb|Dikshit|Schwartzberg|2007|p=7}}</ref> now forms the [[Indo-Gangetic Plain]].<ref>{{Harvnb|Prakash|Kumar|Rao|Giri|2000|p=445}}</ref> To the west of this plain, and cut off from it by the [[Aravalli Range]], lies the [[Thar Desert]].<ref>{{Harvnb|Dikshit|Schwartzberg|2007|p=11}}</ref> The original Indian plate now survives as peninsular India, the oldest and geologically most stable part of India, and extending as far north as the [[Satpura Range|Satpura]] and [[Vindhya Range|Vindhya]] ranges in central India. These parallel ranges run from the Arabian Sea coast in Gujarat in the west to the [[coal]]-rich [[Chota Nagpur Plateau]] in Jharkhand in the east.<ref> {{Harvnb|Dikshit|Schwartzberg|2007|p=8}}</ref> To their south, the remaining peninsular landmass, the [[Deccan Plateau]], is flanked on the left and right by the coastal ranges, [[Western Ghats]] and [[Eastern Ghats]] respectively;<ref name=britan-weghats> {{Harvnb|Dikshit|Schwartzberg|2007|pp=9-10}}</ref> the plateau contains the oldest rock formations in India, some over one billion years old. Constituted in such fashion, India lies to the north of the equator between 6°44' and 35°30' north latitude<ref>India's northernmost point is the region of the disputed [[Siachen Glacier]] in Jammu and Kashmir; however, the Government of India regards the entire region of the former princely state of [[Jammu and Kashmir]] (including the [[Northern Areas (Pakistan)|Northern Areas]] currently administered by Pakistan) to be its territory, and therefore assigns the longitude 37° 6' to its northernmost point.</ref> and 68°7' and 97°25' east longitude.<ref name="yearbook">{{Harv|Government of India|2007|p=1}}</ref> India's coast is {{km to mi|7517|abbrev=yes|precision=0}} long; of this distance, {{km to mi|5423|abbrev=yes|precision=0}} belong to peninsular India, and {{km to mi|2094|abbrev=yes|precision=0}} to the Andaman, Nicobar, and Lakshadweep Islands.<ref name=sanilkumar/> According to the Indian naval hydrographic charts, the mainland coast consists of the following: 43% sandy beaches, 11% rocky coast including cliffs, and 46% [[mudflat]]s or marshy coast.<ref name=sanilkumar/> Major Himalayan-origin rivers that substantially flow through India include the [[Ganges]] and the [[Brahmaputra River|Brahmaputra]], both of which drain into the [[Bay of Bengal]].<ref>{{Harvnb|Dikshit|Schwartzberg|2007|p=15}}</ref> Important tributaries of the Ganges include the [[Yamuna]] and the [[Kosi River|Kosi]], whose extremely low gradient causes disastrous floods every year. Major peninsular rivers whose steeper gradients prevent their waters from flooding include the [[Godavari River|Godavari]], the [[Mahanadi River|Mahanadi]], the [[Kaveri River|Kaveri]], and the [[Krishna River|Krishna]], which also drain into the Bay of Bengal;<ref>{{Harvnb|Dikshit|Schwartzberg|2007|p=16}}</ref> and the [[Narmada River|Narmada]] and the [[Tapti River|Tapti]], which drain into the [[Arabian Sea]].<ref>{{Harvnb|Dikshit|Schwartzberg|2007|p=17}}</ref> Among notable coastal features of India are the marshy [[Rann of Kutch]] in western India, and the alluvial [[Sundarbans]] delta, which India shares with Bangladesh.<ref>{{Harvnb|Dikshit|Schwartzberg|2007|p=12}}</ref> India has two archipelagos: the [[Lakshadweep]], coral atolls off India's south-western coast; and the [[Andaman and Nicobar Islands]], a volcanic chain in the [[Andaman Sea]].<ref>{{Harvnb|Dikshit|Schwartzberg|2007|p=13}}</ref> India's climate is strongly influenced by the Himalayas and the Thar Desert, both of which drive the [[monsoon]]s.<ref name=chang1967>{{Harvnb|Chang|1967|pp=391-394}}</ref> The Himalayas prevent cold Central Asian katabatic winds from blowing in, keeping the bulk of the Indian subcontinent warmer than most locations at similar latitudes.<ref name="Posey_1994_118">{{harvnb|Posey|1994|p=118}}.</ref><ref name="Wolpert_2003_4">{{harvnb|Wolpert|2003|p=4}}.</ref> The Thar Desert plays a crucial role in attracting the moisture-laden southwest summer monsoon winds that, between June and October, provide the majority of India's rainfall.<ref name=chang1967/> Four major climatic groupings predominate in India: [[Climate of India#Tropical wet|tropical wet]], [[Climate of India#Tropical dry|tropical dry]], [[Climate of India#Subtropical humid|subtropical humid]], and [[Climate of India#Montane|montane]].<ref name="Heitzman_Worden_1996_97">{{harvnb|Heitzman|Worden|1996|p=97}}.</ref> ==Flora and fauna== {{main|Flora of India|Fauna of India}} {{Indian image rotation‎|fauna}} India, which lies within the [[Indomalaya ecozone]], displays significant [[biodiversity]]. One of eighteen [[megadiverse countries]], it is home to 7.6% of all [[mammal]]ian, 12.6% of all [[bird|avian]], 6.2% of all [[reptile|reptilian]], 4.4% of all [[amphibian]], 11.7% of all [[fish]], and 6.0% of all [[flowering plant]] species.<ref name="Biodiversity Profile of India">{{cite web |title = Biodiversity Profile of India (Text Only) |url = http://ces.iisc.ernet.in/hpg/cesmg/indiabio.html |author = Dr S.K.Puri |accessdate = 2007-06-20}}</ref> Many [[ecoregions in India|ecoregions]], such as the ''[[shola]]'' [[South Western Ghats montane rain forests|forests]], exhibit extremely high rates of [[endemism]]; overall, 33% of Indian plant species are endemic.<ref>Botanical Survey of India. 1983. ''Flora and Vegetation of India&nbsp;— An Outline''. Botanical Survey of India, Howrah. p. 24.</ref><ref>Valmik Thapar, ''Land of the Tiger: A Natural History of the Indian Subcontinent'', 1997. ISBN 978-0520214705</ref> India's forest cover ranges from the [[tropical and subtropical moist broadleaf forests|tropical rainforest]] of the [[Andaman Islands]], [[Western Ghats]], and [[North-East India]] to the [[temperate coniferous forest|coniferous forest]] of the Himalaya. Between these extremes lie the [[sal]]-dominated moist deciduous forest of eastern India; the [[teak]]-dominated dry deciduous forest of central and southern India; and the [[Acacia nilotica|babul]]-dominated [[deserts and xeric shrublands|thorn forest]] of the central Deccan and western Gangetic plain.<ref name="tritsch">Tritsch, M.E. 2001. ''Wildlife of India'' Harper Collins, London. 192 pages. ISBN 0-00-711062-6</ref> Important Indian trees include the medicinal [[neem]], widely used in rural Indian [[herbalism|herbal]] remedies. The [[sacred fig|pipal]] [[Ficus|fig]] tree, shown on the seals of [[Mohenjo-daro]], shaded [[Gautama Buddha]] as he sought enlightenment. Many Indian species are descendants of [[taxon|taxa]] originating in Gondwana, to which India originally belonged. [[Indian Plate|Peninsular India's]] subsequent [[plate tectonics|movement]] towards, and collision with, the [[Laurasia]]n landmass set off a mass exchange of species. However, [[Deccan Traps|volcanism]] and climatic changes 20 million years ago caused the [[extinction]] of many endemic Indian forms.<ref>K. Praveen Karanth. (2006). [http://www.iisc.ernet.in/currsci/mar252006/789.pdf Out-of-India Gondwanan origin of some tropical Asian biota]</ref> Soon thereafter, mammals entered India from Asia through two [[Zoogeography|zoogeographical]] passes on either side of the emerging Himalaya.<ref name=tritsch/> Consequently, among Indian species, only 12.6% of mammals and 4.5% of birds are endemic, contrasting with 45.8% of reptiles and 55.8% of amphibians.<ref name="Biodiversity Profile of India"/> Notable endemics are the [[Nilgiri Langur|Nilgiri leaf monkey]] and the brown and carmine [[Bufo beddomii|Beddome's toad]] of the Western Ghats. India contains 172, or 2.9%, of [[World Conservation Union|IUCN]]-designated [[List of endangered species in India|threatened species]].<ref>Groombridge, B. (ed). 1993. ''The 1994 IUCN Red List of Threatened Animals'' [[IUCN]], Gland, Switzerland and Cambridge, UK. lvi + 286 pp.</ref> These include the [[Asiatic Lion]], the [[Bengal Tiger]], and the [[Indian White-rumped Vulture|Indian white-rumped vulture]], which suffered a near-extinction from ingesting the carrion of [[diclofenac]]-treated cattle. In recent decades, human encroachment has posed a threat to India's wildlife; in response, the system of [[National parks of India|national parks]] and [[protected areas of India|protected areas]], first established in 1935, was substantially expanded. In 1972, India enacted the [[Wildlife Protection Act of 1972|Wildlife Protection Act]]<ref>{{cite web |title = The Wildlife Protection Act, 1972 |url = http://www.helplinelaw.com/docs/wildlife/index.php |publisher = Helplinelaw.com |accessdate = 2007-06-16 |date= 2000}}</ref> and [[Project Tiger]] to safeguard crucial habitat; in addition, the Forest Conservation Act<ref>{{cite web |title = The Forest Conservation Act, 1980 |url = http://www.advocatekhoj.com/library/bareacts/forestconservation/index.php?Title=Forest(Conservation)Act,1980 |publisher = AdvocateKhoj.com |accessdate = 2007-11-29 |date= 2007}}</ref> was enacted in 1980. Along with [[Wildlife sanctuaries of India|more than five hundred wildlife sanctuaries]], India hosts [[Biosphere reserves of India|thirteen biosphere reserves]],<ref>{{cite web |title = Biosphere Reserves of India |url = http://www.cpreec.org/pubbook-biosphere.htm |accessdate = 2007-06-17}}</ref> four of which are part of the [[World Network of Biosphere Reserves]]; [[List of Ramsar Sites in India|twenty-five wetlands]] are registered under the [[Ramsar Convention]].<ref name="Indian Ramsar Sites">{{cite web |title = The List of Wetlands of International Importance |url = http://www.ramsar.org/sitelist.pdf |accessdate = 2007-06-20 |date = [[June 4]], [[2007]] |publisher = The Secretariat of the Convention of on Wetlands |pages = p. 18 |format = PDF}}</ref> ==Economy== {{main|Economy of India}} {{see also|Economic development in India}} [[Image:BSE.jpg|thumb|right|The [[Bombay Stock Exchange]], in [[Mumbai]], is Asia's oldest and India's [[Market capitalization|largest]] stock exchange.]] For most of its post-independence history, India adhered to a quasi-[[socialism|socialist]] approach with strict government control over [[private sector]] participation, [[international trade|foreign trade]], and [[foreign direct investment]]. However, since 1991, India has gradually opened up its markets through [[liberalization|economic reforms]] and reduced government controls on foreign trade and investment.<ref name="Montek"/> [[Foreign exchange reserves]] have risen from US$5.8 billion in March 1991 to US$308 billion on 4 July, 2008,<ref name=rbiforexjune07>{{cite web |url = http://rbi.org.in/scripts/WSSView.aspx?Id=11220 |title = Weekly Statistical Supplement |accessdate=2007-06-11 |date = [[June 1]], [[2007]] |publisher=[[Reserve Bank of India]] }}</ref> while federal and state budget deficits have decreased.<ref name="Revenue surge boosts fiscal health">{{cite web |url = http://www.business-standard.com/common/storypage.php?autono=269424&leftnm=2&subLeft=0&chkFlg= |title = "Revenue surge boosts fiscal health" |publisher = [[Business Standard]] |accessdate = 2006-12-28}}</ref> [[Privatization]] of publicly-owned companies and the opening of certain sectors to private and foreign participation has continued amid political debate.<ref>{{cite paper |last=Mohan |first=T.T.Ram |authorlink= |title=Privatization in India: Issues and Evidence |version=|publisher=[[Indian Institute of Management]], Ahmedabad|url=http://www.iimahd.ernet.in/psuindia/pdf/ttr1.pdf |format=PDF|accessdate=2007-08-03 }} </ref> With a [[gross domestic product|GDP]] growth rate of 9.4% in 2006-07, the economy is among the fastest growing in the world.<ref>{{ cite web | url = http://mospi.nic.in/pressnote_31may07.htm | title = Quarterly estimates of gross domestic product, 2006-07 | publisher = [[Government of India]] | accessdate = 2007-05-31 }}</ref> India's GDP in terms of [[United States dollar|USD]] [[exchange rate|exchange-rate]] is US$1.089 trillion.<!--, which makes it the [[List of countries by GDP (nominal)|twelfth largest]] economy in the world.<ref name="India's GDP in 2007">{{cite web |url = http://economictimes.indiatimes.com/Mr_Rupee_pulls_India_into_1_trillion_GDP_gang/articleshow/1957520.cms |title = "India twelfth wealthiest nation in 2005: World Bank" |publisher = [[The Economic Times]] |accessdate = 2006-07-08}}</ref>--> When measured in terms of [[purchasing power parity]] (PPP), India has the world's [[List of countries by GDP (PPP)|fourth largest]] GDP at US$4.726 trillion. India's [[per capita income]] (nominal) is US$977<!--, ranked [[List of countries by GDP (nominal) per capita|128th]] in the world-->, while its per capita (PPP) is US$2700<!-- is ranked [[List of countries by GDP (PPP) per capita|118th]]-->. India has the world's second largest [[Labour in India|labour force]], with 516.3 million people, 60% of whom are employed in [[agriculture in India|agriculture]] and related industries; 28% in [[Service (economics)|services]] and related industries; and 12% in [[industry]].<ref name="CIA"/> Major agricultural crops include rice, wheat, oilseed, cotton, jute, tea, sugarcane, and potatoes. The agricultural sector accounts for 28% of GDP; the service and industrial sectors make up 54% and 18% respectively. Major industries include automobiles, cement, chemicals, consumer electronics, food processing, machinery, mining, petroleum, pharmaceuticals, steel, transportation equipment, and textiles. Along with India’s fast economic growth comes its growing demand for energy. According to the [[Energy Information Administration]], India is the sixth largest consumer of oil and third largest consumer of coal.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://tonto.eia.doe.gov/country/country_energy_data.cfm?fips=IN |title= EIA Country Profiles: India |date=2008-06-16 |accessdate=2008-06-25}}</ref> Although the Indian economy has grown steadily over the last two decades; its growth has been uneven when comparing different social groups, economic groups, geographic regions, and rural and urban areas.<ref name="World bank 2006">{{cite web |url=http://siteresources.worldbank.org/SOUTHASIAEXT/Resources/DPR_FullReport.pdf |title="Inclusive Growth and Service delivery: Building on India’s Success" |publisher=[[World Bank]]|year=2006 |accessdate=2007-04-28|format=PDF}}</ref> [[List of countries by income equality|Income inequality]] in India is relatively small ([[Gini coefficient]]: 36.8 in year 2004<ref name="CIA_GINI">{{cite web|url=https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/fields/2172.html|title=Field Listing - Distribution of family income - Gini index|date=[[15 May]], [[2008]]|work=[[The World Factbook]]|publisher=[[CIA]]|accessdate=2008-06-06}}</ref>), though it has been increasing of late. [[distribution of wealth|Wealth distribution]] in India is fairly uneven, with the top 10% of income groups earning 33% of the income.<ref name=incomedist>[http://www.indiatogether.org/photo/2003/class.htm "In Pictures&nbsp;– Middle Class, or Upper Class? "]. ''India Together''. Civil Society Information Exchange. August 2003</ref> Despite significant economic progress, a quarter of the nation's population earns less than the government-specified [[poverty threshold]] of $0.40 per day. In 2004–2005, 27.5% of the population was living below the poverty line.<ref name = "gov.in-prmar07PDF"/> More recently, India has capitalised on its large pool of educated, English-speaking people, and trained professionals to become an important [[Business process outsourcing in India|outsourcing]] destination for multinational corporations and a popular destination for [[medical tourism]].<ref name = BMJ>{{cite journal |last=Mudur |first=Ganapati |year= 2004|month=June |title=Hospitals in India woo foreign patients |journal=[[British Medical Journal]] |volume=328 |issue= |pages=1338 |id= |doi= 10.1136/bmj.328.7452.1338 |pmid=15178611}}</ref> India has also become a major exporter of software as well as financial, research, and technological services. Its natural resources include arable land, bauxite, chromite, coal, diamonds, iron ore, limestone, manganese, mica, natural gas, petroleum, and titanium ore.<ref name="LOC PROFILE"/> In 2007, estimated exports stood at US$140 billion and imports were around US$224.9 billion. Textiles, jewellery, engineering goods and software are major export commodities. While crude oil, machineries, fertilizers, and chemicals are major imports. India's most important trading partners are the United States, the [[European Union]], and China. ==Demographics== {{main|Demographics of India}} {{seealso|Religion in India|Languages of India}} [[Image:India population density map en.svg|thumb|Population density map of India.]] With an estimated population of 1.13 billion,<ref name="CIA"/> India is the world's second most populous country. Almost 70% of Indians reside in rural areas, although in recent decades migration to larger cities has led to a dramatic increase in the country's urban population. India's [[Status of Indian cities|largest]] [[List of most populous metropolitan areas in India|cities]] are [[Mumbai]] (formerly Bombay), [[Delhi]], [[Kolkata]] (formerly Calcutta), [[Chennai]] (formerly Madras), [[Bangalore|Bengaluru]] (formerly Bangalore), [[Hyderabad, India|Hyderabad]] and [[Ahmedabad]].<ref name="LOC PROFILE">{{cite web |title = Country Profile: India |url = http://lcweb2.loc.gov/frd/cs/profiles/India.pdf |accessdate = 2007-06-24 |publisher = [[Library of Congress]] - [[Federal Research Division]] |date= December 2004 |format = PDF}}</ref> India is the second most culturally, linguistically and genetically diverse geographical entity after the African continent.<ref name ="LOC PROFILE"/> India is home to two major [[Languages of India|linguistic families]]: [[Indo-Aryan languages|Indo-Aryan]] (spoken by about 74% of the population) and [[Dravidian languages|Dravidian]] (spoken by about 24%). Other languages spoken in India come from the [[Austro-Asiatic languages|Austro-Asiatic]] and [[Tibeto-Burman languages|Tibeto-Burman]] linguistic families. [[Hindi]], with the largest number of speakers,<ref>{{cite web |title=Languages by number of speakers according to 1991 census|publisher= Central Institute of Indian Languages|url=http://www.ciil.org/Main/Languages/map4.htm|accessmonthday=August 2 |accessyear=2007}}</ref> is the official language of the [[Government of India|union]].<ref> Mallikarjun, B. (Nov., 2004), [http://www.languageinindia.com/nov2004/mallikarjunmalaysiapaper1.html Fifty Years of Language Planning for Modern Hindi–The Official Language of India], [http://www.languageinindia.com/index.html ''Language in India''], Volume 4, Number 11. ISSN 1930-2940.</ref> English, which is extensively used in business and administration, has the status of a 'subsidiary official language.'<ref name=English-subsidiary>{{cite web |title=Notification No. 2/8/60-O.L. (Ministry of Home Affairs), dated 27 April, 1960||url=http://www.rajbhasha.gov.in/preseng.htm|accessmonthday=July 4 |accessyear=2007}}</ref> The constitution also recognises in particular [[Official languages of India|21 other languages]] that are either abundantly spoken or have classical status. The number of dialects in India is as high as 1,652.<ref name="Manorama"> {{cite book |first=K.M. |last=Matthew |title=Manorama Yearbook 2003 |publisher=[[Malayala Manorama]] |year=2006 |id=ISBN 81-89004-07-7 |pages=pg 524}}</ref> Over 800 million Indians (80.5%) are [[Hinduism|Hindu]]. Other religious groups include [[Islam|Muslims]] (13.4%), [[Christianity|Christians]] (2.3%), [[Sikhism|Sikhs]] (1.9%), [[Buddhism|Buddhists]] (0.8%), [[Jainism|Jains]] (0.4%), [[Judaism|Jews]], [[Parsi|Zoroastrians]], [[Bahá'í Faith|Bahá'ís]] and others.<ref name="CensusRel">{{cite web |title=Census of India 2001, Data on Religion |work=Census of India |url=http://www.censusindia.gov.in/Census_Data_2001/India_at_glance/religion.aspx |accessmonthday=November 22 |accessyear=2007}}</ref> [[Adivasi|Tribals]] constitute 8.1% of the population.<ref name="Tribal">{{cite web |title=Tribes: Introduction |publisher= Ministry of Tribal Affairs, [[Government of India]] |url=http://tribal.nic.in/introduction.html |accessmonthday=April 12 |accessyear=2007|work= [[National Informatics Centre]]}}</ref> India's literacy rate is 64.8% (53.7% for females and 75.3% for males).<ref name="CIA"/> The state of [[Kerala]] has the highest literacy rate (91%);<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.kerala.gov.in/education/|title=Kerala's literacy rate|publisher=[[Government of Kerala]]|accessdate=2007-12-13|work=kerala.gov.in}}</ref> [[Bihar]] has the lowest (47%).<ref>{{cite web|url=http://gov.bih.nic.in/Profile/CensusStats-03.htm Census Statistics of Bihar: Literacy Rates|title=Literacy rate of Bihar|accessdate=2007-12-13|publisher=[[Government of Bihar]]}}</ref> The national [[human sex ratio]] is 944 females per 1,000 males. India's [[population pyramid|median age]] is 24.9, and the [[population growth|population growth rate]] of 1.38% per annum; there are 22.01 births per 1,000 people per year.<ref name="CIA"/> {{-}} {{Largest cities of India}} {{-}} ==Culture== {{main|Culture of India}} [[Image:Taj Mahal in March 2004.jpg|thumb|The [[Taj Mahal]] in [[Agra]] was built by [[Shah Jahan]] as memorial to wife [[Mumtaz Mahal]]. It is a [[UNESCO]] [[World Heritage Site]] considered to be of "outstanding universal value".<ref name="UNESCO_TM">{{Cite web|url=http://whc.unesco.org/en/list|title=Taj Mahal|accessyear=2007|accessmonthday=September 28|publisher=UNESCO World Heritage Centre|work=World Heritage List|language=English|quote=The World Heritage List includes 851 properties forming part of the cultural and natural heritage which the World Heritage Committee considers as having outstanding universal value.}}</ref>]] India's culture is marked by a high degree of [[syncretism]]<ref>{{cite journal |last=Das |first=N.K. |coauthors= |year=2006 |month=July |title=Cultural Diversity, Religious Syncretism and People of India: An Anthropological Interpretation|journal=Bangladesh e-Journal of Sociology |volume=3 |issue=2nd |pages= |id=ISSN 1819-8465 |url=http://www.bangladeshsociology.org/Content.htm |accessdate= 2007-09-27 |quote=The pan-Indian, civilizational dimension of cultural pluralism and syncretism encompasses ethnic diversity and admixture, linguistic heterogeneity as well as fusion, and variations as well as synthesis in customs, behavioural patterns, beliefs and rituals.}}</ref> and [[cultural pluralism]].<ref>{{cite book|last=Baidyanath|first=Saraswati|title=Interface of Cultural Identity Development| edition=1stEdition|url=http://ignca.nic.in/ls_03.htm|accessdate=2007-06-08|isbn= 81-246-0054-6 |chapter=Cultural Pluralism, National Identity and Development|year=2006|pages=xxi+290pp}}</ref> It has managed to preserve established traditions while absorbing new customs, traditions, and ideas from invaders and immigrants. [[Indian architecture]] is one area that represents the diversity of Indian culture. Much of it, including notable monuments such as the [[Taj Mahal]] and other examples of [[Mughal architecture]] and [[Dravidian architecture|South Indian architecture]], comprises a blend of ancient and varied local traditions from several parts of the country and abroad. [[Indian vernacular architecture|Vernacular architecture]] also displays notable regional variation. [[Music of India|Indian music]] covers a wide range of traditions and regional styles. [[Indian classical music|Classical music]] largely encompasses the two genres - North Indian [[Hindustani classical music|Hindustani]], South Indian [[Carnatic music|Carnatic]] traditions and their various offshoots in the form of [[Music of India|regional folk music]]. Highly regionalised forms of popular music include [[filmi]] and [[Indian folk music|folk music]]; the syncretic tradition of the ''[[baul]]s'' is a well-known form of the latter. [[Dance in India|Indian dance]] too has diverse ''folk'' and ''classical'' forms. Among the well-known [[Indian folk dances|folk dances]] are the ''[[bhangra]]'' of the Punjab, the ''[[bihu]]'' of Assam, the ''[[Chhau dance|chhau]]'' of Bihar and Orissa and the ''[[ghoomar]]'' of Rajasthan. Eight dance forms, many with narrative forms and [[Hindu mythology|mythological]] elements, have been accorded [[Classical Indian dance|classical dance status]] by India's ''[[Sangeet Natak Akademi|National Academy of Music, Dance, and Drama]]''. These are: ''[[bharatanatyam]]'' of the state of Tamil Nadu, ''[[kathak]]'' of Uttar Pradesh, ''[[kathakali]]'' and ''[[mohiniyattam]]'' of Kerala, ''[[kuchipudi]]'' of Andhra Pradesh, ''[[Manipuri dance|manipuri]]'' of Manipur, ''[[odissi]]'' of the state of Orissa and the ''[[Sattriya dance|sattriya]]'' of Assam.<ref name=all3>'''1.''' [http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-65370 "South Asian arts: Techniques and Types of Classical Dance"] From: ''Encyclopædia Britannica'' Online. 12 Oct. 2007. '''2.''' [[Sangeet Natak Academi]] (National Academy of Music, Dance, and Drama, New Delhi, India). 2007. [http://www.sangeetnatak.org/programmes_recognition&honours_dance.html Dance Programmes]. '''3.''' Kothari, Sunil. 2007. [http://www.rhul.ac.uk/Drama/News-and-Events/Events_archive/KothariLecture.html ''Sattriya'' dance of the celibate monks of Assam, India]. Royal Holloway College, University of London.</ref> [[Theatre in India]] often incorporates music, dance, and improvised or written dialogue.<ref>{{Harvnb|Lal|1998}}</ref> Often based on [[Hindu mythology]], but also borrowing from medieval romances, and news of social and political events, Indian theatre includes the ''[[bhavai]]'' of state of Gujarat, the ''[[Jatra (Bengal)|jatra]]'' of West Bengal, the ''[[nautanki]]'' and ''[[ramlila]]'' of North India, the ''[[tamasha]]'' of Maharashtra, the ''[[terukkuttu]]'' of Tamil Nadu, and the ''[[yakshagana]]'' of Karnataka.<ref>{{Harv|Karanth|1997|p=26}}. Quote: "The ''{{IAST|Yakṣagāna}}'' folk-theatre is no isolated theatrical form in India. We have a number of such theatrical traditions all around Karnataka... In far off Assam we have similar plays going on by the name of ''Ankia Nat'', in neighouring Bengal we have the very popular ''Jatra'' plays. Maharashtra has ''Tamasa''. (p. 26)</ref> {{Indian image rotation‎|culture}} The [[Cinema of India|Indian film industry]] is the largest in the world.<ref name="BBC_1154019">{{Cite web|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/south_asia/country_profiles/1154019.stm|title=Country profile: India|accessyear=2007|publisher=[[BBC]]}}</ref> [[Bollywood]], based in Mumbai, makes commercial Hindi films and is the most prolific film industry in the world.<ref>{{Harvnb|Dissanayake|Gokulsing|2004}}</ref> Established traditions also exist in [[Bengali cinema|Bengali]], [[Cinema of Karnataka|Kannada]], [[Malayalam cinema|Malayalam]], [[Marathi cinema|Marathi]], [[Tamil cinema|Tamil]], and [[Tollywood|Telugu]] language cinemas.<ref>{{Harvnb|Rajadhyaksha|Willemen (editors)|1999}}</ref> The earliest works of [[Indian literature]] were transmitted orally and only later written down.<ref name = Sanskrit>{{Harvnb|MacDonell|2004|p=1-40}}</ref> These included works of [[Sanskrit literature]]&nbsp;– such as the early [[Vedas]], the [[epic poetry|epics]] [[Mahābhārata]] and [[Ramayana]], the drama [[The Recognition of Śakuntalā|''Abhijñānaśākuntalam'' (The Recognition of Śakuntalā)]], and poetry such as the ''[[Sanskrit literature#Classical Poetry|Mahākāvya]]''<ref>{{Harvnb|Johnson|1998}}, {{Harvnb|MacDonell|2004|p=1-40}}, and {{Harvnb|Kalidasa|Johnson (editor)|2001}}</ref>&nbsp;– and the Tamil language [[Sangam literature|''Sangam'' literature]].<ref name = Tamil>{{Harvnb|Zvelebil|1992|p=12}}</ref> Among Indian writers of the modern era active in Indian languages or [[Indian English literature|English]], [[Rabindranath Tagore]] won the Nobel Prize in 1913. [[Indian cuisine]] is characterized by a wide variety of regional styles and sophisticated use of herbs and spices. The staple foods in the region are rice (especially in the south and the east) and wheat (predominantly in the north).<ref name = Food>Delphine, Roger, "The History and Culture of Food in Asia", in {{Harvnb|Kiple|Kriemhild|2000|p=1140-1151}}</ref> Spices originally native to the Indian subcontinent that are now consumed world wide include black pepper; in contrast, hot chili peppers, popular across India, were introduced by the [[Portuguese India|Portuguese]].<ref>{{Harvnb|Achaya|1994}}, {{Harvnb|Achaya|1997}}</ref> Traditional [[Indian dress]] varies across the regions in its colours and styles and depends on various factors, including climate. Popular styles of dress include draped garments such as [[sari]] for women and [[dhoti]] or [[lungi]] for men; in addition, stitched clothes such as [[salwar kameez]] for women and [[kurta]]-[[pajamas|pyjama]] and European-style [[trousers]] and [[shirt]]s for men, are also popular. Many [[Public holidays in India|Indian festivals]] are religious in origin, although several are celebrated irrespective of caste and creed. Some popular festivals are [[Diwali]], [[Thai Pongal]], [[Holi]], [[Onam]], [[Dasara|Vijayadashami]], [[Durga Puja]], [[Eid ul-Fitr]], [[Bakr-Id]], [[Christmas]], [[Vesak|Buddha Jayanti]] and [[Vaisakhi]].<ref name="Indobase">{{Cite web|url=http://festivals.indobase.com/index.html|title=18 Popular India Festivals|accessdate= 2007-12-23}}</ref> India has [[National days in India|three national holidays]]. Other sets of holidays, varying between nine and twelve, are officially observed in individual states. Religious practices are an integral part of everyday life and are a very public affair. Traditional Indian family values are highly respected, although urban families now prefer the [[nuclear family]] structure due to the socio-economic constraints imposed by traditional joint family system. ==Sports== [[Image:IPL T20 Chennai vs Kolkata.JPG|thumb|A [[2008 IPL T20]] match being played between [[Chennai Super Kings]] and [[Kolkata Knight Riders]]]] {{main|Sports of India}} India's national sport is [[field hockey]] although [[cricket]] is the most popular sport in India. In some states, particularly those in the [[North-East India|northeast]] and the states of West Bengal, Goa, and Kerala, [[association football|football]] (soccer) is also a popular sport.<ref name = Soccer>{{Harvnb|Majumdar|Bandyopadhyay|2006|p=1-5}}</ref> In recent times, [[tennis]] has also gained popularity. [[Chess]], commonly held to have [[Origins of chess#India|originated]] in India, is also gaining popularity with the rise in the number of Indian [[Grandmaster (chess)|grandmasters]]. Traditional sports include [[kabaddi]], [[kho kho]], and [[gilli-danda]], which are played nationwide. India is also home <!-- to the age-old disciplines of [[yoga]] and [[ayurveda]] and -->to the ancient [[Indian martial arts|martial arts]], [[Kalarippayattu]] and [[Varma Kalai]]. Martial arts practised in neighboring countries are said to have been influenced by this country. ==See also== {{India topics|state=expanded}} ==Notes== {{reflist|3}} ==External links== {{contains Indic text}} {{portal|India|Flag of India.svg}} {{spoken Wikipedia|India.ogg|2006-03-07}} {{sisterlinks|India}} ; Government * [http://india.gov.in/ Official entry portal] of the Government of India * [http://indiaimage.nic.in/ Official directory] of Indian Government websites ; General reference * {{CIA World Factbook link|in|India}} * [http://tonto.eia.doe.gov/country/country_energy_data.cfm?fips=IN India Energy Profile] -EIA Official Energy Statistics * [[Encyclopædia Britannica]] entry on [http://www.britannica.com/nations/India India] * [[BBC News|BBC]] country profile of [http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/south_asia/country_profiles/1154019.stm India] * [[Library of Congress Country Studies]] entry on [http://lcweb2.loc.gov/frd/cs/intoc.html India] ; Other * {{wikitravel|India}} {{wikiatlas|India}} * [http://www.incredibleindia.org/ Incredible India] - The Official Tourism Website of Ministry of Tourism, Government of India * {{dmoz|Regional/Asia/India/|India}} <!--===========================({{NoMoreLinks}})===============================--> <!--| DO ''not'' ADD MORE LINKS TO THIS ARTICLE. WIKIPEDIA IS ''not'' A COLLECTION OF |--> <!--| LINKS. If you think that your link might be useful, do not add it here, |--> <!--| but put it on this article's discussion page first or submit your link |--> <!--| to the appropriate category at the Open Directory Project (www.dmoz.org)|--> <!--| and link back to that category using the {{dmoz}} template. |--> * [http://indiavideo.org/ Online video encyclopedia on India sponsored by UNESCO] <!--| |--> <!--| Links that have not been verified WILL BE DELETED. |--> <!--| See [[Wikipedia:External links]] and [[Wikipedia:Spam]] for details |--> <!--===========================({{NoMoreLinks}})===============================--> ==References== ;History *{{Harvard reference |last1=Brown |first1=Judith M. |authorlink= |year=1994 |title=Modern India: The Origins of an Asian Democracy |place= |publisher=Oxford and New York: [[Oxford University Press]]. 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N.|title=Coastal processes along the Indian coastline|journal=Current Science| volume=91| issue=4| year=2006|pages=530-536|url=http://drs.nio.org/drs/bitstream/2264/350/1/Curr_Sci_91_530.pdf}} * {{harvard reference |Last1=Posey |Given1=CA |Year=1994 |Title=The Living Earth Book of Wind and Weather |Publisher=Reader's Digest Association |ID=ISBN 0-8957-7625-1}}. *{{Harvard reference| last1=Prakash| first1=B.| last2=Kumar | first2=Sudhir| last3=Rao |first3=M. Someshwar| last4=Giri| first4=S. C. | title=Holocene tectonic movements and stress field in the western Gangetic plains| journal=Current Science| volume=79| issue=4 |year=2000| pages=438-449| url=http://www.ias.ac.in/currsci/aug252000/prakash.pdf}} ;Flora and fauna *{{Harvard reference |last1=Ali |first1=Salim |authorlink=Salim Ali (ornithologist) |last2=Ripley |first2=S. Dillon |authorlink2=S. Dillon Ripley |year=1995 |title=A Pictorial Guide to the Birds of the Indian Subcontinent |place= |publisher=Mumbai: Bombay Natural History Society and Oxford University Press. Pp. 183, 106 colour plates by John Henry Dick |isbn=0195637321 |url= }} *{{Harvard reference |last1=Blatter |first1=E. |authorlink=Ethelbert Blatter |last2=Millard |first2=Walter S. |authorlink2=Walter Samuel Millard |year=1997 |title=Some Beautiful Indian Trees |place= |publisher=Mumbai: Bombay Natural History Society and Oxford University Press. Pp. ''xvii'', 165, 30 colour plates |isbn=019562162X |url= }} *{{Harvard reference |last1=Israel |first1=Samuel |last2=Sinclair (editors) |first2=Toby |authorlink= |year=2001 |title=Indian Wildlife |place= |publisher=Discovery Channel and APA Publications. |isbn=9812345558 |url= }} *{{Harvard reference |last1=Prater |first1=S. 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