Indian religions
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[[WP:UNDO|Undid]] revision 225300189 by [[Special:Contributions/ParsiWala|ParsiWala]] ([[User talk:ParsiWala|talk]])"parsism" (zoroastrianism) did not originate in India.
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{{for|religious demographics of the Republic of India|Religion in India}}
[[Image:Gomateswara.jpg|thumb|Statue of [[Jainism|Jina]] deity [[Bahubali]] in [[Shravanabelagola]], [[Karnataka]] attracts thousands of devotees.]]
'''Indian religions''' are religions that originated in the [[Indian subcontinent]]. They are [[Hinduism]], [[Jainism]], [[Buddhism]], [[Sikhism]], and tribal religions. They form a subgroup of the larger class of "[[Eastern religions]]". Indian religions have similarities in core beliefs, modes of worship, and associated practices, mainly due to their common history of origin and mutual influence.
''Indian religions'' is thus an umbrella term in the classification of the world's [[major religious groups]], along with the [[Abrahamic religions]] and the [[Far Eastern religions]].<ref name = EB>Adams, C. J., [http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-38030/classification-of-religions Classification of religions: Geographical], [[Encyclopaedia Britannica]], 2007. Accessed: [[September 5]] [[2007]]</ref>
The documented history of Indian religions begins with [[historical Vedic religion]], the religious practices of the early [[Indo-Aryans]], which were collected and later [[Redaction|redacted]] into the [[Vedas]], four canonical collections of hymns or [[mantra]]s. The language used, archaic [[Vedic Sanskrit|Sanskrit]], also stems from the same period. The period of the advent, spread, and eventual establishment of this religion lasted from 1,500 BCE to about 500 BCE.
The period from 500 BCE onwards marked the beginning of the Upanisadic or [[Vedantic]] period. This period heralded the beginning of much of what became classical Hinduism, with the composition of the [[Upanishads]], later the [[Sanskrit epics]], still later followed by the [[Puranas]]. In this period Jainism and Buddhism arose from the [[sramana]] traditions.
Buddhism was historically founded by [[Gautama Siddhartha]], a Sakya prince-turned-ascetic of [[Nepal]], and was spread beyond India through missionaries. It later experienced a [[decline of Buddhism in India|decline]] in India, but survived in Nepal and Sri Lanka, and remains more widespread in Southeast and [[East Asian religions|East Asia]]. Jainism is said to have been established by a lineage of 24 enlightened beings culminating with [[Mahavira]].<ref>[[Harry Oldmeadow]] (2007) Light from the East: Eastern Wisdom for the Modern West, [[World Wisdom]], Inc. ISBN 1933316225 – "Over time, apparent misunderstandings have arisen over the origins of Jainism and relationship with its sister religions of Hinduism and Buddhism. There has been an ongoing debate between Jainism and Vedic Hinduism as to which revelation preceded the other. What is historically known is that there was a tradition along with vedic Hinduism known as Sramana dharma. Essentially, the sramana tradition included it its fold, the Jain and Buddhist traditions, which disagreed with the eternality of the Vedas, the needs for ritual sacrifices and the supremacy of the Brahmins." Page 141</ref>
Classical Hinduism, which arose in the course of the Middle Ages as a result of various influences including a [[syncretism]] and cross-pollination of the [[Sramana]] and the [[Vedic]]/[[Vedantic]] traditions, is divided into numerous [[Hindu denominations|denominations]], primarily [[Shaivism]], [[Shaktism]], [[Vaishnavism]], [[Smarta]] and much smaller groups like the conservative [[Shrauta]] adhering Brahmins. [[Hindu reform movements]] and [[Ayyavazhi]] are more recent.
About 90% of Hindus reside in the [[India|Republic of India]], accounting for 83% of its population.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.adherents.com/Religions_By_Adherents.html |title=Major Religions of the World Ranked by Number of Adherents |accessdate=2007-07-10 |work= |publisher=Adherents.com }}</ref>
[[Sikhism]] was founded in the 15th century; its founder, [[Guru Nanak]], was born in the town of [[Talwandi]] in present day [[Pakistan]].
==Common traits==
Sometimes summarised as "Dharmic" religions or dharmic traditions (even though the meaning of ''dharma/dhamma'' differs per religion), Hinduism, Buddhism, Jainism and Sikhism share certain key concepts, which are interpreted differently by different groups and individuals.<ref>[[David Frawley|Frawley, David]]. From the River of Heaven: Hindu and Vedic Knowledge for the Modern Age. Pg 27. Berkeley, California: Book Passage Press, 1990. ISBN 1878423010.</ref><!--- note that only parts of the preceding long sentence are supported by the listed references. user: Andries 16 Sept.2007--><ref>[[Encarta|Encarta encyclopedia]] [http://encarta.msn.com/encyclopedia_761555715/Hinduism.html#s2']"Buddhism, Jainism, and Sikhism share with Hinduism the concept of dharma along with other key concepts, and the four religions may be said to belong to the dharmic tradition."</ref><ref>Westerlund, David ''Questioning the Secular State: The Worldwide Resurgence of Religion in Politics'' page 16 "may provide some possibilities for co-operation with Sikhs, Jains and Buddhists, who like Hindus are regarded as adherents of ‘dharmic' religions."</ref> Common traits can also be observed in both the ritual and the literary sphere. For example, the head-anointing ritual of ''[[abhiseka]]'' is of importance in three distinct traditions. Other noteworthy rituals are the cremation of the dead, the wearing of vermilion on the head by married women, and various marital rituals. In literature, many classical Hindu narratives have Buddhist or Jain versions.<ref>c.f. [[Encyclopedia Britannica]], s.v. "Jainism > Jainism, Hinduism, and Buddhism"</ref> All three traditions have notions of ''[[karma]]'', ''[[dharma]]'', ''[[samsara]]'', ''[[moksha]]'' and various ''[[yogas]]''. Of course, these terms may be perceived differently by different religions. For instance, for a Hindu, ''dharma'' is his duty. For a Jain, ''dharma'' is his conduct. For a Buddhist, ''dharma'' is piety {{reference needed}]. For a Jain, ''dharma'' is righteousness. Similarly, for a Hindu, yoga is the cessation of all thought activities of the mind,<ref>"yogascittavrttinirodhah" Sutra 1 of Patanjali's Yogadarshana </ref> whereas Jain epistemology sees yoga as the sum total of all the activities of mind, speech and body.
== History ==
===Prehistory===
[[Image:Pashupati.gif|thumb|200px|right|A Harappan seal excavated at [[Mohenjo Daro]] (roughly 2000 BCE), showing what is often, though ahistorically called by the Vedic term "[[Pashupati]]" and sitting in what is reminiscent of the even later attested [[padma asana]] posture.]]
Evidence attesting to [[prehistoric religion]] in the Indian subcontinent derives from scattered [[Mesolithic]] rock paintings such as at [[Bhimbetka]], depicting dances and rituals. [[Neolithic]] agriculturalists inhabiting the [[Indus River]] Valley buried their dead in a manner suggestive of spiritual practices that incorporated notions of an afterlife and belief in magic.<ref name="Heehs_2002_39">{{harvnb|Heehs|2002|p=39}}.</ref> Other [[South Asian Stone Age]] sites, such as the [[Bhimbetka rock shelters]] in central [[Madhya Pradesh]] and the [[Kupgal petroglyphs]] of eastern Karnataka, contain rock art portraying religious rites and evidence of possible ritualised music.<ref>{{cite news |title=Ancient Indians made 'rock music' |publisher=[[BBC News]] |date=[[19 March]] [[2004]] |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/nature/3520384.stm |accessdate=2007-08-07}}</ref> The [[Harappa]]n people of the [[Indus Valley Civilization]], which lasted from 3300–1300 BCE (mature period, 2600-1900 BCE) and was centered around the [[Indus River|Indus]] and [[Ghaggar-Hakra River|Ghaggar-Hakra]] river valleys, may have worshiped an important [[mother goddess]] symbolising fertility,<ref>{{harvnb|Fowler|1997|p=90}}.</ref> a concept that has recently been challenged.<ref> Sharri R. Clark, The social lives of figurines : recontextualizing the third millennium BC terracotta figurines from Harappa, Pakistan. PhD dissertation, Harvard 2007 </ref> Excavations of Indus Valley Civilization sites show small tablets with animals and altars, indicating rituals associated with animal sacrifice.
===Vedic period===
{{main|Historical Vedic religion}}
The [[Vedic Period]] is most significant for the composition of the four [[Vedas]], [[Brahmanas]] and the older [[Upanishads]] (both discussions on the rituals, mantras and concepts found in the four Vedas), which today are some of the most important [[Sacred texts|canonical texts]] of Hinduism, and are the source for much of what developed into the core beliefs of Hinduism and related religions.
The [[Veda]]s reflect the [[liturgy]] and ritual of [[Late Bronze Age]] to [[Early Iron Age]] [[Indo-Aryans|Indo-Aryan]] speaking peoples in India. Religious practices were dominated by the [[Vedic priesthood]] administering domestic [[rituals]]/rites and solemn [[sacrifice]]s. The [[Brahmanas]], [[Aranyakas]] and some of the older [[Upanishad]]s (such as [[Bṛhadāraṇyaka|BAU]], [[Chāndogya|ChU]], [[Jaiminiya Upanishad Brahmana|JUB]]) are also considered Vedic. Many elements of Vedic religion reach back to early Bronze Age [[Proto-Indo-Iranian]] times. The Vedic period is held to have ended around 500 BCE.
Specific rituals and sacrifices of the Vedic religion include:
* The ''[[Soma]]'' cult described in the [[Rigveda]], descended from a common [[Indo-Iranian]] practice (cf. the Iranian haoma ritual) .
* [[Fire ritual]]s, also a common Indo-Iranian practice (See [[Zoroastrianism]]):
** The ''[[Agnihotra]]'' or [[oblation]] to [[Agni]].
** The ''[[Agnistoma]]'' or [[Soma]] sacrifice (including animal sacrifice) .
** The ''[[Agnicayana]]'', the sophisticated ritual of piling the Uttara [[Vedi (altar)|fire altar]].
* The Darsapaurnamasa, the fortnightly New and Full Moon sacrifice
* The Caturmasya or seasonal sacrifices (every four months)
* a large number of sacrifices for special wishes (Kāmyeṣṭi)
* The ''[[Ashvamedha]]'' or [[horse]] sacrifice.
* The ''[[Purushamedha]]'', or sacrifice of a man, imitating that of the cosmic [[Purusha Sukta|Purusha]] and Ashvamedha
* The rites referred to in the [[Atharvaveda]] are concerned with medicine and healing practices, as well as some [[charms]] and sorcery (white and black [[magic]]).
* The domestic (grihya) rituals deal with the rites of passage from conception to death and beyond.
===Vedanta===
{{main|Vedanta}}
The period of ''Vedanta'' (Sanskrit : end of Vedas), typically thought to have begun around 500 BCE, marked the end of the evolution of the Vedas, much as it also marked the end of the semi-nomadic nature of the Indo-Aryan tribes as they formed permanent settlements in the Indo-Gangetic plain and other parts of Northern India. This period began in earnest with the Brahmana discussions on the four canonical [[Vedas]] that finally led to the [[Upanishads]]. While the ritualistic status of the four Vedas remained undiminished, the early Upanishads sought to offer spiritual insights. At this time, the combination of the concepts of [[reincarnation]], the innovative one of [[karma]] and of [[moksha]], among many others. These were to form the core philosophy of the later epics and Hinduism itself.
===The Shramana tradition===
{{main|Shramana}}
The [[Shramana]]s were wandering ascetics. Buddhism and Jainism are a continuation of the Sramana tradition.<ref>These were not direct outgrowths of Vedism, instead, were concurrent streams of thought in ancient India. S. Cromwell Crawford, review of L. M. Joshi, Brahmanism, Buddhism and Hinduism, Philosophy East and West (1972): "Alongside Brahmanism was the non-Aryan Shramanic culture with its roots going back to prehistoric times." </ref> The 24th Jain [[Tirthankar]], [[Mahavira]] (599–527 BCE), stressed five vows, including ''[[Ahimsa in Jainism|ahimsa]]'' (non-violence), ''[[satya]]'' (truthfulness), ''[[asteya]]'' (non-stealing) and ''[[aparigraha]]'' (non-attachment).
The historical [[Gautama Buddha]], who was a [[Buddha]], was born into the [[Shakya]] clan of [[Angirasa]]-and-[[Gautama Rishi]] lineage<ref> ''The Life of Buddha as Legend and History'', by Edward Joseph Thomas </ref>, just before the kingdom of [[Magadha]] (which lasted from 546–324 BCE) rose to power. His family was native to Kapilavastu and [[Lumbini]], in what is now southern [[Nepal]].
The [[Ajivika]]s and [[Samkhya]]s belonged to another [[sramana]] tradtion, both of which did not survive.
===Rise and spread of Jainism and Buddhism===
{{main|Buddhism in India|Silk Road transmission of Buddhism|Greco-Buddhism}}
{{main|Jain community}}
{{see|Mauryan period|Gupta period}}
Both Jainism and Buddhism in their present form, spread throughout India during the period of the [[Magadha empire]].
According to the [[Mahavamsa]], Jainism was present in [[Sri Lanka]] before the arrival of Thera [[Mahinda]].<ref>http://www.lakehouse.lk/budusarana/2006/09/07/Budu23.pdf A comparative study in Jainism and Buddhism, Rohan Jayetilleke, September 07, 2006</ref> Early Tamil Brahmi Jain inscriptions in [[Tamil Nadu]] are dated to second century BCE.<ref>Early Tamil Epigraphy. ''From the Earliest Times to the Sixth Century A.D.'' by Iravatham Mahadevan; Chennai: A-Cref and the Department of Sanskrit and Indian Studies, Harvard University</ref> Jainism has declined since the 12th century in many regions, but continues to be an influential religion in [[Gujarat]], [[Rajasthan]], [[Madhya Pradesh]], [[Maharashtra]] and [[Karnataka]].
[[Buddhism]] in India spread during the reign of [[Asoka the Great]] of the [[Mauryan Empire]], who patronised [[dharma|Buddhist teachings]] and unified the Indian subcontinent in the 3rd century BCE. He sent missionaries abroad, allowing Buddhism to spread across Asia.<ref name="Heehs_2002_106">{{harvnb|Heehs|2002|p=106}}.</ref> [[Buddhism in India|Indian Buddhism]] started declining following the rise of [[Puranas|Puranic Hinduism]] during the [[Gupta dynasty]], but continued to have a significant presence in some regions of India until the 12th century.
===Period after 200 BCE===
{{main|decline of Buddhism in India|Hindu philosophy|Pala Empire}}
{{see|Puranas}}
After 200 CE several schools of thought were formally codified in [[Indian philosophy]], including [[Samkhya]], [[Yoga]], [[Nyaya]], [[Vaisheshika]], [[Purva-Mimamsa]] and [[Vedanta]].<ref name="Radhaxviii-xxi">{{harvnb|Radhakrishnan|Moore|1967|p=xviii–xxi}}.</ref> Hinduism, otherwise a highly polytheistic, pantheistic or monotheistic religion, also tolerated [[atheism in Hinduism|atheistic schools]]; the thoroughly [[materialism|materialistic]] and anti-religious philosophical [[Cārvāka]] school that originated around the 6th century BCE is the most explicitly atheistic school of Indian philosophy. Cārvāka is classified as a ''[[nastika]]'' ("heterodox") system; it is not included among the six schools of Hinduism generally regarded as orthodox. It is noteworthy as evidence of a materialistic movement within Hinduism.<ref name="Radha227">{{harvnb|Radhakrishnan|Moore|1967|p=227–249}}.</ref> Our understanding of Cārvāka philosophy is fragmentary, based largely on criticism of the ideas by other schools, and it is no longer a living tradition.<ref name="RChatterjee55">{{harvnb|Chatterjee|Datta|1984|p=55}}.</ref> Other Indian philosophies generally regarded as atheistic include [[Samkhya|Classical Samkhya]] and [[Mimamsa|Purva Mimamsa]].
Between 400 CE and 1000 CE Hinduism expanded as the [[decline of Buddhism in India]] continued.<ref name="BBC ethics2">{{cite web |title=The rise of Buddhism and Jainism |work=Religion and Ethics—Hinduism: Other religious influences |publisher=BBC |date=[[26 July]] [[2004]] |accessdate=2007-04-21 |url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/religion/religions/hinduism/history/history_2.shtml }}</ref> Buddhism subsequently became effectively extinct in India. but survived in Nepal and Sri Lanka.
There were several Buddhistic kings who worshiped Vishnu, such as the Gupta, Pala, Malla, Somavanshi, and Sattvahana.<ref> Durga Prasad, P. 116, ''History of the Andhras upto 1565 A. D.'' </ref>
===Modern India===<!-- Not sure this section belongs in this article -->
{{main|Religion in India|Hindu reform movements|Hindutva|Communalism (South Asia)}}
Communalism has played a key role in shaping the religious history of modern India. [[British Raj|British India]] was [[Partition of India|partitioned]] along religious lines into two states, the Muslim-majority [[Dominion of Pakistan]] (comprising what is now the [[Pakistan|Islamic Republic of Pakistan]] and the [[Bangladesh|People's Republic of Bangladesh]]) and the Hindu majority [[History of the Republic of India|Union of India]] (later the Republic of India). The 1947 [[Partition of India]] inaugurated rioting among Hindus, Muslims, and Sikhs in Punjab, Bengal, Delhi and other parts of India, and 500,000 died as a result of the violence. The twelve million [[refugees]] that moved between the newly founded nations of India and Pakistan composed one of the largest mass migrations in modern history.{{cref|Δ}}<ref name="Symonds_1950_74">{{harvnb|Symonds|1950|p=74}}.</ref> Since its independence, India has periodically witnessed large-scale violence sparked by underlying tensions between sections of its majority Hindu and minority Muslim communities. The Republic of India is secular, though it is often considered a Hindu holy land (''[[punyabhumi]]''), its government recognises no official religion. In recent decades, communal tensions and religion-based politics have become more prominent.<ref name="Ludden_1996_253">{{harvnb|Ludden|1996|p=253}}.</ref>
==Astika and Nastika categorization==
{{see|Astika|Hindu philosophy|Buddhism and Hinduism}}
''Astika'' and ''nastika'' are sometimes used to categorise Indian religions. Those religions that believe that God is the central actor in this world are termed as ''[[astika]]''. Those religions that do not believe that God is the prime mover and actor are classified as ''[[nastika]]'' religions. From this point of view the Vedic religion (and Hinduism) is an ''astika'' religion, whereas Buddhism and Jainism are ''nastika'' religions.
Another definition of the terms ''astika'' and ''nastika'', followed by [[Adi Shankara]], classifies religions and persons as ''astika'' and ''nastika'' according to whether they accept the authority of the main Hindu texts, the [[Vedas]] as supreme revealed scriptures, or not. By this definition, [[Nyaya]], [[Vaisheshika]], [[Samkhya]], [[Raja Yoga]], [[Mimamsa|Purva Mimamsa]] and [[Vedanta]] are classified as ''astika'' schools, while [[Charvaka]] is classified as a ''nastika'' schools. By this definition, both Buddhism and Jainism are classified as ''nastika'' religions since they do not accept the authority of the Vedas.
All three religions, Hinduism, Buddhism and Jainism, agree that Jainism, Buddhism and Sikhism (as well as [[Lingayat]]s) do not accept the authority of the Vedas. Despite a general ''doctrinal'' tolerance in the Hindu tradition, history shows instances of hostility against Jains, such as in Tamil Nadu in the 7th century when Hindu Shaiva poets and teachers popularized the notion of Jains (or ''Samanars'' in Tamil) as villains opposed to the Shaiva creed. In modern India, Jains share a variety cultural and linguistic affinities with other religious communities.
==Sikhism ==
{{main|Sikhism}}
{{see|Sikhism and Jainism|Sikhism and Hinduism}}
Sikhism originated in [[15th century|fifteenth century]] [[Northern India]] with the teachings of [[Guru Nanak Dev|Nanak]] and nine successive [[Sikh Gurus|gurus]]. The principal belief in Sikhism is faith in ''[[Waheguru|Vāhigurū]]''— represented by the sacred symbol of ''{{unicode|[[Ek Onkar|ēk ōaṅkār]]}}'' [meaning one god]. Sikhism's traditions and teachings are distinctly associated with the history, society and culture of the [[Punjab region|Punjab]]. Adherents of Sikhism are known as [[Sikh]]s (''students'' or ''disciples'') and number over 23 million across the world.
Although it began as a relatively neutral faith system that proposed to inculcate the best practices of [[Hinduism]] and [[Islam]], over time, its Gurus led followers in various rebellions and battles against the Islamic [[Mughal]] rulers of the time, most notably against [[Aurangzeb]].
== Status in India ==
{{See also|Legal Status of Jainism as a Distinct Religion}}
Societally, there is little distinction or separation of class between Hindus, Sikhs, Jains and Buddhists owing to near congruence in beliefs and practices.<ref>[http://www.indianexpress.com/story/282818.html Governor of Gujarat state, Mr. Naval Kishore] "Although for the purpose of many personal laws, Jains and Hindus have been treated alike, it is not because they are denominations of Hinduism,"</ref><ref>[http://www.judis.nic.in/supremecourt/qrydisp.asp?tfnm=27098 Supreme court judicial observation, Dec 2004, Bal Patil vs. Union of India] "Sikhs and Jains, in fact, have throughout been treated as part of the wider Hindu community which has different sects, sub-sects, faiths,
modes of worship and religious philosophies."</ref> Cross-worship and intermarriages are common.{{Fact|date=March 2008}}
In a judicial reminder, the Indian Supreme Court observed Sikhism and Jainism to be sub-sects or ''special'' faiths within the larger Hindu fold,<ref>[http://www.judis.nic.in/supremecourt/qrydisp.asp?tfnm=27098 Supreme Court observation, Bal Patil vs. Union of India, Dec 2005] In various codified customary laws like Hindu Marriage Act, Hindu Succession Act, Hindu Adoption and Maintenance Act and other laws of pre and post-
Constitution period, the definition of 'Hindu' included all sects and sub-sects of Hindu religions including Sikhs and Jains
</ref> and that Jainism is a denomination within the Hindu fold.<ref>[http://www.judis.nic.in/supremecourt/qrydisp.asp?tfnm=27098 Supreme court of India, in the judgement of Bal Patil vs. Union of India, Dec. 2005.] The Supreme Court observed in a judgment pertaining to case of Bal Patil vs. Union of India: "Thus, 'Hinduism' can be called a general religion and common faith of India whereas 'Jainism' is a special religion formed on the basis of quintessence of Hindu religion. Jainism places greater emphasis on non-violence ('Ahimsa') and compassion ('Karuna'). Their only difference from Hindus is that Jains do not believe in any creator like God but worship only the perfect human-being whom they called Tirathankar."</ref> Although the government of British India counted Jains in India as a major religious community right from the first Census conducted in 1873, after independence in 1947 Sikhs and Jains were not treated as national minorities.<ref>[Supreme Court observation, Bal Patil vs. Union of India, Dec 2005 http://www.judis.nic.in/supremecourt/qrydisp.asp?tfnm=27098] The so-called minority communities like Sikhs and Jains were not treated as national minorities at the time of framing the Constitution.</ref> In 2005 the [[Supreme Court of India]] declined to issue a [[writ of Mandamus]] granting Jains the status of a religious minority throughout India. The Court however left it to the respective [[States and territories of India|states]] to decide on the minority status of Jain religion.<ref>{{cite news|publisher=[[The Tribune]]|url=http://www.tribuneindia.com/2005/20051125/edit.htm#4 |title=Minority rights are indivisible|author=Syed Shahabuddin }}</ref><ref>[http://www.judis.nic.in/supremecourt/qrydisp.asp?tfnm=27098 Supreme court of India, in the judgement of Bal Patil vs. Union of India, Dec. 2005.] In an extra-judicial observation not forming part of the judgment the court observed :"Thus, 'Hinduism' can be called a general religion and common faith of India whereas 'Jainism' is a special religion formed on the basis of quintessence of Hindu religion. Jainism places greater emphasis on non-violence ('Ahimsa') and compassion ('Karuna'). Their only
difference from Hindus is that Jains do not believe in any creator like
God but worship only the perfect human-being whom they called
Tirathankar."</ref>
However, some individual states have over the past few decades differed on whether Jains, Buddhists and Sikhs are religious minorities or not, by either pronouncing judgments or passing legislation. One example is the judgment passed by the Supreme Court in 2006, in a case pertaining to the state of Uttar Pradesh, which declared Jainism to be undisputably distinct from Hinduism, but mentioned that, "The question as to whether the Jains are part of the Hindu religion is open to debate.<ref name="judis_basic_shiksha">(para 25, Committee of Management Kanya Junior High School Bal Vidya Mandir, Etah, U.P. v. Sachiv, U.P. Basic Shiksha Parishad, Allahabad, U.P. and Ors., Per Dalveer Bhandari J., Civil Appeal No. 9595 of 2003, decided On: 21.08.2006, Supreme Court of India) [http://judis.nic.in/supremecourt/qrydisp.asp?tfnm=27962]</ref> However, the Supreme Court also noted various court cases that have held [[Legal_Status_of_Jainism_as_a_Distinct_Religion#Chronological_order_of_various_court_judgments_on_Jainism_as_a_separate_religion|Jainism to be a distinct religion]].
Another example is the [[Gujarat Freedom of Religion Bill]], that is an amendment to a legislation that sought to define Jains and Buddhists as denominations within Hinduism.<ref> [http://209.85.175.104/search?q=cache:-4pb9oO2u_YJ:www.aiccindia.org/newsite/0804061910/resources/pdf/Gujarat%2520Freedom%2520of%2520Religion%2520Act%2520-%2520text%2520only.pdf+Gujarat+Freedom+of+religions+bill&hl=en&ct=clnk&cd=20 Gujarat Freedom of religions Act, 2003]</ref> Ultimately on [[July 31]] [[2007]], finding it not in conformity with the concept of freedom of religion as embodied in Article 25 (1) of the Constitution, Governor Naval Kishore Sharma returned back the Gujarat Freedom of Religion (Amendment) Bill, 2006 citing the widespread protests by the Jains<ref>{{cite news
| url = http://www.indianexpress.com/story/207905.html
| title = Religious freedom Bill returned
| work =
| publisher = The Indian Express
| pages =
| page =
| date = 2007-07-31
| accessdate = 2007-09-15}}
</ref> as well as Supreme Court's extra-judicial observation that Jainism is a "special religion formed on the basis of quintessence of Hindu religion by the Supreme Court"<ref>[http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/Gujarat_govt_revokes_conversion_amendment/articleshow/2853456.cms The Times of India, 11 Mar, 2008] In his letter dated [[July 27]] [[2007]] he had said Jainism has been regarded as "special religion formed on the basis of quintessence of Hindu religion by the Supreme Court". </ref>
==See also==
* [[Ayyavazhi and Hinduism]]
* [[Buddhism and Hinduism]]
* [[Buddhism and Jainism]]
* [[History of Hinduism]]
* [[History of Buddhism]]
* [[History of Yoga]]
* [[Indian philosophy]]
* [[Indology]]
* [[Jainism]]
* [[Religious thinkers of India]]
* [[Sikhism and Jainism]]
* [[Sikhism and Hinduism]]
== Notes ==
{{reflist|2}}
== References ==
* {{Harvard reference
| surname1=Chatterjee
| given1=S
| surname2=Datta
| given2= D
| year=1984
| title=An Introduction to Indian Philosophy
| publisher=[[University of Calcutta]]
| edition=8th
| id=ASIN: B0007BFXK4
}}
* {{Harvard reference
| surname1=Fowler
| given1=JD
| year=1997
| title=Hinduism: Beliefs and Practices
| publisher=Sussex Academic Press
| isbn=1-898-72360-5
| url=http://books.google.com/books?id=RmGKHu20hA0C
}}
* {{Harvard reference
| surname1=Heehs
| given1=P
| year=2002
| title=Indian Religions: A Historical Reader of Spiritual Expression and Experience
| publisher=New York University Press
| location=New York
| isbn=0-814-73650-5
}}
* {{Harvard reference
| surname1=Oberlies
| given1=T
| year=1998
| title=Die Religion des Rgveda
| publisher=Wien
}}
* {{Harvard reference
| surname1=Radhakrishnan
| given1=S
| surname2=Moore
| given2= CA
| authorlink=Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan
| year=1967
| title=A Sourcebook in Indian Philosophy
| publisher=Princeton University Press
| isbn=0-691-01958-4
}}
* {{Harvard reference
| surname1=Rinehart
| given1=R
| year=2004
| title=Contemporary Hinduism: Ritual, Culture, and Practice
| publisher=ABC-Clio
| isbn=1-57607-905-8
}}
== External links ==
;Statistics
* {{cite web |title=Census of India 2001: Data on religion |work=Government of India (Office of the Registrar General) |url=http://www.censusindia.net/religiondata/ |accessdate=2007-05-28 }}
;Constitution and law
* {{cite web |title=Constitution of India |work=Government of India (Ministry of Law and Justice) |url=http://indiacode.nic.in/coiweb/welcome.html |accessdate=2007-05-28 }}
;Reports
* {{cite web |title=International Religious Freedom Report 2006: India |work=United States Department of State |url=http://www.state.gov/g/drl/rls/irf/2006/71440.htm |accessdate=2007-05-28 }}
{{Template group
|list =
{{Religion topics}}
{{Asia in topic|Religion in}}
{{Life in India}}
}}
<!--Categories-->
[[Category:Indian religions]]
[[Category:Major religious groups]]
[[Category:Religion in India]]
<!--Interwikis-->
[[da:Religion i Sydasien]]
[[fr:Religions de l'Inde]]
[[pl:Religie w Indiach]]
[[sk:Indické náboženstvá]]
[[sr:Религија у Индији]]
[[sv:Lista över religioner i Indien efter delstat och befolkningsandel]]
[[zh:印度宗教]]