Indigenous languages of the Americas 182480 225065731 2008-07-11T18:46:09Z 200.68.55.75 /* South America */ '''Indigenous languages of the Americas''' (or Amerindian Languages) are spoken by [[Indigenous peoples of the Americas|indigenous peoples]] from the southern tip of [[South America]] to [[Alaska]] and [[Greenland]], encompassing the land masses which constitute [[the Americas]]. These indigenous languages consist of dozens of distinct [[language family|language families]] as well as many [[language isolate]]s and [[unclassified language]]s. Many proposals to group these into higher-level families have been made. ==Background== Thousands of languages were spoken in [[North America|North]] and [[South America]] prior to first contact with Europeans between the beginning of the eleventh century (Norwegian settlement of Greenland and attempted settlement of Labrador and Newfoundland) and the end of the fifteenth century (the voyages of [[Christopher Columbus]]). The attitudes of most of the European colonizers and their successor states toward Native American languages ranged from benign neglect to active suppression. [[John Eliot]] of [[Massachusetts Bay Colony|Massachusetts]], however, [[Bible translations|translated the Bible]] into an [[Algonquian]] language usually called [[Wampanoag]], [[Massachusett]] or [[Natick]] (1661–63; the first Bible printed in North America) and Spanish missionaries preached to the natives in local languages. They actually spread [[Quechua]] beyond its original geographic area. Several indigenous [[creole language]]s developed in the Americas from European languages. But in most cases, the aboriginal languages of the Americas suffered extinction. [[Spanish language|Spanish]], [[English language|English]], [[Portuguese language|Portuguese]], [[French language|French]], and [[Dutch language|Dutch]] were brought to the Americas by European settlers and administrators, and are the official or national languages of the modern nation-states of the Americas. That said, [[Bolivia]], [[Paraguay]], [[Peru]], and [[Greenland]] have one or more official indigenous languages in addition to the colonial language. Several indigenous languages of the Americas had developed their own [[writing system]]s, including the [[Mayan languages]] and [[Nahuatl]], the language of the [[Aztec]]s and nearby related peoples (e.g., the Pipil in El Salvador). These and many other indigenous languages later adapted the [[Latin alphabet]] or [[Canadian Aboriginal syllabics]]. [[Tlingit language|Tlingit]] was first written by [[Russia]]n missionaries in the [[Cyrillic alphabet]], when Alaska and the coast of North America down to Sonoma County, California, were in contact with the Russian Empire. It is now written in the Roman alphabet. Indigenous languages vary greatly in the number of speakers, from [[Quechua]], [[Aymara language|Aymara]], [[Guarani language|Guarani]], and [[Nahuatl language|Nahuatl]] with millions of active speakers to a number of languages with only a handful of elderly speakers. Most indigenous languages of the Americas are [[endangered language|endangered]], and many others are [[extinct language|extinct]], with no living native speakers. ==Language families (& isolates)== '''Notes:''' * [[Extinct language]]s or families are indicated by: ''†''. * The number of family members is indicated in parentheses (for example, Arauan (9) means the Arauan family consists of nine languages). * Out of convenience, the following list of language families is divided in 3 sections based on political boundaries of countries. These sections correspond roughly with the geographic regions (North, Central, & South America) but are not equivalent. This division also does not cleanly delineate indigenous culture areas. ===South America=== Although both North and [[Central America]] are very diverse areas, South America has a linguistic diversity rivalled by only a few other places in the world with approximately 350 languages still spoken and an estimated 1,500 languages at first European contact. The situation of language documentation and classification into genetic families is not as advanced as in North America (which is relatively well-studied in many areas). Kaufman (1994: 46) gives the following appraisal: : ''Since the mid 1950s, the amount of published material on SA'' [South America] ''has been gradually growing, but even so, the number of researchers is far smaller than the growing number of linguistic communities whose speech should be documented. Given the current employment opportunities, it is not likely that the number of specialists in SA Indian languages will increase fast enough to document most of the surviving SA languages before they go out of use, as most of them unavoidably will. More work languishes in personal files than is published, but this is a standard problem.'' : ''It is fair to say that SA and [[New Guinea]] are linguistically the poorest documented parts of the world. However, in the early 1960s fairly systematic efforts were launched in [[Papua New Guinea]], and that area &mdash; much smaller than SA, to be sure &mdash; is in general much better documented than any part of indigenous SA of comparable size.'' As a result, many relationships between languages and language families have not been determined and some of those relationships that have been proposed are on somewhat shaky ground. The list of language families and isolates below is a rather conservative one based on Campbell (1997). Many of the proposed (and often speculative) groupings of families can be seen in Campbell (1997), Gordon (2005), Kaufman (1990, 1994), Key (1979), Loukotka (1968), and in the [[Indigenous languages of the Americas#Language stock proposals|Language stock proposals]] section below. # [[Aguano]] ''†'' # [[Aikaná]] ''(Brazil: Rondônia)'' <small>(also known as Aikanã, Tubarão)</small> # [[Andaquí]] <small>(also known as Andaqui, Andakí)</small> ''†'' # [[Andoque language|Andoque]] ''(Colombia, Peru)'' <small>(also known as Andoke)</small> # [[Andoquero]] ''†'' # [[Arauan languages|Arauan]] (9) ''†'' # [[Arutani-Sape languages|Arutani-Sape]] (2) <small>(also known as Arutani-sapé)</small> # [[Aushiri]] <small>(also known as Auxira)</small> # [[Aymaran languages|Aymaran]] (3) # [[Baenan language|Baenan]] ''(Brazil: Bahia)'' <small>(also known as Baenán, Baenã)</small> ''†'' # [[Barbacoan languages|Barbacoan]] (8) # [[Betoi]] ''(Colombia)'' <small>(also known as Betoy, Jirara)</small> ''†'' # [[Bororoan languages|Bororoan]] # [[Botocudoan languages|Botocudoan]] (3) <small>(also known as Aimoré)</small> # [[Cahuapanan languages|Cahuapanan]] (2) <small>(also known as Jebero, Kawapánan)</small> # [[Camsá]] ''(Colombia)'' <small>(also known as Sibundoy, Coche)</small> # [[Candoshi]] <small>(also known as Maina, Kandoshi)</small> # [[Canichana]] ''(Bolivia)'' <small>(also known as Canesi, Kanichana)</small> # [[Carabayo]] # [[Cariban languages|Cariban]] (29) <small>(also known as Caribe, Carib)</small> # [[Catacaoan languages|Catacaoan]] <small>(also known as Katakáoan)</small> ''†'' # [[Cayubaba language|Cayubaba]] ''(Bolivia)'' # [[Chapacura-Wanham languages|Chapacura-Wanham]] (9) <small>(also known as Chapacuran, Txapakúran)</small> # [[Charruan languages|Charruan]] <small>(also known as Charrúan)</small> ''†'' # [[Chibchan languages|Chibchan]] ([[Central America]] & [[South America]]) (22) # [[Chimuan languages|Chimuan]] (3) ''†'' # [[Chipaya-Uru languages]] <small>(also known as Uru-Chipaya)</small> # [[Chiquito-Borôro|Chiquitano]] # [[Choco languages|Choco]] (10) <small>(also known as Chocoan)</small> # [[Cholonan languages|Cholonan]] ''†'' # [[Chon languages|Chon]] (2) <small>(also known as Patagonian)</small> # [[Coeruna]] ''(Brazil)'' ''†'' # [[Cofán language|Cofán]] ''(Colombia, Ecuador)'' # [[Cueva language|Cueva]] # [[Culle language|Culle]] ''(Peru)'' <small>(also known as Culli, Linga, Kulyi)</small> # [[Cunza]] ''(Chile, Bolivia, Argentina)'' <small>(also known as Atacama, Atakama, Atacameño, Lipe, Kunsa)</small> ''†'' # [[Esmeraldeño]] <small>(also known as Esmeralda, Takame)</small> ''†'' # [[Fulnió]] # [[Gamela]] ''(Brazil: Maranhão)'' ''†'' # [[Gorgotoqui]] ''(Bolivia)'' ''†'' # [[Guaicuruan languages|Guaicuruan]] (7) <small>(also known as Guaykuruan, Waikurúan)</small> # [[Guajiboan languages|Guajiboan]] (4) <small>(also known as Wahívoan)</small> ''†'' # [[Guamo language|Guamo]] ''(Venezuela)'' <small>(also known as Wamo)</small> ''†'' # [[Guató]] # [[Harakmbut languages|Harakmbut]] (2) <small>(also known as Tuyoneri)</small> # [[Hoti]] ''(Venezuela)'' <small>(also known as Jotí, Hodi, Waruwaru)</small> # [[Huamoé]] ''(Brazil: Pernambuco)'' ''†'' # [[Huaorani language|Huaorani]] ''(Ecuador, Peru)'' <small>(also known as Auca, Huaorani, Wao, Auka, Sabela, Waorani, Waodani)</small> # [[Huarpe]] <small>(also known as Warpe)</small> ''†'' # [[Irantxe]] ''(Brazil: Mato Grosso)'' # [[Itonama language|Itonama]] ''(Bolivia)'' <small>(also known as Saramo, Machoto)</small> # [[Jirajaran languages|Jirajaran]] (3) <small>(also known as Hiraháran, Jirajarano, Jirajarana)</small> ''†'' # [[Jabutian languages|Jabutian]] # [[Je languages|Je]] (13) <small>(also known as Gê, Jêan, Gêan, Ye)</small> # [[Jeikó]] ''†'' # [[Jivaroan languages|Jivaroan]] (2) <small>(also known as Hívaro)</small> # [[Kaimbe]] # [[Kaliana]] <small>(also known as Caliana, Cariana, Sapé, Chirichano)</small> # [[Kamakanan languages|Kamakanan]] ''†'' # [[Kapixaná]] ''(Brazil: Rondônia)'' <small>(also known as Kanoé, Kapishaná)</small> # [[Karajá languages|Karajá]] # [[Karirí]] ''(Brazil: Paraíba, Pernambuco, Ceará) ''†'' # [[Katembrí]] ''†'' # [[Katukinan languages|Katukinan]] (3) <small>(also known as Catuquinan)</small> # [[Kawésqar language|Kawésqar]] ''(Chile)'' <small>(Kaweskar, Alacaluf, Qawasqar, Halawalip, Aksaná, Hekaine)</small> # [[Koihoma]] ''(Peru) ''†'' # [[Koayá]] ''(Brazil: Rondônia) ''†'' # [[Kukurá]] ''(Brazil: Mato Grosso)'' ''†'' # [[Leco language|Leco]] <small>(Lapalapa, Leko)</small> # [[Lule language|Lule]] ''(Argentina)'' <small>(also known as Tonocoté)</small> # [[Maipurean]] ([[South America]] & [[Caribbean]]) (64) <small>(also known as Maipuran, Arawakan, Arahuacan)</small> # [[Maku language]] <small>(also known as Macu)</small> # [[Malibú]] <small>(also known as Malibu)</small> # [[Mapudungu]] ''(Chile, Argentina)'' <small>(also known as Araucanian, Mapuche, Huilliche)</small> # [[Mascoyan languages|Mascoyan]] (5) <small>(also known as Maskóian, Mascoian)</small> # [[Matacoan languages|Matacoan]] (4) <small>(also known as Mataguayan)</small> # [[Matanawí]] ''†'' # [[Maxakalían languages|Maxakalían]] (3) <small>(also known as Mashakalían)</small> # [[Mocana]] ''(Colombia: Tubará)'' ''†'' # [[Mochita]] ''†'' # [[Mosetenan languages|Mosetenan]] <small>(also known as Mosetén)</small> # [[Movima]] ''(Bolivia)'' # [[Munichi]] ''(Peru)'' <small>(also known as Muniche)</small> # [[Muran languages|Muran]] (4) # [[Mutú]] <small>(also known as Loco)</small> # [[Muzo]] ''(Colombia)'' ''†'' # [[Nambiquaran languages|Nambiquaran]] (5) # [[Natú]] ''(Brazil: Pernambuco)'' ''†'' # [[Nonuya]] ''(Peru, Colombia)'' # [[Ofayé]] # [[Old Catío-Nutabe]] ''(Colombia)'' ''†'' # [[Omurano]] ''(Peru)'' <small>(also known as Mayna, Mumurana, Numurana, Maina, Rimachu, Roamaina, Umurano)</small> ''†'' # [[Otí]] ''(Brazil: São Paulo)'' ''†'' # [[Otomacoan languages|Otomacoan]] (2) ''†'' # [[Páez language|Paez]] (also known as Nasa Yuwe) # [[Pakarara]] ''†'' # [[Palta]] # [[Panche]] ''†'' # [[Pankararú language|Pankararú]] ''(Brazil: Pernambuco)'' ''†'' # [[Pano-Tacanan languages|Pano-Tacanan]] (33) # [[Pantagora]] ''†'' # [[Panzaleo]] ''(Ecuador)'' <small>(also known as Latacunga, Quito, Pansaleo)</small> # [[Patagón]] # [[Peba-Yaguan languages|Peba-Yaguan]] (2) <small>(also known as Yaguan, Yáwan, Peban)</small> ''†'' # [[Pijao]] # [[Puelche]] ''(Chile)'' <small>(also known as Guenaken, Gennaken, Pampa, Pehuenche, Ranquelche)</small> ''†'' # [[Puinavean languages|Puinavean]] (8) <small>(also known as Makú)</small> # [[Puquina]] ''(Bolivia)'' ''†'' # [[Purian languages|Purian]] (2) ''†'' # [[Quechuan languages|Quechuan]] (46) # [[Resígaro]] ''(Colombia-Peru border area)'' # [[Rikbaktsá]] # [[Saliban languages|Saliban]] (2) <small>(also known as Sálivan)</small> # [[Salumã]] ''(Brazil)'' # [[Sechura language]] <small>(Atalan, Sec)</small> ''†'' # [[Tairona]] ''(Colombia)'' ''†'' # [[Tarairiú]] ''(Brazil: Rio Grande do Norte)'' ''†'' # [[Taruma]] ''†'' # [[Taushiro]] ''(Peru)'' <small>(also known as Pinchi, Pinche)</small> # [[Tequiraca]] ''(Peru)'' <small>(also known as Tekiraka, Avishiri)</small> ''†'' # [[Teushen]] ''†'' ''(Patagonia, Argentina)'' # [[Ticuna]] ''(Colombia, Peru, Brazil)'' <small>(also known as Magta, Tikuna, Tucuna, Tukna, Tukuna)</small> # [[Timotean languages|Timotean]] (2) ''†'' # [[Tiniguan languages|Tiniguan]] (2) <small>(also known as Tiníwan, pamigua)</small> ''†'' # [[Tucanoan languages|Tucanoan]] (15) # [[Trumai]] ''(Brazil: Xingu, Mato Grosso)'' # [[Tupian languages|Tupian]] (70, including Guaraní) # [[Tuxá language|Tuxá]] ''(Brazil: Bahia, Pernambuco)'' ''†'' [[Image:Urarina shaman B Dean.jpg|thumb|right|Urarina [[shaman]], 1988]] # [[Urarina]] <small>(also known as Shimacu, Itukale, Shimaku)</small> # [[Vilela]] # [[Wakona]] ''†'' # [[Warao]] ''(Guyana, Surinam, Venezuela)'' <small>(also known as Guarao)</small> # [[Wayuu]] ''(Venezuela and Colombia)'' # [[Witotoan languages|Witotoan]] (6) <small>(also known as Huitotoan, Bora-Witótoan)</small> # [[Xokó]] ''(Brazil: Alagoas, Pernambuco)'' <small>(also known as Shokó)</small> ''†'' # [[Xukurú]] ''(Brazil: Pernambuco, Paraíba)'' ''†'' # [[Yaghan language|Yaghan]] ''(Chile)'' <small>(also known as Yámana)</small> # [[Yaruro]] <small>(also known as Jaruro)</small> # [[Yanomaman languages|Yanomaman]] (4) # [[Yuracare language|Yuracare]] ''(Bolivia)'' # [[Yuri language (South America)|Yuri]] ''(Colombia, Brazil)'' <small>(also known as Carabayo, Jurí)</small> ''†'' # [[Yurumanguí]] ''(Colombia)'' <small>(also known as Yurimangui, Yurimangi)</small> ''†'' # [[Zamucoan languages|Zamucoan]] (2) # [[Zaparoan languages|Zaparoan]] (5) <small>(also known as Záparo)</small> ===North America=== ====Mexico and Central America==== [[Image:Mapa de lenguas de México + 100 000.png|300px|thumb|Indigenous languages of Mexico]] {{see also|Mesoamerican languages}} # [[Alaguilac|Alagüilac]] ''(Guatemala)''''†'' # [[Algic languages|Algic]] ([[United States]], [[Canada]] & [[Mexico]]) (29) # [[Chibchan languages|Chibchan]] ([[Central America]] & [[South America]]) (22) # [[Coahuilteco]] ''†'' # [[Comecrudan languages|Comecrudan]] ([[Texas]] & [[Mexico]]) (3) ''†'' # [[Cotoname]] ''†'' # [[Cuitlatec language|Cuitlatec]] ''(Mexico: Guerrero)'' ''†'' # [[Guaicurian languages|Guaicurian]] (8) # [[Huetar]] ''(Costa Rica)'' # [[Huave]] # [[Jicaque]]an # [[Lencan languages|Lencan]] # [[Maratino]] ''(northeastern Mexico)'' # [[Mayan languages|Mayan]] (31) # [[Misumalpan languages|Misumalpan]] # [[Mixe-Zoquean languages|Mixe-Zoquean]] (19) # [[Na-Dené languages|Na-Dené]] ([[United States]], [[Canada]] & [[Mexico]]) (40) # [[Naolan]] ''(Mexico: Tamaulipas)'' # [[Oto-Manguean languages|Oto-Manguean]] (27) # [[P'urhépecha language|P'urhépecha]] # [[Quinigua]] ''(northeast Mexico)'' # [[Seri language|Seri]] # [[Solano language|Solano]] ''†'' # [[Tequistlatec]]an (3) # [[Totonacan languages|Totonacan]] (2) # [[Uto-Aztecan languages|Uto-Aztecan]] ([[United States]] & [[Mexico]]) (33) # [[Xincan languages|Xincan]] # [[Yuman-Cochimí languages|Yuman-Cochimí]] ([[United States]] & [[Mexico]]) (11) ====United States, Canada and Greenland==== [[Image:Langs N.Amer.png|thumb|300px|Pre-contact distribution of North American language families north of Mexico]] There are approximately 296 spoken (or formerly spoken) indigenous languages north of Mexico, 269 of which are grouped into 29 families (the remaining 27 languages are either isolates or unclassified). The [[Na-Dené]], [[Algic]], and [[Uto-Aztecan]] families are the largest in terms of number of languages. Uto-Aztecan has the most speakers (1.95 million) if the languages in Mexico are considered (mostly due to 1.5 million speakers of [[Nahuatl]]); Nadene comes in second with approximately 180,200 speakers (148,500 of these are speakers of [[Navajo language|Navajo]]). Na-Dené and Algic have the widest geographic distributions: Algic currently spans from northeastern Canada across much of the continent down to northeastern Mexico (due to later migrations of the [[Kickapoo]]) with two outliers in [[California]] ([[Yurok language|Yurok]] and [[Wiyot language|Wiyot]]); Na-Dené spans from Alaska and western [[Canada]] through [[Washington]], [[Oregon]], and California to the [[Southwestern United States|U.S. Southwest]] and northern Mexico (with one outlier in the Plains). Several families consist of only 2 or 3 languages. Demonstrating genetic relationships has proved difficult due to the great linguistic diversity present in North America. Two large (super-)family proposals, [[Penutian]] and [[Hokan]], look particularly promising. However, even after decades of research, a large number of families and isolates remain. North America is notable for its linguistic diversity, especially in California where it alone has 18 genetic units consisting of 74 languages (compare to the mere 3 genetic units in all of Europe: [[Basque language|Basque]], [[Indo-European languages|Indo-European]], [[Uralic languages|Uralic]]).<ref>If the [[Caucasus]] is considered to be a part of Europe, [[Northwest Caucasian languages|Northwest Caucasian]] and [[Northeast Caucasian languages|Northeast Caucasian]] would be included resulting in 5 language famillies within Europe. Other language families, such as the [[Turkic languages|Turkic]] family have entered Europe in later migrations.</ref> Another area of considerable diversity appears to have been the [[Southeastern United States|Southeast]]; however, many of these languages became extinct from European contact and as a result they are, for the most part, absent from the historical record. This diversity has been and continues to be very influential in the development of linguistic thought in the U.S. Due to the diversity of this area, it is difficult to make generalizations that adequately characterize the entire region. Most North American languages have a relatively small number of vowels (i.e. four or five vowels). Languages of the western half of North America often have relatively large consonant inventories. The languages of the [[Pacific Northwest]] are notable for their complex [[phonotactics]] (for example, some languages have words that lack [[vowel]]s entirely). The languages of the [[Interior Plateau|Plateau]] area have relatively rare [[pharyngeal consonant|pharyngeals]] and [[epiglottal consonant|epiglottals]] (they are otherwise restricted to [[Afro-Asiatic]] and [[Caucasian languages]]). [[Ejective consonant]]s are also common in North America, although they are rare elsewhere (except, again, for the [[Caucasus]] region, parts of Africa, and the [[Mayan languages|Mayan]] family). [[Head-marking]] is found in many languages of North America (as well as in Central and South America), but outside of the Americas it is rare. Many languages throughout North America are [[polysynthetic]] ([[Eskimo-Aleut]] languages are extreme examples), although this is not characteristic of all North American languages (contrary to what was believed by 19th-century linguists). Several families have unique traits, such as the [[Grammatical number#Inverse number|inverse number]] marking of [[Kiowa-Tanoan]], the lexical [[affix]]es of [[Wakashan]], [[Salishan]] and [[Chimakuan]], and the unusual verb structure of Nadene. The classification below is a composite of Goddard (1996), Campbell (1997), and Mithun (1999). # [[Adai]] ''†'' # [[Algic languages|Algic]] (30) # [[Alsean languages|Alsean]] (2) ''†'' # [[Atakapa language|Atakapa]] ''†'' # [[Beothuk language|Beothuk]] ''†'' # [[Caddoan languages|Caddoan]] (5) # [[Cayuse]] ''†'' # [[Chimakuan languages|Chimakuan]] (2) # [[Chimariko language|Chimariko]] ''†'' # [[Chinookan languages|Chinookan]] (3) # [[Chitimacha language|Chitimacha]] ''†'' # [[Chumashan languages|Chumashan]] (6) ''†'' # [[Coahuilteco]] ''†'' # [[Comecrudan languages|Comecrudan]] ([[United States]] & [[Mexico]]) (3) ''†'' # [[Coosan languages|Coosan]] (2) ''†'' # [[Cotoname]] ''†'' # [[Eskimo-Aleut languages|Eskimo-Aleut]] (7) # [[Esselen]] ''†'' # [[Haida language|Haida]] # [[Iroquoian languages|Iroquoian]] (11) # [[Kalapuyan]] (3) ''†'' # [[Karankawa]] ''†'' # [[Karuk language|Karuk]] # [[Keresan languages|Keresan]] (2) # [[Kiowa-Tanoan languages|Kiowa-Tanoan]] (7) # [[Kutenai language|Kutenai]] # [[Maiduan]] (4) # [[Muskogean languages|Muskogean]] (9) # [[Na-Dené languages|Na-Dené]] ([[United States]], [[Canada]] & [[Mexico]]) (39) # [[Natchez (people)|Natchez]] ''†'' # [[Palaihnihan]] (2) # [[Plateau Penutian languages|Plateau Penutian]] (4) <small>(also known as Shahapwailutan)</small> # [[Pomoan languages|Pomoan]] (7) # [[Salinan]] ''†'' # [[Salishan languages|Salishan]] (23) # [[Shastan languages|Shastan]] (4) ''†'' # [[Siouan-Catawban languages|Siouan-Catawban]] (19) # [[Siuslaw language|Siuslaw]] ''†'' # [[Solano language|Solano]] ''†'' # [[Takelma language|Takelma]] ''†'' # [[Timucua language|Timucua]] ''†'' # [[Tonkawa language|Tonkawa]] ''†'' # [[Tsimshianic]] (2) # [[Tunica (language)|Tunica]] ''†'' # [[Utian languages|Utian]] (15) <small>(also known as Miwok-Costanoan)</small> # [[Uto-Aztecan languages|Uto-Aztecan]] (33) # [[Wakashan languages|Wakashan]] (7) # [[Washo language|Washo]] # [[Wintuan languages|Wintuan]] (4) # [[Yana language|Yana]] ''†'' # [[Yokutsan]] (3) # [[Yuchi language|Yuchi]] # [[Yuki-Wappo]] (2) ''†'' <small>'''disputed'''</small> # [[Yuman-Cochimí languages|Yuman-Cochimí]] (11) # [[Zuni language|Zuni]] ==Language stock proposals==<!-- This section is linked from [[Indigenous languages of the Americas]] --> Many hypothetical language phylum proposals concerning American languages are often cited as uncontroversially demonstrated in more popular writings. However, many of these proposals have, in fact, not been fully demonstrated if even at all. Some proposals are viewed by specialists in a favorable light, believing that genetic relationships are very likely to be established in the future (for example, the [[Penutian languages|Penutian]] stock). Other proposals are more controversial with many linguists believing that some genetic relationships of a proposal may be demonstrated but much of it undemonstrated (for example, [[Hokan]], which, incidentally, [[Edward Sapir]] called his "wastepaper basket stock"). Still other proposals are almost unanimously rejected by specialists (for example, [[Amerind languages|Amerind]]). Below is a (partial) list of some such proposals: # [[Ahuaque-Kalianan]] # [[Algonkian-Gulf]] &nbsp; <small>''(= Algic + Beothuk + Gulf)''</small> # [[Algonquian-Wakashan]] &nbsp; <small>''(also known as Almosan)''</small> # [[Almosan-Keresiouan]] <small>''(= Almosan + Keresiouan)''</small> # [[Amerind languages|Amerind]] &nbsp; <small>''(= all languages excepting Eskimo-Aleut & Na-Dené)''</small> # (macro-)[[Arawakan]] # [[Aztec-Tanoan]] &nbsp; <small>''(= Uto-Aztecan + Kiowa-Tanoan)''</small> # [[Chibchan stock]] # [[Chibchan-Paezan]] # [[Chikitano-Boróroan]] # [[Coahuiltecan]] &nbsp; <small>''(= Coahuilteco + Cotoname + Comecrudan + Karankawa + Tonkawa)''</small> # [[Cunza-Kapixanan]] # [[Dené-Yeniseian languages|Dené-Yeniseian]] # [[Dené-Caucasian languages|Dené-Caucasian]] # [[Esmeralda-Yaruroan]] # [[Guamo-Chapacuran]] # [[Gulf languages|Gulf]] &nbsp; <small>''(= Muskogean + Natchez + Tunica)''</small> # [[Hokan]] &nbsp; <small>''(= Karok + Chimariko + Shastan + Palaihnihan + Yana + Pomoan + Washo + Esselen + Yuman-Cochimí + Salinan + Chumashan + Seri + Tequistlatecan)''</small> # [[Hokan-Siouan]] &nbsp; <small>''(= Hokan + Subtiaba-Tlappanec + Coahuiltecan + Yukian + Keresan + Tunican + Iroquoian + Caddoan + Siouan-Catawba + Yuchi + Natchez + Muskogean + Timucua)''</small> # [[Javaroan-Cahuapanan]] # [[Je-Tupi-Carib]] # [[Kalianan]] # [[Kaweskar language area]] # [[Keresiouan]] &nbsp; <small>''(= Keres + Siouan + Iroquoian + Caddoan + Yuchi)''</small> # [[Lule-Vilelan]] # [[Macro-Andean]] # [[Macro-Arawakan]] # [[Macro-Carib]] # [[Macro-Gê]] (also known as Macro-Jê) # [[Macro-Katembrí-Taruma]] # [[Macro-Kulyi-Cholónan]] # [[Macro-Lekoan]] # [[Macro-Mayan]] # [[Macro-Otomákoan]] # [[Macro-Paesan]] # [[Macro-Panoan]] # [[Macro-Puinávean]] # [[Macro-Siouan languages|Macro-Siouan]] &nbsp; <small>''(= Siouan + Iroquoian + Caddoan)''</small> # [[Macro-Tekiraka-Kanichana]] # [[Macro-Tucanoan]] # [[Macro-Tupí-Karibe]] # [[Macro-Waikurúan]] # [[Macro-Warpean]] # [[Mosan]] &nbsp; <small>''(= Salishan + Wakashan + Chimakuan)''</small> # [[Mosetén-Chonan]] # [[Mura-Matanawian]] # Sapir's [[Na-Dené languages|Na-Dené]] including [[Haida]] &nbsp; <small>''(= Haida + Tlingit + Eyak + Athabaskan)''</small> # [[Nostratic-Amerind]] # [[Paezan]] <small>''(= Andaqui + Paez + Panzaleo)''</small> # [[Paezan-Barbacoan]] # [[Penutian languages|Penutian]] &nbsp; <small>''(= many languages of California and sometimes languages in Mexico)''</small> ## California Penutian &nbsp; <small>''(= Wintuan + Maiduan + Yokutsan + Utian)''</small> ## [[Oregon Penutian languages|Oregon Penutian]] &nbsp; <small>''(= Takelma + Coosan + Siuslaw + Alsean)''</small> ## Mexican Penutian &nbsp; <small>''(= Mixe-Zoque + Huave)''</small> # [[Quechumaran]] # [[Takelman]] &nbsp; <small>''(= Takelma + Kalapuyan)''</small> # [[Tunican]] &nbsp; <small>''(= Tunica + Atakapa + Chitimacha)''</small> # [[Yok-Utian]] # [[Yuri-Ticunan]] # [[Zaparoan-Yaguan]] Good discussions of past proposals are found in Campbell (1997) and Campbell & Mithun (1979). {{Sectstub|date=May 2008}} ==[[Pidgin]]s, [[mixed language]]s, & trade languages== # [[American Indian Pidgin English]] # [[Basque-Algonquian Pidgin]] <small>(also known as Micmac-Basque Pidgin, Souriquois)</small> # [[Broken Oghibbeway]] <small>(also known as Broken Ojibwa)</small> # [[Broken Slavey]] # [[Bungee language|Bungee]] <small>(also known as Bungi, Bungie, Bungay, or The Red River Dialect))</small> # [[Callahuaya language|Callahuaya]] <small>(also known as Machaj-Juyai, [[Kallawaya language|Kallawaya]], Collahuaya, Pohena, Kolyawaya jargon)</small> # [[Carib Pidgin]] <small>(also known as Ndjuka-Amerindian Pidgin, Ndjuka-Trio)</small> # [[Carib Pidgin-Arawak Mixed Language]] # [[Catalangu]] # [[Chinook Jargon]] # [[Delaware Jargon]] <small>(also known as Pidgin Delaware)</small> # [[Eskimo Trade Jargon]] <small>(also known as Herschel Island Eskimo Pidgin, Ship's Jargon)</small> # [[Greenlandic Eskimo Pidgin]] # [[Guajiro-Spanish]] # [[Güegüence-Nicarao]] # [[Haida Jargon]] # [[Hudson Strait Pidgin]] # [[Inuktitut-English Pidgin]] # [[Jargonized Powhatan]] # [[Kutenai Jargon]] # [[Labrador Eskimo Pidgin]] <small>(also known as Labrador Inuit Pidgin)</small> # [[Lingua Franca Apalachee]] # [[Lingua Franca Creek]] # [[Lingua Geral Amazônica]] <small>(also known as Nheengatú, Lingua Boa, Lingua Brasílica, Lingua Geral do Norte)</small> # [[Lingua Geral do Sul]] <small>(also known as Lingua Geral Paulista, Tupí Austral)</small> # [[Loucheux Jargon]] <small>(also known as Jargon Loucheux)</small> # [[Media Lengua]] # [[Mednyj Aleut]] <small>(also known as Copper Island Aleut, Medniy Aleut, CIA)</small> # [[Michif]] <small>(also known as French Cree, Métis, Metchif, Mitchif, Métchif)</small> # [[Mobilian Jargon]] <small>(also known as Mobilian Trade Jargon, Chickasaw-Chocaw Trade Language, Yamá)</small> # [[Montagnais Pidgin Basque]] <small>(also known as Pidgin Basque-Montagnais)</small> # [[Nootka Jargon]] # [[Ocaneechi]] # [[Pidgin Massachusett]] # [[Plains Indian Sign Language]] ==Unattested languages== Several languages are only known by mention in historical documents or from only a few names or words. It cannot be determined that these languages actually existed or that the few recorded words are actually of known or unknown languages. Some may simply be from a historian's errors. Others are of known people with no linguistic record (sometimes due to lost records). A short list is below. {| | valign="top" width="60%" | * [[Ais (tribe)|Ais]] * [[Akokisa]] * [[Aksana]] <small>(Akasanas, Kaueskar)</small> * [[Aramana]] * [[Ausaima]] * [[Avoyel]] * [[Bayogoula]] * [[Bidai]] * [[Cacán]] ([[Diaguita]]-[[Calchaquí]]) * [[Calusa]] * [[Chome (tribe)|Chome]] * [[Cusabo]] * [[Eyeish]] * [[Grigra]] * [[Guale]] | valign="top" | * [[Houma Tribe|Houma]] * [[Koroa]] * [[Manek'enk]] ([[Haush]]) * [[Mobila]] * [[Okelousa]] * [[Opelousa]] * [[Pascagoula]] * [[Pensacola (tribe)|Pensacola]] * [[Quinipissa]] * [[Taensa]] * [[Tequesta]] * [[Tiou]] * [[Yamacraw]] * [[Yamasee]] * [[Yazoo language|Yazoo]] |} Loukotka (1968) reports the names of hundreds of South American languages which do not have any linguistic documentation. ==Linguistic areas== The languages of the Americas often can be grouped together into ''linguistic areas'' or ''[[Sprachbund]]s'' (also known as ''convergence areas''). The linguistic areas identified so far deserve more research to determine their validity. Knowing about Sprachbunds help historical linguists differentiate between shared areal traits and true genetic relationship. The pioneering work on American areal linguistics was a dissertation by Joel Sherzer which was published as Sherzer (1976). The following tentative list of linguistic areas is based on primarily Campbell (1997): * [[:Category:Northern Northwest Coast Sprachbund (North America)|Northern Northwest Coast]] * [[:Category:Northwest Coast Sprachbund (North America)|Northwest Coast]] * [[Plateau linguistic area|Plateau]] * [[Northern California linguistic area|Northern California]] * [[Clear Lake linguistic area|Clear Lake]] * [[South Coast Range linguistic area|South Coast Range]] * [[Southern California-Western Arizona linguistic area|Southern California-Western Arizona]] * [[Great Basin linguistic area|Great Basin]] * [[Pueblo linguistic area|Pueblo]] * [[Plains linguistic area|Plains]] * [[Northeast linguistic area|Northeast]] * [[Southeast linguistic area|Southeast]] * [[Mesoamerican Linguistic Area|Mesoamerican]] * [[Colombian-Central American linguistic area|Colombian-Central American]] * [[Venezuelan-Antillean linguistic area|Venezuelan-Antillean]] * [[Andean linguistic area|Andean]] ** [[Ecuadoran-Colombian]] (subarea) * [[Orinoco-Amazon]] * [[Amazonas linguistic area|Amazonas]] (also known as Amazonia) * [[Lowland South America linguistic area|Lowland South America]] * [[Southern Cone#Language|Southern Cone]] ==Notes== {{reflist}} ==See also== * [[Classification schemes for indigenous languages of the Americas]] * [[Mesoamerican languages]] * [[Language families and languages]] * [[Classification of indigenous peoples of the Americas]] * [[Indigenous peoples of the Americas]] * [[:Category:Indigenous languages of the Americas]] <small>(division into geocultural areas) </small> * [[List of indigenous languages in Argentina]] * [[Languages of Peru]] * [http://wiki.debian.org/I18n/NorthAmericanIndigenousLanguages Debian North American Indigenous Languages Project] ==Bibliography== * Bright, William. (1984). The classification of North American and Meso-American Indian languages. In W. Bright (Ed.), ''American Indian linguistics and literature'' (pp. 3-29). Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter. * Bright, William (Ed.). (1984). ''American Indian linguistics and literature''. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter. ISBN 3-11-009846-6. * Brinton, Daniel G. (1891). ''The American race''. New York: D. C. Hodges. * Campbell, Lyle. (1997). ''American Indian languages: The historical linguistics of Native America''. New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-509427-1. * Campbell, Lyle; & Mithun, Marianne (Eds.). (1979). ''The languages of native America: Historical and comparative assessment''. Austin: University of Texas Press. * Gordon, Raymond G., Jr. (Ed.). (2005). ''Ethnologue: Languages of the world'' (15th ed.). Dallas, TX: SIL International. ISBN 1-55671-159-X. (Online version: http://www.ethnologue.com). ===South America=== * Adelaar, Willem F. H.; & Muysken, Pieter C. (2004). ''The languages of the Andes''. Cambridge language surveys. Cambridge University Press. * Kaufman, Terrence. (1990). Language history in South America: What we know and how to know more. In D. L. Payne (Ed.), ''Amazonian linguistics: Studies in lowland South American languages'' (pp. 13-67). Austin: University of Texas Press. ISBN 0-292-70414-3. * Kaufman, Terrence. (1994). The native languages of South America. In C. Mosley & R. E. Asher (Eds.), ''Atlas of the world's languages'' (pp. 46-76). London: Routledge. * Key, Mary R. (1979). ''The grouping of South American languages''. Tübingen: Gunter Narr Verlag. * Loukotka, Čestmír. (1968). ''Classification of South American Indian languages''. Los Angeles: Latin American Studies Center, University of California. * Mason, J. Alden. (1950). The languages of South America. In J. Steward (Ed.), ''Handbook of South American Indians'' (Vol. 6, pp. 157-317). Smithsonian Institution Bureau of American Ethnology bulletin (No. 143). Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office. * Migliazza, Ernest C.; & Campbell, Lyle. (1988). ''Panorama general de las lenguas indígenas en América''. Historia general de América (Vol. 10). Caracas: Instituto Panamericano de Geografía e Historia. * Rodrigues, Aryon. (1986). ''Linguas brasileiras: Para o conhecimento das linguas indígenas''. São Paulo: Edições Loyola. * Rowe, John H. (1954). Linguistics classification problems in South America. In M. B. Emeneau (Ed.), ''Papers from the symposium on American Indian linguistics'' (pp. 10-26). University of California publications in linguistics (Vol. 10). Berkeley: University of California Press. * Sapir, Edward. (1929). Central and North American languages. In ''The encyclopædia britannica: A new survey of universal knowledge'' (14 ed.) (Vol. 5, pp. 138-141). London: The Encyclopædia Britannica Company, Ltd. * Voegelin, Carl F.; & Voegelin, Florence M. (1977). ''Classification and index of the world's languages''. Amsterdam: Elsevier. ISBN 0-444-00155-7. ===North America=== * Boas, Franz. (1911). ''Handbook of American Indian languages'' (Vol. 1). Bureau of American Ethnology, Bulletin 40. Washington: Government Print Office (Smithsonian Institution, Bureau of American Ethnology). * Boas, Franz. (1922). ''Handbook of American Indian languages'' (Vol. 2). Bureau of American Ethnology, Bulletin 40. Washington: Government Print Office (Smithsonian Institution, Bureau of American Ethnology). * Boas, Franz. (1929). Classification of American Indian languages. ''Language'', ''5'', 1-7. * Boas, Franz. (1933). ''Handbook of American Indian languages'' (Vol. 3). Native American legal materials collection, title 1227. Glückstadt: J.J. Augustin. * Bright, William. (1973). North American Indian language contact. In T. A. Sebeok (Ed.), ''Linguistics in North America'' (part 1, pp. 713-726). Current trends in linguistics (Vol. 10). The Hauge: Mouton. * Goddard, Ives (Ed.). (1996). ''Languages''. Handbook of North American Indians (W. C. Sturtevant, General Ed.) (Vol. 17). Washington, D. C.: Smithsonian Institution. ISBN 0-16-048774-9. * Goddard, Ives. (1999). ''Native languages and language families of North America'' (rev. and enlarged ed. with additions and corrections). [Map]. Lincoln, NE: University of Nebraska Press (Smithsonian Institute). (Updated version of the map in Goddard 1996). ISBN 0-8032-9271-6. * Goddard, Ives. (2005). The indigenous languages of the southeast. ''Anthropological Linguistics'', ''47'' (1), 1-60. * Mithun, Marianne. (1999). ''The languages of Native North America''. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-23228-7 (hbk); ISBN 0-521-29875-X. * Powell, John W. (1891). Indian linguistic families of America north of Mexico. Seventh annual report, Bureau of American Ethnology (pp. 1-142). Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office. (Reprinted in P. Holder (Ed.), 1966, ''Introduction to Handbook of American Indian languages by Franz Boas and Indian linguistic families of America, north of Mexico, by J. W. Powell'', Lincoln: University of Nebraska). * Powell, John W. (1915). ''Linguistic families of American Indians north of Mexico by J. W. Powell, revised by members of the staff of the Bureau of American Ethnology''. (Map). Bureau of American Ethnology miscellaneous publication (No. 11). Baltimore: Hoen. * Sebeok, Thomas A. (Ed.). (1973). ''Linguistics in North America'' (parts 1 & 2). Current trends in linguistics (Vol. 10). The Hauge: Mouton. (Reprinted as Sebeok 1976). * Sebeok, Thomas A. (Ed.). (1976). ''Native languages of the Americas''. New York: Plenum. * Sherzer, Joel. (1973). Areal linguistics in North America. In T. A. Sebeok (Ed.), ''Linguistics in North America'' (part 2, pp. 749-795). Current trends in linguistics (Vol. 10). The Hauge: Mouton. (Reprinted in Sebeok 1976). * Sherzer, Joel. (1976). ''An areal-typological study of American Indian languages north of Mexico''. Amsterdam: North-Holland. * Sletcher, Michael, ‘North American Indians’, in Will Kaufman and Heidi Macpherson, eds., ''Britain and the Americas: Culture, Politics, and History'', (2 vols., Oxford, 2005). * Sturtevant, William C. (Ed.). (1978-present). ''Handbook of North American Indians'' (Vol. 1-20). Washington, D. C.: Smithsonian Institution. (Vols. 1-3, 16, 18-20 not yet published). * Vaas, Rüdiger: ‘Die Sprachen der Ureinwohner’. In: Stoll, Günter, Vaas, Rüdiger: ''Spurensuche im Indianerland.'' Hirzel. Stuttgart 2001, chapter 7. * Voegelin, Carl F.; & Voegelin, Florence M. (1965). Classification of American Indian languages. ''Languages of the world'', Native American fasc. 2, sec. 1.6). ''Anthropological Linguistics'', ''7'' (7): 121-150. * Zededa, Ofelia; Hill, Jane H. (1991). The condition of Native American Languages in the United States. In R. H. Robins & E. M. Uhlenbeck (Eds.), ''Endangered languages'' (pp. 135-155). Oxford: Berg. ==External links== * [http://www.colmex.mx/alim/ Archivo de Lenguas Indígenas de México] (El Colegio de México) * [http://www.athenapub.com/salang1.htm South American Languages] * [http://www.yourdictionary.com/elr/natlang.html How many indigenous American languages are spoken in the United States? By how many speakers?] * [http://www.sil.org/mexico/museo/0i-Index.htm Virtual museum of the indigineous languages of Mexico] * [http://www.proel.org/ Promotora Española de Lingüística] (Proel) * [http://www.uni-lueneburg.de/fb3/suk/akpam/ Documentation Center of the Linguistic Minorities of Panama] ** [http://www.uni-lueneburg.de/fb3/suk/akpam/sprache_und_stimmen/13-7-05en.html Linguistic map] (DCLMP) * [http://www.ailla.utexas.org/site/welcome.html The Archive of the Indigenous Languages of Latin America] * [http://www.yvwiiusdinvnohii.net/language.html First People's Language Resources] (Online, Offline, Commercial & Non-Commercial) *[http://www.ilinative.org/ Indigenous Language Institute] * [http://www.ssila.org/ The Society for the Study of the Indigenous Languages of the Americas] (SSILA) * [http://www.ydli.org/ydindex.htm The Yinka Déné Language Institute] (YDLI) * [http://www.ydli.org/fnlgsbc.htm The First Nations Languages of British Columbia] (YDLI) ** [http://www.ydli.org/synindex.htm Index of Variant Language Names <small>(in British Columbia)</small>] (YDLI) * [http://soda.sou.edu/tribal.html Southern Oregon Digital Archives First Nations Tribal Collection] (beautiful collection of ethnographic, linguistic, & historical material) * [http://www.nmnh.si.edu/anthro/handbook.htm Handbook of the North American Indians] * [http://stripe.colorado.edu/~linguist/cesnalps.html Center for the Study of the Native Languages of the Plains and Southwest] * [http://www.albany.edu/anthro/maldp/ Project for the Documentation of the Languages of Mesoamerica] * [http://www.proeibandes.org/ Programa de Formación en Educación Intercultural Bilingüe para los Países Andinos] * [http://www.yukoncollege.yk.ca/ynlc/ Yukon Native Language Centre] * [http://www.mip.berkeley.edu/cilc/bibs/toc.html Bibliographies of Northern and Central California Indians] * [http://nas.ucdavis.edu/NALC/home.html Native American Language Center] (University of California at Davis) * Map of languages in the US - William C. Sturtevant. (1967). ''Early Indian tribes, culture areas, and linguistic stocks''.: ** [http://www.lib.utexas.edu/maps/united_states/early_indian_alaska.jpg Alaska & Hawai‘i] ** [http://www.lib.utexas.edu/maps/united_states/early_indian_west.jpg Western US] ** [http://www.lib.utexas.edu/maps/united_states/early_indian_east.jpg Eastern US] * [http://www.native-languages.org/ Native Languages of the Americas] * [http://www.journals.uchicago.edu/IJAL/home.html International Journal of American Linguistics] (one of the best scholarly journals devoted mostly to Native American linguistics) * [http://www.sicc.sk.ca/heritage/sils/ourlanguages/index.html Our Languages] (Saskatchewan Indian Cultural Centre) * [http://www.etnolinguistica.org Etnolinguistica.Org: a discussion list on native South American languages] * [http://www.kansasheritage.org/PBP/homepage.html Potawatomi Language Project] Kansas Humanities Council * [http://paginas.terra.com.br/educacao/GICLI/ListasEnglish.htm Swadesh Lists of Brazilian Native Languages] {{North America in topic|Languages of}} {{Languages of South America}} {{IndigPeopleAmericas nav}} {{Languages by continent}} [[Category:Indigenous languages of the Americas| ]] [[an:Luengas amerindias]] [[gn:Amérika ñe'ẽme]] [[ay:Amërika aru]] [[ca:Llengües ameríndies]] [[cs:Indiánské jazyky]] [[cy:Ieithoedd brodorol yr Amerig]] [[da:Indianersprog]] [[de:Indigene amerikanische Sprachen]] [[es:Lenguas indígenas de América]] [[eo:Indianaj lingvaroj]] [[fr:Langues amérindiennes]] [[hr:Indijanski jezici]] [[lt:Indėnų kalbos]] [[hu:Amerikai indián nyelvek]] [[mk:Индијански јазици]] [[ja:アメリカ・インディアン諸語]] [[pl:Języki autochtoniczne Ameryk]] [[pt:Línguas indígenas das Américas]] [[ru:Индейские языки Южной Америки]] [[sk:Indiánske jazyky]] [[sv:Indianspråk]] [[zh:美洲原住民語言]]