Indus River 15490 225431884 2008-07-13T17:42:18Z Gwernol 266416 Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/210.2.149.158|210.2.149.158]] ([[User talk:210.2.149.158|talk]]) to last version by R.steenhard {{about|the Indus River|other uses of "Indus"|Indus (disambiguation)}} {{Geobox River <!-- *** Name section *** --> |name = Indus |native_name = |other_name = Sindh |other_name1 = Sindhu |other_name2 = Hindu |other_name3 = Abasin |other_name4 = Sengge Chu |other_name5 = Yìndù <!-- *** Image *** ---> |image = Indus.A2002274.0610.1km.jpg |image_size = |image_caption = Satellite image of the Indus River basin. <!-- *** Country etc. *** --> |country = Pakistan |state = [[Punjab (Pakistan)|Punjab]] |state1 = Jammu and Kashmir |state2 = Sindh |region = |region1 = |district = |district1 = |city = |city1 = <!-- *** Geography *** --> |length = 3200 |length_round = -2 |length_note = approx. |watershed = 1165000 |watershed_round = -4 |watershed_note = approx. |discharge_location = Arabian Sea |discharge = 6600 |discharge_round = -4 |discharge_note = approx. |discharge_max = |discharge_min = |discharge1_location = |discharge1 = <!-- *** Source *** --> |source_name = Confluence of the Sengge and Gar rivers |source_location = Tibetan Plateau |source_district = |source_region = |source_state = Tibet |source_country = China |source_lat_d = |source_lat_m = |source_lat_s = |source_lat_NS = |source_long_d = |source_long_m = |source_long_s = |source_long_EW = |source_elevation = |source_length = <!-- *** Mouth *** --> |mouth_name = Sapta Sindhu |mouth_location = Sindh |mouth_district = |mouth_region = |mouth_state = |mouth_country = Pakistan |mouth_lat_d = |mouth_lat_m = |mouth_lat_s = |mouth_lat_NS = |mouth_long_d = |mouth_long_m = |mouth_long_s = |mouth_long_EW = |mouth_elevation = 0 <!-- *** Tributaries *** --> |tributary_left = |tributary_left1 = |tributary_right = |tributary_right1 = <!-- *** Free fields *** --> |free_name = |free_value = <!-- *** Map sea *** --> |map = |map_size = |map_caption = }} The '''Indus River''' {[[Hindi]] and [[Sanskrit]]: सिन्धु '''''Sindhu'''''; [[Urdu]]: {{lang|urd|{{Nastaliq|سندھ}}}} '''''Sindh'''''; [[Sindhi language|Sindhi]]: {{lang|snd|سندھو}} '''''Sindhu'''''; [[Punjabi language|Punjabi]] (Shahmukhi: سندھ, Gurmukhi: ਸਿੰਧੂ) '''''{{IAST|Sindhu}}'''''; [[Persian language|Persian]]: '''{{lang|fas|Hindu}}'''حندو ; [[Pashto language|Pashto]]: '''{{lang|pus|Abasin}}''' ّآباسن"''Father of Rivers''"; [[Tibetan language|Tibetan]]: '''{{lang|tib|Sengge Chu}}''' "''Lion River''"; [[Chinese language|Chinese]]: {{lang|zh|印度}} '''''Yìndù'''''; [[Greek language|Greek]]: Ινδός '''''Indos'''''} is the longest and most important [[river]] and often considered the ''life-line'' of [[Pakistan]]. It is the longest river and the third largest river, in terms of annual flow, in the [[Indian subcontinent]]. The [[Europeans]] used the name "India" for the entire subcontinent based on the appellation of this river. Originating in the [[Tibetan Plateau|Tibetan plateau]] in the vicinity of [[Lake Mansarovar]], the river runs a course through [[Ladakh]] district of [[Jammu and Kashmir]] and [[Northern Areas (Pakistan)|Northern Areas]], flowing through the [[Northern Pakistan|North]] in a southerly direction along the entire length of the country, to merge into the [[Arabian Sea]] near Pakistan's port city [[Karachi]]. The total length of the river is 3,180 kilometres (1,976 miles). The river has a total drainage area exceeding 1,165,000 square kilometres (450,000 square miles). The river's estimated annual flow stands at around 207 cubic kilometres. Beginning at the heights of the world with [[glaciers]], the river feeds the [[ecosystem]] of temperate forests, [[plains]] and arid countryside. Together with the rivers [[Chenab]], [[Ravi River|Ravi]], [[Sutlej]], [[Jhelum River|Jhelum]], [[Beas River|Beas]] and the extinct [[Sarasvati River]], the Indus forms the ''[[Sapta Sindhu]]'' ("Seven Rivers") [[Indus River Delta|delta]] in the [[Sindh]] province of Pakistan. It has 20 major tributaries. The Indus provides the key water resources for the [[economy of Pakistan]] - especially the ''breadbasket'' of [[Punjab (Pakistan)|Punjab province]], which accounts for most of the nation's agricultural production, and [[Sindh]]. The word "Punjab" is a combination of the [[Persian language|Persian]] words 'panj' (پنج) ''Five'', and 'āb' (آب) ''Water'', giving the literal meaning of the ''Land of the Five Rivers''. The five rivers after which Punjab is named are the [[Beas River|Beas]], [[Jhelum River|Jhelum]], [[Chenab River|Chenab]], [[Ravi River|Ravi]] and [[Sutlej River|Sutlej]]. The river also supports many heavy industries and provides the main supply of [[potable water]] in Pakistan. The ultimate source of the Indus is in [[Tibet]]; it begins at the confluence of the Sengge and Gar rivers that drain the Nganglong Kangri and Gangdise Shan mountain ranges. The Indus then flows northwest through [[Ladakh]] and [[Baltistan]] into [[Gilgit River|Gilgit]], just south of the [[Karakoram]] range. The Shyok, Shigar and Gilgit streams carry glacial waters into the main river. It gradually bends to the south, coming out of the hills between [[Peshawar]] and [[Rawalpindi]]. The Indus passes gigantic gorges 4,500-5,200 metres (15,000-17,000 feet) high near the [[Nanga Parbat]] [[massif]]. It flows swiftly across Hazara, and is dammed at the Tarbela Reservoir. The [[Kabul River]] joins it near [[Attock]]. The remainder of its route to the sea is in plains of the [[Punjab region|Punjab]] and [[Sindh]], and the river becomes slow-flowing and highly braided. It is joined by [[Panjnad River]] at [[Mithankot]]. Beyond this confluence, the river, at one time, was named '''Satnad River''' (''sat'' = seven, ''nadi'' = river), as the river was now carrying the waters of Kabul River, Indus River and the five Punjab rivers. Passing by [[Jamshoro]], it ends in a large delta to the east of [[Thatta]]. The Indus is one of the few rivers in the world that exhibit a [[tidal bore]]. The Indus system is largely fed by the snows and glaciers of the Karakoram, [[Hindu Kush]] and Himalayan ranges of Tibet, Kashmir and [[Northern Areas]] of [[Pakistan]]. The flow of the river is also determined by the seasons - it diminishes greatly in the winter, while flooding its banks in the [[monsoon]] months from July to September. There is also evidence of a steady shift in the course of the river since prehistoric times - it deviated westwards from flowing into the [[Rann of Kutch]]. ==History== [[Image:Map of Vedic India.png|thumb|200px|The position of the Sindhu River in [[Vedic period]] of South Asia.]] [[Image:Indus sites.png|thumb|200px|Indus Valley archaeological sites in Pakistan.]] {{Main|Indus Valley Civilization|History of Sindh|History of Punjab}} [[Paleolithic]] sites have been discovered in [[Pothohar]] near Pakistan' s capital Islamabad, with the stone tools of the [[Soan Culture]]. In ancient [[Gandhara]] (Near the Pakistani capital of Islamabad), evidence of cave dwellers dated 15,000 years ago has been discovered at [[Mardan]]. The major cities of the [[Indus Valley Civilization]], such as [[Harappa]] and [[Mohenjo-daro]], date back to around 3300 BC, and represent some of the largest human habitations of the ancient world. The Indus Valley Civilization extended from [[Balochistan (region)|Balochistan]] to [[Gujarat]], with an upward reach from east of [[Jhelum River]] to [[Ropar]] on the upper [[Sutlej]]. The coastal settlements extended from [[Sutkagan Dor]] at the [[Iran]]ian border to [[Lothal]] in [[Gujarat]]. There is an Indus site on the [[Oxus]] river at Shortughai in northern [[Afghanistan]] (Kenoyer 1998:96), and the Indus site Alamgirpur at the Hindon River is located only 28 km from [[Delhi]] (S.P. Gupta 1995:183). To date, over 1,052 cities and settlements have been found, mainly in the general region of the [[Ghaggar-Hakra River]] and its tributaries. Among the settlements were the major urban centers of [[Harappa]] and [[Mohenjo-daro]], as well as [[Lothal]], [[Dholavira]], [[Ganeriwala]], and [[Rakhigarhi]]. Only 90-96 of the over-800 known Indus Valley sites have been discovered on the Indus and its tributaries. The [[Sutlej]], now a tributary of the Indus, in Harappan times flowed into the [[Ghaggar-Hakra River]], in the watershed of which were more Harappan sites than along the Indus (S.P. Gupta 1995: 183). Most scholars believe that settlements of [[Gandhara grave culture]] of the early [[Indo-Aryans]] flourished in [[Gandhara]] from 1700 BC to 600 BC, when [[Mohenjo-daro]] and [[Harappa]] had already been abandoned. The name ''Indus'' is a Latinization of ''Hindu'', in turn the [[Iranian languages|Iranian]] variant of ''Sindhu'', the name of the Indus in the [[Rigveda]]. [[Sanskrit]] ''Sindhu'' generically means "river, stream, ocean", probably from a root ''sidh'' "to keep off"; ''sindhu'' is attested 176 times in the Rigveda, 95 times in the plural, more often used in the generic meaning. Already in the Rigveda, notably in the later hymns, the meaning of the word is narrowed to refer to the Indus river in particular, for example in the list of rivers of the [[Nadistuti sukta]]. This resulted in the anomaly of a river with masculine gender: all other [[Rigvedic rivers]] are female, not just grammatically, being imagined as [[river goddess|goddesses]] and compared to cows and mares yielding milk and butter. The Indus has formed a natural boundary between the [[Indian Subcontinent]] hinterland and its frontier with Afghanistan and [[Iran]]. It has been crossed by the armies of [[Alexander the Great]] - His [[Macedonian]] forces retreated along the southern course of the river at the end of the Asian campaign after conquering Pakistan and joining it to the Hellenic Empire. The Indus plains have also been under the domination of the [[Persian empire]] and the [[Kushan empire]]. The [[Muslim]] armies of [[Muhammad bin Qasim]], [[Mahmud of Ghazni]] and [[Babur]] also crossed the river to strike into the inner regions of [[Gujarat]], [[Punjab region|Punjab]] and [[Rajasthan]]. It is due to this diverse history that gave the modern day country of [[Pakistan]] its uniqueness and clearly distinguishes it from the rest of South Asia and Asia for that matter. The word [[Etymology of India|"India"]] is a reference to the Indus River. In ancient times, India referred to the region of modern day Pakistan along the Indus river which traded extensively with the ancient world. It was only after the arrival of the British in the 16th century that name began to be applied to the entire region. Incidentally, Pakistan's founding father, Mohammed Ali Jinnah was quite surprised to learn that upon the departure of Britain from the region, that its new neighbour to the east was going to retain the name India as the country's official name. {{Fact|date=May 2008}}. ==Geography== [[Image:IndusZanskar.jpg|thumb|200px|Confluence of Indus and Zanskar rivers, [[Ladakh]], [[Jammu and Kashmir]].]] ===Tributaries=== <table><tr><td valign=top> * [[Astor River]] * [[Beas River]] * [[Chenab River]] * [[Gar River]] * [[Ghizar River]] * [[Gilgit River]] * [[Gumal River]] </td><td valign=top> </td><td valign=top> * [[Hunza River]] * [[Jhelum River]] * [[Kabul River]] * [[Kunar River]] * [[Ravi River]] * [[Shigar River]] * [[Shingo River]] </td><td valign=top> </td><td valign=top> * [[Shyok River]] * [[Suru River (Indus)|Suru River]] * [[Sutlej River]] * [[Swaan River]] * [[Zhob River]] * [[Balram River]] </td></tr></table> ==Geology== <!-- Image with unknown copyright status removed: [[Image:IndusMap.jpg|thumb|200px|Map showing the change experienced in the drainage of the Indus River after five million years ago when the tributaries of the Indus flowing from the Punjab were captured from the Ganges.]] --> The Indus River feeds the Indus submarine fan located in the [[Arabian Sea]], which is the second largest sediment body on the Earth at around 5 million cubic kilometres of material eroded from the mountains. Studies of the sediment in the modern river indicate that the [[Karakoram|Karakoram Mountains]] in northern Pakistan are the single most important source of material, with the Himalayas providing the next largest contribution, mostly via the large rivers of the Punjab (i.e., the [[Jhelum River|Jhelum]], [[Ravi]], [[Chenab]], [[Beas]] and the [[Sutlej]]). Analysis of sediments from the Arabian Sea by marine geologists [[Peter Clift]] and Jerzy Blusztajn has demonstrated that prior to five million years ago the Indus was not connected to these Punjab rivers which instead flowed east into the [[Ganges]] and were captured after that time. Earlier work, also by Peter Clift, showed that sand and silt from western Tibet was reaching the Arabian Sea by 45 million years ago, implying the existence of an ancient Indus River by that time. The delta of this proto-Indus river has subsequently been found in the Katawaz Basin, on the Afghan-Pakistan border. Most recently the Indus was paralleled by the ancient [[Saraswati River]], which the [[Rigveda]] suggests flowed from the [[Himalayas]] between the [[Sutlej]] and the [[Yamuna]] Rivers, close to modern day [[Chandigarh]]. Reportedly the [[Saraswati River]] was totally dried by 1900 BC as confirmed by archaeological hydrological radiocarbon dating {{Fact|date=March 2007}}. ==Wildlife== Accounts of the Indus valley from the times of Alexander's campaign indicate a healthy forest cover in the region, which has now considerably receded. The Mughal Emperor Babar writes of encountering rhinoceroses along its bank in his memoirs (the [[Baburnama]]). Extensive [[deforestation]] and human interference in the ecology of the [[Shivalik Hills]] has led to a marked deterioration in vegetation and growing conditions. The Indus valley regions are arid with poor vegetation. Agriculture is sustained largely due to irrigation works. The [[Blindness|Blind]] [[Indus River Dolphin]] (Platanista gangetica minor) is a sub-species of Dolphins found only in the Indus River. It formerly also occurred in the tributaries of the Indus river. [[Palla fish]] (''[[Hilsa ilisha]]'') of the river is a delicacy for people living along the river. The population of fishes in the river is moderately high, with [[Sukkur]], [[Thatta]] and [[Kotri]] being the major fishing centres - all in the lower Sindh course. But damming and irrigation has made fish farming an important economic activity. Located southeast of [[Karachi]], the large delta has been recognised by conservationists as one of the world's most important ecological regions. Here the river turns into many marshes, streams and creeks and meets the sea at shallow levels. Here marine fishes are found in abundance, including [[Pomfret]] and [[Prawns]]. ==Economy== The Indus is the most important supplier of water resources to the [[Punjab (Pakistan)|Punjab]] and [[Sindh]] plains - it forms the backbone of agriculture and food production in Pakistan. The river is especially critical as rainfall is meagre in the lower Indus valley. Irrigation canals were first built by the people of the Indus valley civilization, and later by the engineers of the [[Kushan Empire]] and the [[Mughal Empire]]. Modern irrigation was introduced by the [[British East India Company]] in 1850 - the construction of modern canals accompanied with the restoration of old canals. The British supervised the construction of one of the most complex irrigation networks in the world. The [[Guddu Barrage]] is 1,350 metres (4,450 ft) long - irrigating [[Sukkur]], Jacobabad, [[Larkana]] and [[Kalat District|Kalat]]. The [[Sukkur Barrage]] serves over 20,000 square kilometres (5,000,000 acres). After the partition, a water control treaty signed between [[India]] and [[Pakistan]] in 1960 guaranteed that Pakistan would receive water from the Indus River independent of upstream control by [[India]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://en.structurae.de/structures/data/index.cfm?ID=s0003769 |title=Tarabela Dam |publisher=www.structurae.de |accessdate=2007-07-09 }}</ref> The project, [[Indus Basin Project]], consisted primarily of the construction of two main dams, the [[Mangla Dam]] built on the [[Jhelum River]] and the [[Tarbela Dam]] constructed on the Indus River, together with their subsidiary dams.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.britannica.com/eb/topic-286834/Indus-Basin-project |title=Indus Basin Project |publisher=Encyclopedia Britannica |accessdate=2007-07-09 }}</ref> The Pakistan Water and Power Development Authority undertook the construction of the Chashma-Jhelum link canal - linking the waters of the Indus and Jhelum rivers - extending water supplies to the regions of [[Bahawalpur]] and [[Multan]]. Pakistan constructed the [[Tarbela Dam]] near Rawalpindi - standing 2743 metres (9,000 ft) long and 143 metres (470 ft) high, with an 80 kilometre (50 mile) long reservoir. The [[Kotri Barrage]] near [[Hyderabad, Sindh|Hyderabad]] is 915 metres (3,000 ft) long and provides additional supplies for Karachi. The [[Taunsa Barrage]] near [[Dera Ghazi Khan]] produces 100,000 kilowatts of electricity. The extensive linking of tributaries with the Indus has helped spread water resources to the valley of [[Peshawar]], the [[Northwest Frontier Province]]. The extensive irrigation and dam projects provide the basis for Pakistan's large production of crops such as [[cotton]], [[sugarcane]] and [[wheat]]. The dams also generate electricity for heavy industries and urban centres. ==People== [[Image:Indus near Skardu.jpg|thumb|200px|right|The Indus River near Skardu, Pakistan]] The inhabitants of the regions through whom the Indus river passes and forms a major natural feature and resource are diverse in ethnicity, religion, national and linguistic backgrounds. On the northern course of the river in [[Jammu and Kashmir]] live the [[Buddhist]] people of [[Ladakh]], of [[Tibetan people|Tibetan]] stock, with [[Kashmiri people|Kashmiris]] who practice both [[Islam]] and [[Hinduism]]. As it descends into [[Northern Areas, Pakistan|Northern Areas]] of [[Pakistan]], the Indus river forms a distinctive boundary of ethnicity and cultures - upon the western banks the population is largely [[Pashtun]], [[Baloch]], and of other [[Iranian]] stock, with close cultural, economic and ethnic ties to [[Iran]] and [[Afghanistan]]. The eastern banks are largely populated by peoples of [[Indo-Aryan peoples|Indo-Aryan]] stock, such as the [[Punjabis]], the [[Sindhis]] and the [[Seraikis]]. In northern Punjab and the [[North-West Frontier Province]], ethnic [[Pashtun]] tribes live alongside [[Punjabi people]]s. In the southern portion of the Punjab province, the [[Saraiki ]] peoples speak a distinctive tongue and practise distinctive traditions. In the province of Sindh, peoples of [[Sindhi language|Sindhi]] and [[Punjabi language|Punjabi]] backgrounds form the local populations. Upon the western banks of the river live the [[Baloch]]i and [[Pashtun]] peoples of [[Balochistan (Pakistan)|Balochistan]]. ==Modern issues== The Indus is a strategically vital resource for Pakistan's economy and society. After the [[partition of British India]] in 1947, the use of the waters of the Indus and its five eastern tributaries became a major dispute between India and Pakistan. The irrigation canals of the Sutlej valley and the [[Bari Doab]] were split - with the canals lying primarily in Pakistan and the headwork dams in India - disrupting supply in some parts of Pakistan. The concern over India building large dams over various Punjab rivers that could undercut the supply flowing to Pakistan, as well as the possibility that India could divert rivers in the time of war, caused political consternation in Pakistan. Holding diplomatic talks brokered by the World Bank, India and Pakistan signed the [[Indus Waters Treaty]] in 1960. The treaty gave India control of the three easternmost rivers of the Punjab, [[Sutlej]], [[Beas River|Beas]] and the [[Ravi River|Ravi]], while Pakistan gained control of the three western rivers, [[Jhelum River|Jhelum]], [[Chenab]] and the Indus. India retained the right to use of the western rivers for non irrigation projects. (See discussion regarding a recent dispute about a hydroelectric project on the Chenab (not Indus) known as the Baghlighar project). [[Hindu]] pilgrimage to holy sites alongside the river has been a source of conflict between the two nations. Pakistan does generally allow Indian citizens to visit the country for religious purposes, However, owing to the volatile nature of bilateral relations, most pilgrimage and religious ceremonies are performed by Hindus in Indian administered [[Jammu and Kashmir]]. There are concerns that extensive deforestation, industrial pollution and [[global warming]] are affecting the vegetation and wildlife of the Indus delta, while affecting agricultural production as well. There are also concerns that the Indus river may be shifting its course westwards - although the progression spans centuries. On numerous occasions, sediment clogging owing to poor maintenance of canals has affected agricultural production and vegetation. In addition, extreme heat has caused water to evaporate, leaving salt deposits that render lands useless for cultivation. ==References== {{reflist}} *{{1911}} *World Atlas, Millennium Edition, pg 265. *Jean Fairley, "The Lion River", Karachi, 1978 ==See also== *[[1974 Hunza earthquake]] * [[Sindhology]] ==External links== {{Commonscat|Indus River}} *[http://blankonthemap.free.fr Blankonthemap] The Northern Kashmir WebSite *[http://www.ppl.nl/index.php?option=com_wrapper&view=wrapper&Itemid=82 Bibliography on Water Resources and International Law] Peace Palace Library * [http://www.northernareas.org.pk/ Northern Areas Development Gateway] * [http://www.macp-pk.org/home.asp The Mountain Areas Conservancy Project] * [http://earthtrends.wri.org/maps_spatial/maps_fullscale.cfm?mapID=355&theme=2 Indus River watershed map (World Resources Institute)] * [http://wrmin.nic.in/international/industreaty.htm Indus Treaty] * [http://www.hindu.com/2005/06/03/stories/2005060303651500.htm Baglihar Dam issue] * [http://www.redtailcanyon.com/items/3755.aspx Indus] * [http://www.worldwildlife.org/wildworld/profiles/g200/g156.html Indus Wildlife] {{Template group |list = {{Five rivers of the Punjab}} {{Rigveda}} {{PunjabGeography}} {{Waters of South Asia}} {{GeoSouthAsia}} }} [[Category:Rivers of Pakistan]] [[Category:Indus River]] [[Category:Geography of Sindh]] [[Category:Indus Valley Civilization]] [[Category:Indus basin| ]] [[Category:Rigvedic rivers]] [[Category:Sacred rivers]] [[Category:Rivers of India]] [[Category:Rivers of Tibet]] [[Category:Rivers of Jammu and Kashmir]] [[ar:نهر السند]] [[bn:সিন্ধু নদী]] [[be:Рака Інд]] [[be-x-old:Інд]] [[bg:Инд]] [[ca:Indus]] [[cs:Indus]] [[cy:Afon Indus]] [[da:Indus]] [[de:Indus]] [[dv:ސިންދު ކޯރު]] [[et:Indus]] [[el:Ινδός ποταμός]] [[es:Río Indo]] [[eo:Induso]] [[eu:Indus]] [[fr:Indus]] [[gl:Río Indo]] [[gu:સિંધૂ]] [[ko:인더스 강]] [[hi:सिन्धु नदी]] [[hr:Ind]] [[id:Sungai Sindhu]] [[is:Indusfljót]] [[it:Indo]] [[he:אינדוס]] [[jv:Kali Sindu]] [[sw:Indus (mto)]] [[la:Indus (fluvius)]] [[lv:Inda]] [[lt:Indas (upė)]] [[hu:Indus]] [[ml:സിന്ധു നദി]] [[mr:सिंधु नदी]] [[ms:Sungai Indus]] [[nl:Indus (rivier)]] [[new:सिन्धु खुसी]] [[ja:インダス川]] [[no:Indus]] [[pl:Indus (rzeka)]] [[pt:Rio Indo]] [[ru:Инд]] [[sa:सिन्‍धु नदी]] [[simple:Indus River]] [[sd:سنڌو درياءُ]] [[sk:Indus]] [[sl:Ind]] [[sr:Инд]] [[sh:Ind]] [[fi:Indus]] [[sv:Indus]] [[ta:சிந்து நதி]] [[vi:Sông Ấn]] [[tg:Дарёи Индус]] [[tr:İndus Nehri]] [[uk:Інд]] [[ur:دریائے سندھ]] [[zh:印度河]]