Infant formula 65330 224620217 2008-07-09T18:10:18Z WhatamIdoing 1998764 [[WP:UNDO|Undid]] revision 224498921 by [[Special:Contributions/206.75.94.168|206.75.94.168]] ([[User talk:206.75.94.168|talk]]) Misspelled and unsourced {{Unbalanced}} {{Refimprove|date=March 2008}} [[Image:Infant with baby bottle.jpg|right|thumb|250px|An [[infant]] being fed from a [[baby bottle]].]] '''Infant formula''' is an artificial substitute for human [[breast milk]], designed for [[infant]] consumption. The first preparations for the feeding of infants were produced commercially in 1867 by [[Justus von Liebig]]. Today, most infant formulas are based on either [[cow milk]] or [[soy milk]]. Some formulas, for infants with special dietary needs, are highly modified and may contain neither cow milk nor soy. Use of infant formula has been decreasing in industrial countries for over forty years{{Fact|date=March 2008}} as a result of antenatal education, increased understanding of the risks of infant formula, and social activism. A 2001 WHO report finds that infant formula prepared in accord with applicable [[Codex Alimentarius]] standards is a nutritionally adequate and safe complementary food and a suitable breast milk substitute. Nonetheless, with few exceptions the WHO report recommends exclusive [[breastfeeding]] for the first 6 months of life.<ref name="WHO">{{cite conference | author=Secretariat, World Health Organization | title = Infant and Young Child Nutrition: Global strategy for infant and young child feeding | publisher = World Health Organization | date= 24 November 2001 | url = http://www.who.int/gb/ebwha/pdf_files/EB109/eeb10912.pdf | format=PDF | id = WHO Executive Board 109th Session provisional agenda item 3.8 (EB109/12) | accessdate = }}</ref> Infant formula is necessarily an imperfect approximation of breast milk because: * The exact [[chemical]] properties of breast milk are still unknown.<ref>{{citation | author=Hoffman J | title=Hot Milk: The unbottled truth about formula | url=http://www.todaysparent.com/baby/breastfeeding/article.jsp?content=20030807_101250_216 | journal=Today's Parent | date=2003-08-07 }}</ref> * A mother's breast milk changes in response to the feeding habits of her baby and over time, thus adjusting to the infant's individual growth and development.<ref>{{cite journal | author=Prentice A | title=Constituents of human milk | journal=Food and Nutrition Bulletin | volume=17 | number=4 | url=http://www.unu.edu/unupress/food/8F174e/8F174E04.htm | publisher=United Nations University |date=December 1996}}</ref> * Breast milk includes a mother's [[white blood cells]] that help the baby avoid or fight off infections and give his immature immune system the benefit of his mother's immune system that has many years of experience with the germs common in their environment. ==History of formula== ===Early infant foods=== Throughout history, mothers who could not (or chose not to) breastfeed their babies either employed the use of a [[wet nurse]]<ref name="Schuman">{{cite paper | author = Schuman A | title = A concise history of infant formula (twists and turns included) | publisher = Contemporary Pediatric | date = 2003-02-01 | url = http://www.contemporarypediatrics.com/contpeds/article/articleDetail.jsp?id=111702 | accessdate = 2006-09-16}}</ref> or, less frequently, prepared food for their babies, a process known as "dry nursing."<ref name="food-timeline">{{cite web | last = Olver | first = Lynne | title = Food Timeline &ndash; history notes: baby food | date = 2004 | url = http://www.foodtimeline.org/foodbaby.html | accessdate = 2006-09-16 }}</ref><ref name="Schuman">-</ref> Baby food composition varied according to region and economic status.<ref name="food-timeline">-</ref> In Europe and America during the early 19th century, the prevalence of wet nursing began to decrease, while the practice of feeding babies mixtures based on animal milk rose in popularity.<ref name="Spaulding">{{cite book | last = Spaulding | first = Mary | coauthors = Penny Welch | title = Nurturing Yesterday's Child: A Portrayal of the Drake Collection of Paediatric History | publisher = B C Decker Inc | date = 1994 | url = http://www.amazon.com/Nurturing-Yesterdays-Child-Mary-Spaulding/dp/0920474918 | isbn=0-920474-91-8 }} </ref><ref name="Hale">{{cite book | last = Hale | first = Sarah Josepha | authorlink = http://www.womenwriters.net/domesticgoddess/hale1.html | title = The Ladies' New Book of Cookery: A Practical System for Private Families in Town and Country. | publisher = H. Long & Brother | date = 1852 | location = New York | pages = 437 | url = http://digital.lib.msu.edu/projects/cookbooks/html/books/book_19.cfm | id = }}</ref> <!-- FAIR USE of Nestle-milk-poster.jpg: see image description page at http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Nestle-milk-poster.jpg for rationale --> [[Image:Nestle-milk-poster.jpg|left|200px|thumb|Poster advertisement for Nestle's Milk by Théophile Alexandre Steinlen, 1895]] This trend was driven by cultural changes as well as increased sanitation measures,<ref name="IOM FNB"> {{cite paper | author = Committee on the Evaluation of the Addition of Ingredients New to Infant Formula | title = Infant Formula: Evaluating the Safety of New Ingredients | publisher = The National Academies Press | date = 2004 | url = http://newton.nap.edu/books/0309091500/html/R1.html | accessdate = 2006-09-16 }}</ref> and it continued throughout the 19th and much of the 20th century, with a notable increase after [[Elijah Pratt]] invented and patented the India-rubber nipple in 1845.<ref name="bottle museum">{{cite web | title = The history of the feeding bottle | url = http://www.babybottle-museum.co.uk/teats%20through%20the%20ages.htm | accessdate = 2006-09-16 }}</ref><ref name="Schuman">-</ref> As early as 1846, scientists and nutritionists noted an increase in medical problems and infant mortality was associated with dry nursing.<ref name="simon">{{cite book | last = Simon | first = Johann Franz | title = Animal chemistry: with reference to the physiology and pathology of man | publisher = Lea and Blanchard | date = 1846 | id = OCLC 5884760 }} </ref><ref name="Spaulding"> - </ref> In an attempt to improve the quality of manufactured baby foods, in 1867, [[Justus von Liebig]] developed the world's first commercial infant formula, ''Liebig's Soluble Food for Babies''.<ref name="Levenstein"> {{cite book | last = Levenstein | first = Harvey | title = Revolution at the Table: The Transformation of the American Diet | publisher = Oxford University Press | date = 1988 | location = New York | url = http://www.amazon.com/Revolution-Table-Transformation-American-California/dp/0520234391 | isbn=0-520-23439-1 }}</ref> The success of this product quickly gave rise to competitors such as Mellin's Infant Food, Ridge's Food for Infants and [[Nestle|Nestle's]] Milk.<ref name="levenstein2">{{cite journal | last = Levenstein | first = Harvey | title = "Best for Babies" or "Preventable Infanticide"? The Controversy over Artificial Feeding of Infants in America, 1880-1920 | journal = Journal of American History | volume = 70 | issue = 1 | pages = 75–94 | date = June, 1983 | url = http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0021-8723(198306)70:1%3C75:%22FBO%22I%3E2.0.CO;2-F&origin=historycoop | accessdate = 2006-09-16 | doi = 10.2307/1890522}} </ref> ===Raw milk formulas=== As physicians became increasingly concerned about the quality of such foods, medical recommendations such as [[Thomas Morgan Rotch]]'s "percentage method" (published in 1890) began to be distributed, and gained widespread popularity by 1907.<ref name="Schuman">-</ref> These complex formulas recommended that parents mix cow's milk, water, cream, and sugar or honey in specific ratios to achieve the nutritional balance believed to approximate human milk reformulated in such a way as to accommodate the believed digestive capability of the infant.<ref name="Fomon"> {{cite conference | first = Samuel J. | last = Fomon | title = Infant Feeding in the 20th Century: Formula and Beikost | publisher = Department of Pediatrics, College of Medicine, University of Iowa | location = San Diego, CA | date=2001 | url = http://jn.nutrition.org/cgi/content/full/131/2/409S#FN1 | accessdate = 2006-09-16}} </ref> At the dawn of the 20th century in the United States, most infants were breastfed, although many received some formula feeding as well. Home-made "percentage method" formulas were more commonly used than commercial formulas in both Europe and the United States.<ref name="friedenwald"> {{cite book | last = Friedenwald | first = Julius | authorlink = | coauthors = John Ruhrah | title = Diet in Health and Disease | publisher = W.B. Saunders Co. | date = 1910 | location = New York | pages = | url = http://hearth.library.cornell.edu/cgi/t/text/text-idx?c=hearth;idno=4388698 | doi = | id =}} </ref> They were less expensive and were widely believed to be healthier. However, formula-fed babies exhibited more diet-associated medical problems, such as scurvy, rickets and bacterial infections than breastfed babies. By 1920, the incidence of scurvy and rickets in formula-fed babies had greatly decreased through the addition of orange juice and cod liver oil to home-made formulas. Bacterial infections associated with formula remained a problem more prevalent in the United States than in Europe, where milk was usually boiled prior to use in formulas.<ref name="friedenwald">-</ref> ===Evaporated milk formulas=== In the 1920s and 1930s, [[evaporated milk]] began to be widely commercially available at low prices, and several clinical studies suggested that babies fed evaporated milk formula thrive as well as breastfed babies<ref name="Schuman">-</ref><ref name="Marriott">{{cite journal | last = Marriott | first = William McKim | authorlink = | coauthors = Schoenthal, L. | title = An experimental study of the use of unsweetened evaporated milk for the preparation of infant feeding formulas | journal = Archives of Pediatrics | volume = 46 | issue = | pages = 135–148 | publisher = | date = 1929 | url = | doi = | id = | accessdate = }} </ref> (these findings are not supported by modern research.) These studies, accompanied by the affordable price of evaporated milk and the availability of the home icebox initiated a tremendous rise in the use of evaporated milk formulas.<ref name="Fomon">-</ref> By the late 1930s, the use of evaporated milk formulas in the United States surpassed all commercial formulas, and by 1950 over half of all babies in the United States were reared on such formulas.<ref name="Schuman">-</ref> ===Commercial formulas=== In parallel with the enormous shift (in industrialized nations) away from breastfeeding to home-made formulas, nutrition scientists continued to analyze human milk and attempt to make infant formulas that more closely matched its composition.<ref name="Fomon" /> Maltose and dextrins were believed nutrionally important, and in 1912, the [[Mead Johnson Company]] released a milk additive called [[Dextri-Maltose]]. This formula was made available to mothers only by physicians. In 1919, milkfats were replaced with a blend of animal and vegetable fats as part of the continued drive to closer simulate human milk. This formula was called SMA for "simulated milk adapted."<ref name="Schuman" /> In the late 1920s, [[Alfred Bosworth]] released Similac (for "similar to lactation"), and Mead Johnson released [[Sobee]].<ref name="Schuman" /> Several other formulas were released over the next few decades, but commercial formulas did not begin to seriously compete with evaporated milk formulas until the 1950s. The reformulation and concentration of Similac in 1951, and the introduction (by Mead Johnson) of Enfamil in 1959 were accompanied by marketing campaigns that provided inexpensive formula to hospitals and pediatricians.<ref name="Schuman" /> By the early 1960s, commercial formulas were more commonly used than evaporated milk formulas, which all but vanished in the 1970s. By the early 1970s, over 75% of babies in the United States were fed on formulas, almost entirely commercially produced.<ref name="Fomon" /> When birth rates in industrial nations tapered off during the 1960s, infant formula companies heightened marketing campaigns in non-industrialized countries. Unfortunately, poor sanitation led to steeply increased mortality rates among infants fed formula prepared with contaminated (drinking) water.{{Fact|date=February 2007}} Organized protests, the most famous of which was the [[Nestlé boycott]] of 1977, called for an end to unethical marketing. This boycott is ongoing, as the current coordinators maintain that Nestlé engages in marketing practices which violate the [[International Code of Marketing of Breast-milk Substitutes]]. ===Store Brand (Generic) Infant formulas=== Store brand infant formula was first introduced in the United States in 1997 by [[PBM Products]]. All infant formula brands adhere to [Food and Drug Administration] (FDA) guidelines. The [[Mayo Clinic]] stated in a [http://www.mayoclinic.com/health/infant-formula/PR00058 November 2007 publication]: “As with most consumer products, brand-name infant formulas cost more than generic brands. But that doesn't mean that brand-name [Similac, Nestle, Enfamil] formulas are better. Although manufacturers may vary somewhat in their formula recipes, the FDA requires that all formulas contain the same nutrient density.” [[Private label]] infant formulas have allowed the leading food and drug retailers to provide formula to customers that is labeled under the store brands of companies such as [[Wal-Mart]], [[Target]], [[Kroger]], [[Loblaws]], and [[Walgreens]]. ===Usage since 1970s === Since the early 1970s, industrial countries have witnessed a dramatic resurgence in breastfeeding among children from newborn to 6 months of age.<ref name="Ryan"> {{cite journal | last = Ryan | first = Alan | title = The Resurgence of Breastfeeding in the United States | journal = PEDIATRICS | volume = 99 | issue = 4 | pages = e12 | publisher = American Academy of Pediatrics | date =April 4, 1997 | url = http://pediatrics.aappublications.org/cgi/content/full/99/4/e12 | accessdate = May 24, 2008 | doi = 10.1542/peds.99.4.e12 | pmid = 9099787}} </ref> However, this upswing in breastfeeding has been accompanied by a deferment in the average age of introduction of other foods (such as cow's milk), resulting in increased use of both breastfeeding and infant formula between the ages of 3-12 months.<ref name="Fomon">-</ref><ref name="Ryan">-</ref> Leading health organizations (e.g. [[Center for Disease Control|US CDC]], [[World Health Organization|WHO]], [[United States Department of Health and Human Services|US HHS]]) are attempting to increase the prevalence of breastfeeding through public awareness campaigns.<ref name="CDC Promotion">{{cite web | title = Promotion & Support of Breastfeeding and Obesity Prevention | publisher = Centers for Disease Control and Prevention | date = May 22, 2007 | url = http://www.cdc.gov/breastfeeding/promotion/index.htm | accessdate = 2008-05-24}} </ref><ref name="HHS Promotion">{{cite press release | title = Public Service Campaign to Promote Breastfeeding Awareness Launched | publisher = United States Department of Health and Human Services | date = June 4, 2006 | url = http://www.hhs.gov/news/press/2004pres/20040604.html | accessdate = May 22, 2008}} </ref><ref name="WHO Promotion">{{cite web | title = Promoting proper feeding for infants and young children | publisher = World Health Organization | url = http://www.who.int/nutrition/topics/infantfeeding/en/index.html | accessdate = 2008-05-24}} </ref> The goals of these programs vary by organization, with recommended breastfeeding ages ranging between birth and 24 months.<ref name="CDC Breastfeeding FAQ">{{cite web | title = Breastfeeding Frequently Asked Questions | publisher = Centers for Disease Control and Prevention | url =http://www.cdc.gov/breastfeeding/faq/index.htm | date = May 22, 2007 | accessdate = 2008-05-24}} </ref> Additionally, regulatory initiatives also encourage breastfeeding. For example, the [[International Code of Marketing of Breast-milk Substitutes]] requires infant formula companies to preface their product information with statements that breastfeeding is the best way of feeding babies and that a substitute should only be used after consultation with health professionals.<ref name="ICMBS">{{cite book | title = International Code of Marketing of Breast-Milk Substitutes | publisher = World Health Organization | date = 1981 | url = http://www.who.int/bookorders/anglais/detart1.jsp?sesslan=1&codlan=1&codcol=15&codcch=94 | isbn = 9789241541602 }}</ref> ==Choosing to use infant formula== Reasons for using infant formula include: * ''Due to the mother's health:'' The mother is infected with [[HIV]]<ref name="CDCwhen"> {{cite web | title = When should a mother avoid breastfeeding? | publisher = Centers for Disease Control and Prevention | date = 2006-08-26 | url = http://www.cdc.gov/breastfeeding/disease/contraindicators.htm | accessdate = 2007-02-25 }}</ref> or [[tuberculosis]].<ref name="CDCwhen"/> She is [[malnourished]] or has had certain kinds of [[breast surgery]]. She is taking any kind of [[drug]] that could harm the baby,<ref name="CDCwhen"/> or drinks unsafe levels of [[alcoholic|alcohol]]. The mother is extremely ill. * ''The baby is unable to breastfeed:'' The child has a [[birth defect]] or [[inborn error of metabolism]] such as [[galactosemia]] that makes breastfeeding difficult or impossible. * ''Due to absence of the mother:'' The child is [[adopted]], [[orphan]]ed, or in the sole [[child custody|custody]] of a man. The mother is separated from her child by being in [[prison]] or a [[mental hospital]]. The mother has left the child in the care of another person for an extended period of time, such as while traveling or working abroad. The mother has abandoned the child. * ''Due to family pressures:'' Family members, such as mother's husband or boyfriend encourage use of infant formula. * ''Due to under-education:'' The mother believes that her breast milk is of low quality or in low supply, or that breastfeeding will decrease her energy, health, or attractiveness. The mother is not trained sufficiently to breastfeed without pain and to produce enough milk. * ''Due to financial pressures:'' [[Maternity leave]] is unpaid, insufficient, or lacking. The mother's employment interferes with breastfeeding. * ''Due to societal structure:'' Breastfeeding is difficult or forbidden at the mother's job, school, place of worship or while commuting. The mother feels infant formula is socially preferable. * ''Due to personal beliefs:'' The mother feels that breasts are too sexual for a baby or feels uncomfortable breastfeeding around other people. Nursing by a relative or paid [[wet-nurse]] is socially unsupported, believed to be unhygienic, or too expensive. Also, the mother does not want to breastfeed or prefers to use both breast milk and infant formula. * ''Due to dietary concerns:'' The contents of breastmilk are influenced by the dietary habits of the mother. If the mother consumes a food that contains an allergen breastfeeding may, for a brief period after consumption, provoke an allergic reaction in the infant. ==Nutritional content== Besides breast milk, infant formula is the only other infant milk which the [[medicine|medical]] community considers nutritionally acceptable for infants under the age of one year. Cow's milk is not recommended because of its high [[protein]] and [[electrolyte]] (salt) content which may put a strain on an infant's immature [[kidney]]s. Evaporated milk, although perhaps easier to digest due to the processing of the protein, is still nutritionally inadequate. Most of the world's supply of infant formula is produced in the [[United States]]. The nutrient content is regulated by the American [[Food and Drug Administration]] (FDA) based on recommendations by the [[American Academy of Pediatrics]] Committee on Nutrition. The following must be included in all formulas produced in the U.S.: *[[Protein]] *[[Fat]] *[[Linoleic acid]] *[[Vitamin]]s: [[vitamin A|A]], [[vitamin C|C]], [[vitamin D|D]], [[vitamin E|E]], [[vitamin K|K]], [[thiamin]] (B1), [[riboflavin]] (B2), [[vitamin B6|B6]], [[vitamin B12|B12]] *[[Niacin]] *[[Folic acid]] *[[Pantothenic acid]] *[[Calcium]] *Metals: [[magnesium]], [[iron]], [[zinc]], [[manganese]], [[copper]] *[[Phosphorus]] *[[Iodine]] *[[Sodium chloride]] *[[Potassium chloride]] In addition, formulas not made with cow's milk must include [[biotin]], [[choline]], and [[inositol]]. Hypoallergenic formulas reduce the likelihood of certain medical complications in babies with specific health problems. Baby formula can be synthesized from raw amino acids. This kind of formula is sometimes referred to as elemental infant formula or as medical food because of its specialized nature. While quite expensive, such formula is [[hypoallergenic]] and is sometimes used for babies with severe allergies to cow's milk and soy. Some commercial brands are [[Neocate]] and Peptamen. Being purely synthetic [[monomeric]] amino acids, it is also quite foul-tasting to adults. ==Variations== Infant formula is available in powder, liquid concentrate and ready-to-feed forms, which are prepared by the caregiver or parent in small batches and fed to the infant, usually with either a [[baby bottle]] or cup. It is very important to measure powders or concentrates accurately to achieve the intended final product. It is advisable that all equipment that comes into contact with the infant formula be cleaned and sterilized before each use. Proper [[refrigeration]] is essential for any infant formula which is prepared in advance. ==Controversy and science== The use of infant formula itself has come under scrutiny. Most leading health organizations today recommend breastfeeding for newborns through 12 months of age, and some through 24 months due to the infant's need for Omega 3, a nutrient that is ordinarily found in breast milk but not in formula.<ref name="CDC Breastfeeding FAQ">-</ref> Studies have found infants in developed countries who consume formula are at increased risk for acute [[otitis media]], non-specific [[gastroenteritis]], severe lower respiratory tract infections, atopic [[dermatitis]], [[asthma]], [[obesity]], type 1 and 2 [[diabetes]], [[sudden infant death syndrome]] (SIDS), [[eczema]], [[necrotizing enterocolitis]] and autism when compared to infants who are breastfed.<ref name="AHRQ-Tufts">{{cite paper | first = | last = | author = Stanley Ip, MD | authorlink = | coauthors = Mei Chung, M.P.H.,Gowri Raman, M.D.,Priscilla Chew, M.P.H.,Nombulelo Magula, M.D.,Deirdre DeVine, M.Litt.,Thomas Trikalinos, M.D., Ph.D., Joseph Lau, M.D. | title = Breastfeeding and Maternal and Infant Health Outcomes in Developed Countries | version = | publisher = Tufts-New England Medical Center Evidence-Based Practice Center | date = April 2007 | url = http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/bv.fcgi?rid=hstat1b.chapter.106732 | format = | accessdate = May 22, 2008}}</ref><ref name="pmid9233193">{{cite journal |author=Riordan JM |title=The cost of not breastfeeding: a commentary |journal=J Hum Lact |volume=13 |issue=2 |pages=93–7 |year=1997 |pmid=9233193| doi = 10.1177/089033449701300202}}</ref><ref name="pmid15037991">{{cite journal |author=Sadauskaite-Kuehne V, Ludvigsson J, Padaiga Z, Jasinskiene E, Samuelsson U |title=Longer breastfeeding is an independent protective factor against development of type 1 diabetes mellitus in childhood |journal=Diabetes Metab. Res. Rev. |volume=20 |issue=2 |pages=150–7 |year=2004 |pmid=15037991 |doi=10.1002/dmrr.425}}</ref><ref name="pmid6734490">{{cite journal |author=Pratt HF |title=Breastfeeding and eczema |journal=Early Hum. Dev. |volume=9 |issue=3 |pages=283–90 |year=1984 |pmid=6734490| doi = 10.1016/0378-3782(84)90039-2}}</ref> Although some studies have found an association between infant formular and lower [[cognitive development]],<ref name="pmid16087970">{{cite journal |author=McCann JC, Ames BN |title=Is docosahexaenoic acid, an n-3 long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acid, required for development of normal brain function? An overview of evidence from cognitive and behavioral tests in humans and animals |journal=Am. J. Clin. Nutr. |volume=82 |issue=2 |pages=281–95 |year=2005 |pmid=16087970 |doi=}}</ref> other studies have found no correlation.<ref name="AHRQ-Tufts">-</ref> ==Risks increased== In studies, formula-feeding is associated with increased likelihood of the following conditions in infants: {{div col}} *[[Candidiasis]]<ref name="pmid15598415">{{cite journal |author=Kadir T, Uygun B, Akyüz S |title=Prevalence of Candida species in Turkish children: relationship between dietary intake and carriage |journal=Arch. Oral Biol. |volume=50 |issue=1 |pages=33–7 |year=2005 |pmid=15598415 |doi=10.1016/j.archoralbio.2004.07.004}}</ref> *[[Diarrhea]]<ref name="pmid16308409">{{cite journal |author=Quigley MA, Cumberland P, Cowden JM, Rodrigues LC |title=How protective is breast feeding against diarrhoeal disease in infants in 1990s England? A case-control study |journal=Arch. Dis. Child. |volume=91 |issue=3 |pages=245–50 |year=2006 |pmid=16308409 |doi=10.1136/adc.2005.074260}}</ref><ref name="pmid14638628">{{cite journal |author=Newburg DS, Ruiz-Palacios GM, Altaye M, ''et al'' |title=Innate protection conferred by fucosylated oligosaccharides of human milk against diarrhea in breastfed infants |journal=Glycobiology |volume=14 |issue=3 |pages=253–63 |year=2004 |pmid=14638628 |doi=10.1093/glycob/cwh020 |url=http://glycob.oxfordjournals.org/cgi/content/full/14/3/253}}</ref><ref name="pmid9164801">{{cite journal |author=Scariati PD, Grummer-Strawn LM, Fein SB |title=A longitudinal analysis of infant morbidity and the extent of breastfeeding in the United States |journal=Pediatrics |volume=99 |issue=6 |pages=E5 |year=1997 |pmid=9164801 | doi = 10.1542/peds.99.6.e5 |url=http://pediatrics.aappublications.org/cgi/content/full/99/6/e5}}</ref><ref name="pmid7751991">{{cite journal |author=Dewey KG, Heinig MJ, Nommsen-Rivers LA |title=Differences in morbidity between breast-fed and formula-fed infants |journal=J. Pediatr. |volume=126 |issue=5 Pt 1 |pages=696–702 |year=1995 |pmid=7751991 |doi=}}</ref><ref name="pmid2251024">{{cite journal |author=Popkin BM, Adair L, Akin JS, Black R, Briscoe J, Flieger W |title=Breast-feeding and diarrheal morbidity |journal=Pediatrics |volume=86 |issue=6 |pages=874–82 |year=1990 |pmid=2251024 |doi=}}</ref> *[[Gastroenteritis]]<ref name="pmid12369489">{{cite journal |author=Abu-Ekteish F, Zahraa J |title=Hypernatraemic dehydration and acute gastro-enteritis in children |journal=Ann Trop Paediatr |volume=22 |issue=3 |pages=245–9 |year=2002 |pmid=12369489 |doi=10.1179/027249302125001624}}</ref> *[[Haemophilus influenzae]]<ref name="pmid12352801">{{cite journal |author=Silfverdal SA, Bodin L, Ulanova M, Hahn-Zoric M, Hanson LA, Olcen P |title=Long term enhancement of the IgG2 antibody response to Haemophilus influenzae type b by breast-feeding |journal=Pediatr. Infect. Dis. J. |volume=21 |issue=9 |pages=816–21 |year=2002 |pmid=12352801 |doi=10.1097/01.inf.0000027668.74570.96 |doi_brokendate=2008-06-25}}</ref> *[[Meningitis]] in preterm infants<ref name="pmid9724686">{{cite journal |author=Hylander MA, Strobino DM, Dhanireddy R |title=Human milk feedings and infection among very low birth weight infants |journal=Pediatrics |volume=102 |issue=3 |pages=E38 |year=1998 |pmid=9724686 | doi = 10.1542/peds.102.3.e38}}</ref> *[[Necrotizing Enterocolitis]]<ref name="pmid12496220">{{cite journal |author=McGuire W, Anthony MY |title=Donor human milk versus formula for preventing necrotising enterocolitis in preterm infants: systematic review |journal=Arch. Dis. Child. Fetal Neonatal Ed. |volume=88 |issue=1 |pages=F11–4 |year=2003 |pmid=12496220| doi = 10.1136/fn.88.1.F11}}</ref><ref name="pmid1979363">{{cite journal |author=Lucas A, Cole TJ |title=Breast milk and neonatal necrotising enterocolitis |journal=Lancet |volume=336 |issue=8730 |pages=1519–23 |year=1990 |pmid=1979363| doi = 10.1016/0140-6736(90)93304-8}}</ref> *Ear Infection<ref name="pmid9164801">{{cite journal |author=Scariati PD, Grummer-Strawn LM, Fein SB |title=A longitudinal analysis of infant morbidity and the extent of breastfeeding in the United States |journal=Pediatrics |volume=99 |issue=6 |pages=E5 |year=1997 |pmid=9164801| doi = 10.1542/peds.99.6.e5}}</ref><ref name="pmid8474804">{{cite journal |author=Duncan B, Ey J, Holberg CJ, Wright AL, Martinez FD, Taussig LM |title=Exclusive breast-feeding for at least 4 months protects against otitis media |journal=Pediatrics |volume=91 |issue=5 |pages=867–72 |year=1993 |pmid=8474804 |doi=}}</ref> *Pneumococcal Disease<ref name="pmid10049984">{{cite journal |author=Levine OS, Farley M, Harrison LH, Lefkowitz L, McGeer A, Schwartz B |title=Risk factors for invasive pneumococcal disease in children: a population-based case-control study in North America |journal=Pediatrics |volume=103 |issue=3 |pages=E28 |year=1999 |pmid=10049984| doi = 10.1542/peds.103.3.e28}}</ref> *Respiratory Infections<ref name="pmid12622672">{{cite journal |author=Bachrach VR, Schwarz E, Bachrach LR |title=Breastfeeding and the risk of hospitalization for respiratory disease in infancy: a meta-analysis |journal=Arch Pediatr Adolesc Med |volume=157 |issue=3 |pages=237–43 |year=2003 |pmid=12622672 |doi= |url=http://archpedi.ama-assn.org/cgi/content/full/157/3/237}}</ref> *[[Respiratory Syncytial Virus]]<ref name="pmid2035517">{{cite journal |author=Holberg CJ, Wright AL, Martinez FD, Ray CG, Taussig LM, Lebowitz MD |title=Risk factors for respiratory syncytial virus-associated lower respiratory illnesses in the first year of life |journal=Am. J. Epidemiol. |volume=133 |issue=11 |pages=1135–51 |year=1991 |pmid=2035517 |doi=}}</ref> *[[Salmonellosis]]<ref name="pmid15095198">{{cite journal |author=Rowe SY, Rocourt JR, Shiferaw B, ''et al'' |title=Breast-feeding decreases the risk of sporadic salmonellosis among infants in FoodNet sites |journal=Clin. Infect. Dis. |volume=38 Suppl 3 |issue= |pages=S262–70 |year=2004 |pmid=15095198 |doi=10.1086/381595}}</ref> *[[Sepsis]] in Preterm Infants<ref name="pmid9724686">{{cite journal |author=Hylander MA, Strobino DM, Dhanireddy R |title=Human milk feedings and infection among very low birth weight infants |journal=Pediatrics |volume=102 |issue=3 |pages=E38 |year=1998 |pmid=9724686 | doi = 10.1542/peds.102.3.e38}}</ref> *[[Urinary Tract Infections]]<ref name="pmid1731031">{{cite journal |author=Pisacane A, Graziano L, Mazzarella G, Scarpellino B, Zona G |title=Breast-feeding and urinary tract infection |journal=J. Pediatr. |volume=120 |issue=1 |pages=87–9 |year=1992 |pmid=1731031 |doi=}}</ref> *[[Anemia]] and [[Iron Deficiency]]<ref name="pmid15311295">{{cite journal |author=Assis AM, Gaudenzi EN, Gomes G, Ribeiro Rde C, Szarfarc SC, Souza SB |title=[Hemoglobin concentration, breastfeeding and complementary feeding in the first year of life] |language=Portuguese |journal=Rev Saude Publica |volume=38 |issue=4 |pages=543–51 |year=2004 |pmid=15311295 |doi=/S0034-89102004000400010 |doi_brokendate=2008-06-25}}</ref><ref name="pmid12700611">{{cite journal |author=Thorsdottir I, Gunnarsson BS, Atladottir H, Michaelsen KF, Palsson G |title=Iron status at 12 months of age &ndash; effects of body size, growth and diet in a population with high birth weight |journal=Eur J Clin Nutr |volume=57 |issue=4 |pages=505–13 |year=2003 |pmid=12700611 |doi=10.1038/sj.ejcn.1601594 |url=http://www.nature.com/ejcn/journal/v57/n4/full/1601594a.html}}</ref> *Autoimmune Thyroid Disease<ref name="pmid2338464">{{cite journal |author=Fort P, Moses N, Fasano M, Goldberg T, Lifshitz F |title=Breast and soy-formula feedings in early infancy and the prevalence of autoimmune thyroid disease in children |journal=J Am Coll Nutr |volume=9 |issue=2 |pages=164–7 |year=1990 |pmid=2338464 |doi=}}</ref> *[[Constipation]] and [[Anal fissure]]s<ref name="pmid12887660">{{cite journal |author=Andiran F, Dayi S, Mete E |title=Cows milk consumption in constipation and anal fissure in infants and young children |journal=J Paediatr Child Health |volume=39 |issue=5 |pages=329–31 |year=2003 |pmid=12887660| doi = 10.1046/j.1440-1754.2003.00152.x}}</ref> *Undescended Testicle<ref name="pmid1357225">{{cite journal |author=Mori M, Davies TW, Tsukamoto T, Kumamoto Y, Fukuda K |title=Maternal and other factors of cryptorchidism&mdash;a case-control study in Japan |journal=Kurume Med J |volume=39 |issue=2 |pages=53–60 |year=1992 |pmid=1357225 |doi=}}</ref> *Esophogeal and Gastrid Lesions<ref name="pmid11045833">{{cite journal |author=Benhamou PH, Francoual C, Glangeaud MC, Barette A, Dupont C, Bréart G |title=Risk factors for severe esophageal and gastric lesions in term neonates: a case-control study. Groupe Francophone d'Hépato-Gastroentérologie et Nutrition Pédiatrique |journal=J. Pediatr. Gastroenterol. Nutr. |volume=31 |issue=4 |pages=377–80 |year=2000 |pmid=11045833 |doi=}}</ref> *Gastroesophogeal Reflux<ref name="pmid1573512">{{cite journal |author=Heacock HJ, Jeffery HE, Baker JL, Page M |title=Influence of breast versus formula milk on physiological gastroesophageal reflux in healthy, newborn infants |journal=J. Pediatr. Gastroenterol. Nutr. |volume=14 |issue=1 |pages=41–6 |year=1992 |pmid=1573512 |doi=}}</ref> *[[Inguinal Hernia]]<ref name="pmid7608794">{{cite journal |author=Pisacane A, de Luca U, Vaccaro F, Valiante A, Impagliazzo N, Caracciolo G |title=Breast-feeding and inguinal hernia |journal=J. Pediatr. |volume=127 |issue=1 |pages=109–11 |year=1995 |pmid=7608794 |doi=}}</ref> *[[Morbidity]] and [[Mortality]]<ref name="pmid16925871">{{cite journal |author=Lauer JA, Betrán AP, Barros AJ, de Onís M |title=Deaths and years of life lost due to suboptimal breast-feeding among children in the developing world: a global ecological risk assessment |journal=Public Health Nutr |volume=9 |issue=6 |pages=673–85 |year=2006 |pmid=16925871 |doi=}}</ref><ref name="pmid16510618">{{cite journal |author=Edmond KM, Zandoh C, Quigley MA, Amenga-Etego S, Owusu-Agyei S, Kirkwood BR |title=Delayed breastfeeding initiation increases risk of neonatal mortality |journal=Pediatrics |volume=117 |issue=3 |pages=e380–6 |year=2006 |pmid=16510618 |doi=10.1542/peds.2005-1496 |url=http://pediatrics.aappublications.org/cgi/content/full/117/3/e380}}</ref><ref name="pmid15976892">{{cite journal |author=Bahl R, Frost C, Kirkwood BR, ''et al'' |title=Infant feeding patterns and risks of death and hospitalization in the first half of infancy: multicentre cohort study |journal=Bull. World Health Organ. |volume=83 |issue=6 |pages=418–26 |year=2005 |pmid=15976892 |doi=/S0042-96862005000600009 |url=http://www.scielosp.org/scielo.php?script=sci_arttext&pid=S0042-96862005000600009&lng=en&nrm=iso&tlng=en |doi_brokendate=2008-06-25}}</ref><ref name="pmid15121986">{{cite journal |author=Chen A, Rogan WJ |title=Breastfeeding and the risk of postneonatal death in the United States |journal=Pediatrics |volume=113 |issue=5 |pages=e435–9 |year=2004 |pmid=15121986| doi = 10.1542/peds.113.5.e435}}</ref><ref name="pmid7844664">{{cite journal |author=Beaudry M, Dufour R, Marcoux S |title=Relation between infant feeding and infections during the first six months of life |journal=J. Pediatr. |volume=126 |issue=2 |pages=191–7 |year=1995 |pmid=7844664 |doi=}}</ref><ref name="pmid1936731">{{cite journal |author=van den Bogaard C, van den Hoogen HJ, Huygen FJ, van Weel C |title=The relationship between breast-feeding and early childhood morbidity in a general population |journal=Fam Med |volume=23 |issue=7 |pages=510–5 |year=1991 |pmid=1936731 |doi=}}</ref><!-- last ref seems best fit on PubMed for what was given as "title = Relationship Between Breast Feeding in Early Childhood and Morbidity in a General Population |journal=Journal of Pediatrics |volume=126(2) |pages=191-7 |date=February 1995" --> *[[Pyloric stenosis]]<ref name="pmid8605461">{{cite journal |author=Pisacane A, de Luca U, Criscuolo L, ''et al'' |title=Breast feeding and hypertrophic pyloric stenosis: population based case-control study |journal=BMJ |volume=312 |issue=7033 |pages=745–6 |year=1996 |pmid=8605461 |doi= |url=http://www.bmj.com/cgi/content/full/312/7033/745}}</ref> *Sudden Infant Death Syndrome ([[Sudden infant death syndrome|SIDS]])<ref name="pmid12728140">{{cite journal |author=Hauck FR, Herman SM, Donovan M, ''et al'' |title=Sleep environment and the risk of sudden infant death syndrome in an urban population: the Chicago Infant Mortality Study |journal=Pediatrics |volume=111 |issue=5 Part 2 |pages=1207–14 |year=2003 |pmid=12728140 |doi= |url=http://pediatrics.aappublications.org/cgi/content/full/111/5/S1/1207}}</ref><ref name="pmid12023166">{{cite journal |author=Alm B, Wennergren G, Norvenius SG, ''et al'' |title=Breast feeding and the sudden infant death syndrome in Scandinavia, 1992-95 |journal=Arch. Dis. Child. |volume=86 |issue=6 |pages=400–2 |year=2002 |pmid=12023166| doi = 10.1136/adc.86.6.400}}</ref><ref name="pmid11138219">{{cite journal |author=McVea KL, Turner PD, Peppler DK |title=The role of breastfeeding in sudden infant death syndrome |journal=J Hum Lact |volume=16 |issue=1 |pages=13–20 |year=2000 |pmid=11138219| doi = 10.1177/089033440001600104}}</ref><ref name="sids4">{{cite journal | authorlink = | title = Results from the First Year of The New Zealand Count Death Study. | journal = New Zealand Medical Association | volume = 104 | pages = 71–76 | date = 1991}}</ref> *[[Wheezing]]<ref name="pmid9799880">{{cite journal |author=Baker D, Taylor H, Henderson J |title=Inequality in infant morbidity: causes and consequences in England in the 1990s. ALSPAC Study Team. Avon Longitudinal Study of Pregnancy and Childhood |journal=J Epidemiol Community Health |volume=52 |issue=7 |pages=451–8 |year=1998 |pmid=9799880 |doi=}}</ref><ref name="pmid8333759">{{cite journal |author=Burr ML, Limb ES, Maguire MJ, ''et al'' |title=Infant feeding, wheezing, and allergy: a prospective study |journal=Arch. Dis. Child. |volume=68 |issue=6 |pages=724–8 |year=1993 |pmid=8333759 |doi=}}</ref><ref name="pmid8428854">{{cite journal |author=Porro E, Indinnimeo L, Antognoni G, Midulla F, Criscione S |title=Early wheezing and breast feeding |journal=J Asthma |volume=30 |issue=1 |pages=23–8 |year=1993 |pmid=8428854| doi = 10.3109/02770909309066376}}</ref> *[[Allergies]]<ref name="pmid12911410">{{cite journal |author=van Odijk J, Kull I, Borres MP, ''et al'' |title=Breastfeeding and allergic disease: a multidisciplinary review of the literature (1966-2001) on the mode of early feeding in infancy and its impact on later atopic manifestations |journal=Allergy |volume=58 |issue=9 |pages=833–43 |year=2003 |pmid=12911410 |doi=}}</ref><ref name="pmid10496824">{{cite journal |author=Oddy WH, Holt PG, Sly PD, ''et al'' |title=Association between breast feeding and asthma in 6 year old children: findings of a prospective birth cohort study |journal=BMJ |volume=319 |issue=7213 |pages=815–9 |year=1999 |pmid=10496824 |doi= |url=http://www.bmj.com/cgi/content/full/319/7213/815}}</ref> *[[Asthma]]<ref name="pmid11695937">{{cite journal |author=Dell S, To T |title=Breastfeeding and asthma in young children: findings from a population-based study |journal=Arch Pediatr Adolesc Med |volume=155 |issue=11 |pages=1261–5 |year=2001 |pmid=11695937 |doi= |url=http://archpedi.ama-assn.org/cgi/content/full/155/11/1261}}</ref> *[[Eczema]]<ref name="pmid11568741">{{cite journal |author=Gdalevich M, Mimouni D, David M, Mimouni M |title=Breast-feeding and the onset of atopic dermatitis in childhood: a systematic review and meta-analysis of prospective studies |journal=J. Am. Acad. Dermatol. |volume=45 |issue=4 |pages=520–7 |year=2001 |pmid=11568741 |doi=10.1067/mjd.2001.114741}}</ref> *Lower [[IQ]]<ref name="pmid11988057">{{cite journal |author=Mortensen EL, Michaelsen KF, Sanders SA, Reinisch JM |title=The association between duration of breastfeeding and adult intelligence |journal=JAMA |volume=287 |issue=18 |pages=2365–71 |year=2002 |pmid=11988057| doi = 10.1001/jama.287.18.2365}}</ref><ref name="pmid1346280">{{cite journal |author=Lucas A, Morley R, Cole TJ, Lister G, Leeson-Payne C |title=Breast milk and subsequent intelligence quotient in children born preterm |journal=Lancet |volume=339 |issue=8788 |pages=261–4 |year=1992 |pmid=1346280| doi = 10.1016/0140-6736(92)91329-7}}</ref> *Lower Visual Acuity<ref name="pmid17209191">{{cite journal |author=Singhal A, Morley R, Cole TJ, ''et al'' |title=Infant nutrition and stereoacuity at age 4-6 y |journal=[[Am. J. Clin. Nutr.]] |volume=85 |issue=1 |pages=152–9 |year=2007 |pmid=17209191 |doi= |url=http://www.ajcn.org/cgi/pmidlookup?view=long&pmid=17209191}}</ref> *Delayed Speech and Language Development<ref name="pmid17272591">{{cite journal |author=Dee DL, Li R, Lee LC, Grummer-Strawn LM |title=Associations between breastfeeding practices and young children's language and motor skill development |journal=Pediatrics |volume=119 Suppl 1 |issue= |pages=S92–8 |year=2007 |pmid=17272591 |doi=10.1542/peds.2006-2089N}}</ref><ref name="pmid10626516">{{cite journal |author=Vestergaard M, Obel C, Henriksen TB, Sørensen HT, Skajaa E, Ostergaard J |title=Duration of breastfeeding and developmental milestones during the latter half of infancy |journal=Acta Paediatr. |volume=88 |issue=12 |pages=1327–32 |year=1999 |pmid=10626516| doi = 10.1080/080352599750030022}}</ref> *[[Appendicitis]]<ref name="pmid7711621">{{cite journal |author=Pisacane A, de Luca U, Impagliazzo N, Russo M, De Caprio C, Caracciolo G |title=Breast feeding and acute appendicitis |journal=[[BMJ]] |volume=310 |issue=6983 |pages=836–7 |year=1995 |pmid=7711621 |doi= |url=http://bmj.com/cgi/pmidlookup?view=long&pmid=7711621}}</ref> *Lower Bone Mass<ref name="pmid10793873">{{cite journal |author=Jones G, Riley M, Dwyer T |title=Breastfeeding in early life and bone mass in prepubertal children: a longitudinal study |journal=[[Osteoporos Int]] |volume=11 |issue=2 |pages=146–52 |year=2000 |pmid=10793873 |doi= |url=http://link.springer.de/link/service/journals/00198/bibs/0011002/00110146.htm}}</ref> *[[Cancer]]<ref name="cancer1">{{cite journal | authorlink = | title = In-utero and early life exposures in relation to risk of breast cancer. | journal = Cancer Causes And Control | volume = 10(6) | pages = 561–573 | date = 1999}}</ref><ref name="cancer2">{{cite journal | authorlink = | title = Exposure to breast milk in infancy and the risk of breast cancer. | journal = Epidemiology | volume = 5 | pages = 324–331 | date = 1994}}</ref><ref name="cancer3">{{cite journal | authorlink = | title = Infant Feeding and Childhood Cancer. | journal = Lancet | volume = 13;2(8607) | pages = 365–8 | date = 1988}}</ref><ref name="cancer4">{{cite journal | authorlink = | title = Review of the evidence for an association between infant feeding and childhood cancer. | journal = International Journal of Cancer - Supplement | volume = 11 | pages = 29–33 | date = 1998}}</ref><ref name="cancer5">{{cite journal | authorlink = | title = Breastfeeding and the risk of childhood leukemia: A meta-analysis. | journal = Public Health Reports | volume = 119(6) | pages = 521–535 | date = November-December 2004}}</ref><ref name="cancer6">{{cite journal | authorlink = | title = Breast-feeding and risk of childhood acute leukemia. | journal = Journal of the National Cancer Institute | volume = 91(20) | pages = 1765–72 |date=October 1999 | doi = 10.1093/jnci/91.20.1765 | author = Shu, X. O. | pmid = 10528028}}</ref> *[[High Blood Pressure]]<ref name="pmid15615909">{{cite journal |author=Martin RM, Gunnell D, Smith GD |title=Breastfeeding in infancy and blood pressure in later life: systematic review and meta-analysis |journal=[[Am. J. Epidemiol.]] |volume=161 |issue=1 |pages=15–26 |year=2005 |pmid=15615909 |doi=10.1093/aje/kwh338 |url=http://aje.oxfordjournals.org/cgi/pmidlookup?view=long&pmid=15615909}}</ref> *[[High Cholesterol]]<ref name="cholesterol1">{{cite journal | authorlink = | title = Infant feeding and blood cholesterol: A study in adolescents and a systematic review. | journal = Pediatrics | volume = 110(3) | pages = 597–608 | date = September 2002}}</ref><ref name="cholesterol2">{{cite journal | authorlink = | title = The effect of breastfeeding on cardiorespiratory risk factors in adult life. | journal = Pediatrics | volume = 119(5) | pages = e1107–15 |date=May 2007 | doi = 10.1542/peds.2006-2149 | author = Rudnicka, A. R. | pmid = 17473082}}</ref> *[[Celiac Disease]]<ref name="celiac1">{{cite journal | authorlink = | title = Breast-feeding protects against celiac disease. | journal = American Journal Of Clinical Nutrition | volume = 75(5) | pages = 914–921 |date=May 2002}}</ref><ref name="celiac2">{{cite journal | authorlink = | title = A case-control study of the effect of infant feeding on celiac disease. | journal = Annals Of Nutrition And Metabolism | volume = 45(4) | pages = 135–142 | date = July-August 2001}}</ref> *[[Diabetes Mellitus]]<ref name="diabetes1">{{cite journal | authorlink = | title = Longer breastfeeding is an independent protective factor against development of type 1 diabetes mellitus in childhood. | journal = Diabetes Metabolism Research and Reviews | volume = 20(2) | pages = 150–157 | date = March-April 2004}}</ref><ref name="diabetes2">{{cite journal | authorlink = | title = Type 2 diabetes mellitus in children - Prenatal and early infancy risk factors among native Canadians. | journal = Archives Of Pediatrics And Adolescent Medicine | volume = 156(7) | pages = 651–655 |date=July 2002}}</ref> *Haemophilus Influenzae Meningitis<ref name="Haemophilus">{{cite journal | authorlink = | title = Protective effect of breastfeeding: an ecologic study of Haemophilus influenzae meningitis and breastfeeding in a Swedish population. | journal = International Journal of Epidemiology | volume = 28(1) | pages = 152–6 |date=February 1999}}</ref> *[[Ulcerative Colitis]]<ref name="Ulcerative">{{cite journal | authorlink = | title = Infant feeding practices and ulcerative colitis in childhood. | journal = British Medical Journal | volume = 302(6792) | pages = 1580–1 |date=June 1991}}</ref> *[[Crohn's Disease]]<ref name="Crohns">{{cite journal | authorlink = | title = Role of Infant Feeding Practices in Development of Crohn's Disease in Childhood | journal = British Medical Journal | volume = 298(6688) | pages = 1617–8 |date=June 1989}}</ref> *[[Juvenile Rheumatoid Arthritis]]<ref name="Juvenile">{{cite journal | authorlink = | title = Breast feeding and the development of juvenile rheumatoid arthritis. | journal = Journal of Rheumatology | volume = 22(6) | pages = 1166–70 |date=June 1995}}</ref> *[[Multiple Sclerosis]]<ref name="Sclerosis">{{cite journal | authorlink = | title = Breast feeding and multiple sclerosis. | journal = British Medical Journal | volume = 308(6941) | pages = 1411–2 |date=May 1994}}</ref> *[[Obesity]]<ref name="Obesity1">{{cite journal | authorlink = | title = Duration of breastfeeding and risk of overweight in childhood: a prospective birth cohort study from Germany. | journal = International Journal of Obesity | volume = 30(8) | pages = 1281–7 | date = August 2006}}</ref><ref name="Obesity2">{{cite journal | authorlink = | title = Effect of infant feeding on the risk of obesity across the life course: A quantitative review of published evidence. | journal = Pediatrics | volume = 115(5) | pages = 1367–77 | date = 2005}}</ref><ref name="Obesity3">{{cite journal | authorlink = | title = The effect of breast-feeding with and without formula use on the risk of obesity at 4 years of age. | journal = Obesity Resolution | volume = 12(9) | pages = 1527–35 | date = September 2004}}</ref><ref name="Obesity4">{{cite journal | authorlink = | title = Breastfeeding and lowering the risk of childhood obesity. | journal = Lancet | volume = 359(9322) | pages = 2003–2004 |date=June 2002}}</ref> *[[Schizophrenia]]<ref name="Obesity5">{{cite journal | authorlink = | title = Breastfeeding and risk of schizophrenia in the Copenhagen Perinatal Cohort. | journal = [[Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica]] | volume = 112(1) | pages = 26–9 |date=July 2005}}</ref> *[[Tonsillitis]]<ref name="Obesity6">{{cite journal | authorlink = | title = Breast feeding and tonsillectomy. | journal = British Medical Journal | volume = 312(7033) | pages = 746–7 |date=March 1996}}</ref> {{div col end}} ==Risks decreased== '''Infectious diseases transmitted from the breastfeeder''' *[[HIV]] infection<ref name="pmid15325535">{{cite journal |author=Lawrence RM, Lawrence RA |title=Breast milk and infection |journal=[[Clin Perinatol]] |volume=31 |issue=3 |pages=501–28 |year=2004 |pmid=15325535 |doi=10.1016/j.clp.2004.03.019 |url=http://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S009551080400020X}}</ref><ref name="pmid15583769">{{cite journal |author=Lamounier JA, Moulin ZS, Xavier CC |title=[Recommendations for breastfeeding during maternal infections] |language=Portuguese |journal=[[J Pediatr (Rio J)]] |volume=80 |issue=5 Suppl |pages=S181–8 |year=2004 |pmid=15583769 |doi= |url=http://www.jped.com.br/conteudo/04-80-S181/ing.asp}}</ref> *[[CMV]] infection,<ref name="pmid15325535"/> with potentially dangerous consequences in pre-term babies<ref name="pmid16287195">{{cite journal |author=Schleiss MR |title=Acquisition of human cytomegalovirus infection in infants via breast milk: natural immunization or cause for concern? |journal=[[Rev. Med. Virol.]] |volume=16 |issue=2 |pages=73–82 |year=2006 |pmid=16287195 |doi=10.1002/rmv.484}}</ref> *[[HTLV-1]] infection<ref name="pmid15325535"/><ref name="pmid15583769"/> *[[HTLV-2]] infection<ref name="pmid15583769"/> *[[Tuberculosis]] in the context of tuberculosis mastitis *[[Herpes simplex]] when lesions are present on the breasts<ref name="pmid15583769"/> *[[Chickenpox]] in the newborn, when the disease manifested in the mother within a few days of birth<ref name="pmid15583769"/> '''Environmental contaminants''' *Exposure to polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs) *Exposure to [[polychlorinated biphenyls]]<ref name="pmid11065082">{{cite journal |author=Przyrembel H, Heinrich-Hirsch B, Vieth B |title=Exposition to and health effects of residues in human milk. |journal=Adv. Exp. Med. Biol. |volume=478 |issue= |pages=307–25 |year=2000 |pmid=11065082 |doi= |issn= }}</ref> '''Malnutrition''' *Iron deficiency *Vitamin deficiencies *Inadequate nutrition during transition to solid foods<ref name="pmid16262018">{{cite journal |author=Mamiro PS, Kolsteren P, Roberfroid D, Tatala S, Opsomer AS, Van Camp JH |title=Feeding practices and factors contributing to wasting, stunting, and iron-deficiency anaemia among 3-23-month old children in Kilosa district, rural Tanzania. |journal=J Health Popul Nutr |volume=23 |issue=3 |pages=222–30 |year=2005 |pmid=16262018 |doi= |issn= }}</ref> ==Manufacturers== Major infant formula manufacturers include: *[[PBM Products]]: The first to introduce [[store brand]] formula in the U.S. *[[Mead Johnson]]: owned by [[Bristol-Myers Squibb]], makes Enfamil *[[Nestlé]]: the largest producer of formula in the world, makes Good Start *[[Abbott Nutrition]]: a division of [[Abbott Laboratories]], makes Similac *[[Wyeth]] Nutrition: Market leader in the Philippines S-26 Gold, Promil Gold, Progress Gold, S-26, Promil, Promil Kid, Bonna, Bonamil, Bonakid 1+, Bonakid 3+, Nursoy *[[Parent's Choice]] *[[Bright Beginnings]] *[[Gerber Products Company]] *[[Earth's Best]] owned by Hain Celestial *[[Organic Baby]] *Danone recently acquired Royal Numino, Dumex, Milupa ==See also== *[[Child development]] *[[Baby food]] *[[Baby bottle]] *[[Breastfeeding]] *[[Breast milk]] ==References== <!--See http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Footnotes for an explanation of how to generate footnotes using the<ref> and </ref> tags and the tag below --> {{reflist|2}} ==External links== *[http://www.fda.gov/fdac/features/596_baby.html U.S. FDA] Infant Formula: Second Best but Good Enough *[http://www.cfsan.fda.gov/~dms/inf-faq.html Infant Formula Frequently Asked Questions] Center for Food Safety and Applied Nutrition/Food and Drug Administration *[http://www.mayoclinic.com/health/breast-feeding/FL00133 "Breast-feeding and Guilt: Interview with a Mayo Clinic Specialist"] [[Category:Infant feeding|Formula]] [[Category:Milk]] [[Category:Dairy products]] [[Category:Soy products]] [[es:Leche maternizada]] [[he:תרכובת מזון לתינוקות]] [[fi:Äidinmaidonkorvike]]