Intelligence
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'''Intelligence''' (also called '''intellect''') is an [[umbrella term]] used to describe a property of the [[mind]] that encompasses many related abilities, such as the capacities to [[reason]], to [[plan]], to [[problem solving|solve problems]], to think [[abstraction|abstractly]], to comprehend ideas, to use [[language]], and to [[Learning|learn]]. There are several ways to define intelligence. In some cases, intelligence may include traits such as [[creativity]], [[personality psychology|personality]], [[character structure|character]], [[knowledge]], or [[wisdom]]. However, some psychologists prefer not to include these traits in the definition of intelligence.
== Definitions ==
Intelligence comes from the Latin verb "intellegere", which means "to understand". By this rationale, intelligence (as understanding) is arguably different from being "smart" (able to adapt to one's environment), or being "clever" (able to creatively adapt).
At least two major "consensus" definitions of intelligence have been proposed. First, from [[Intelligence: Knowns and Unknowns]], a report of a task force convened by the [[American Psychological Association]] in 1995:
{{quote|Individuals differ from one another in their ability to understand complex ideas, to adapt effectively to the environment, to learn from experience, to engage in various forms of reasoning, to overcome obstacles by taking thought. Although these individual differences can be substantial, they are never entirely consistent: a given person’s intellectual performance will vary on different occasions, in different domains, as judged by different criteria. Concepts of "intelligence" are attempts to clarify and organize this complex set of phenomena. Although considerable clarity has been achieved in some areas, no such conceptualization has yet answered all the important questions and none commands universal assent. Indeed, when two dozen prominent theorists were recently asked to define intelligence, they gave two dozen somewhat different definitions.<ref name=Neisser1998>{{cite journal | author = Neisser, U.
| coauthors = Boodoo, G.; Bouchard Jr, T.J.; Boykin, A.W.; Brody, N.; Ceci, S.J.; Halpern, D.F.; Loehlin, J.C.; Perloff, R.; Sternberg, R.J.; Others, | year = 1998 | title = Intelligence: Knowns and Unknowns | journal = Annual Progress in Child Psychiatry and Child Development 1997 | url = http://books.google.com/books?hl=en&lr=&ie=UTF-8&id=gLWnmVbKdLwC&oi=fnd&pg=PA95&dq=Intelligence:+Knowns+and+unknowns&ots=0WN9Iwvu4Y&sig=mIsyLWklGV3U_Y2_RM6l7MgaPmo | accessdate = 2008-03-18}}</ref><ref name=Perloff1996>{{cite journal | author = Perloff, R. | coauthors = Sternberg, R.J.; Urbina, S. | year = 1996 | title = Intelligence: knowns and unknowns | journal = American Psychologist | volume = 51}}</ref>}}
A second definition of intelligence comes from "[[Mainstream Science on Intelligence]]", which was signed by 52 intelligence researchers in 1994:
{{quote|A very general mental capability that, among other things, involves the ability to reason, plan, solve problems, think abstractly, comprehend complex ideas, learn quickly and learn from experience. It is not merely book learning, a narrow academic skill, or test-taking smarts. Rather, it reflects a broader and deeper capability for comprehending our surroundings—"catching on", "making sense" of things, or "figuring out" what to do.<ref name=Gottfredson1997>{{cite journal | author = Gottfredson, L.S. | year = 1997 | title = Foreword to “intelligence and social policy” | journal = Intelligence | volume = 24 | issue = 1 | pages = 1–12 | doi = 10.1016/S0160-2896(97)90010-6 | url = http://www.udel.edu/educ/gottfredson/reprints/1997specialissue.pdf | format = pdf | accessdate = 2008-03-18 }}</ref>}}
Researchers in the fields of [[psychology]] and [[learning]] have also defined human intelligence:
{| class="wikitable"
|-
! width="140"| Researcher
! Quotation
|-
| [[Alfred Binet]]
| [J]udgment, otherwise called good sense, practical sense, initiative, the faculty of adapting one's self to circumstances...auto-critique.<ref name=Binet1905>{{cite journal | author = Binet, A. | year = 1905 | title = The development of the Binet-Simon Scale: New methods for the diagnosis of the intellectual level of subnormals (ES Fite, Trans.) In D | journal = Readings in the History of Psychology. NewYork: Appleton-Century-Crofts | url = http://books.google.ca/books?id=t2k_X5mWpGkC&pg=PA417&lpg=PA417&dq=%22judgment+otherwise+called+good+sense+practical+sense+initiative+the+faculty+of+adapting+one's+self+to+circumstances%22&source=web&ots=Z6DZsRiOa2&sig=3Jra1hA25UWHziHYt_1-sMWMwYA&hl=en#PPA412,M1 | accessdate = 2008-03-18}}</ref>
|-
| [[David Wechsler]]
| [T]he aggregate or global capacity of the individual to act purposefully, to think rationally, and to deal effectively with his environment.<ref>{{cite book | last = Wechsler | first = D | authorlink = David Wechsler | title = The measurement of adult intelligence | publisher = Williams & Wilkins | location = Baltimore | year = 1944 }} ASIN = B000UG9J7E </ref>
|-
|[[Cyril Burt]]
|[I]nnate general cognitive ability<ref name=Burt1931>{{cite journal | author = Burt, C. | year = 1931 | title = The Differentiation Of Intellectual Ability | journal = The British Journal of Educational Psychology }}</ref>
|-
|[[Howard Gardner]]
|To my mind, a human intellectual competence must entail a set of skills of [[problem solving]]—enabling the individual to resolve genuine problems or difficulties that he or she encounters and, when appropriate, to create an effective product—and must also entail the potential for finding or creating problems—and thereby laying the groundwork for the acquisition of new knowledge.<ref name="isbn0465025102 ">{{cite book |author=Gardner, Howard |title=Frames of mind: the theory of multiple intelligences |publisher=Basic Books |location=New York |year=1993 |pages= |isbn=0465025102 |oclc= |doi=}}</ref>
|-
|[[Linda Gottfredson]]
|[T]he ability to deal with cognitive complexity<ref>{{cite journal | title = The General Intelligence Factor | journal = Scientific American Presents | author = Gottfredson L | authorlink = Linda Gottfredson | url = http://www.udel.edu/educ/gottfredson/reprints/1998generalintelligencefactor.pdf | format = pdf | accessdate = 2008-03-18 | year = 1998 | pages = 24–29 | volume = 9 | issue = 4 }}</ref>
|-
|[[Robert Sternberg|Sternberg]] & Salter
|[[goal-oriented|[G]oal-directed]] adaptive behavior<ref name="isbn0521296870 ">{{cite book |author=Sternberg RJ | authorlink = Robert Sternberg | coauthor = Salter W |title=Handbook of human intelligence |publisher=Cambridge University Press |location=Cambridge, UK |year=1982 |pages= |isbn=0521296870 |oclc= |doi=}}</ref>
|-
|
|}
==Theories of intelligence==
The most widely accepted theory of intelligence is based on [[psychometrics]] testing or [[intelligence quotient]] (IQ) tests{{Fact|date=March 2008}}. However, dissatisfaction with traditional IQ tests has led to the development of a number of alternative theories, all of which suggest that intelligence is the result of a number of independent abilities that uniquely contribute to human performance.
=== Psychometric approach ===
{{main|Intelligence quotient|General intelligence factor|Psychometrics}}
Despite the variety of concepts of intelligence, the approach to understanding intelligence with the most supporters and published research over the longest period of time is based on [[psychometrics]] testing. Such [[intelligence quotient]] (IQ) tests include the [[Stanford-Binet]], [[Raven's Progressive Matrices]], the [[Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale]] and the [[Kaufman Assessment Battery for Children]].
All forms of IQ tests [[correlation|correlate]] highly with one another. The traditional view is that these tests measure ''g'' or "[[general intelligence factor]]". However, this is by no means universally accepted. [[Charles Spearman]] (1924) is credited with having developed the concept of ''g''. ''g'' can be derived as the principal factor using the mathematical method of [[factor analysis]]. One common view is that these abilities are hierarchically arranged with ''g'' at the vertex (or top, overlaying all other cognitive abilities). ''G'' itself is sometimes considered to be a two part construct, ''gF'' and ''gC'', which stand for [[fluid and crystallized intelligence]].<ref name=Cattell1910>{{cite journal | author = Cattell, R.B. | year = 1910 | title = Theory Of Fluid And Crystallized Intelligence: A Critical Experiment | journal = Journal of Educational Psychology | volume = 54 | issue = 1 | pages = 1–22 | doi = 10.1037/h0046743}}</ref><ref name=Cattell1941>{{cite journal | author = Cattell, R.B. | year = 1941 | title = Some theoretical issues in adult intelligence testing | journal = Psychological Bulletin | volume = 38 | pages = 592}}</ref> Carroll expanded this hierarchy into a Three-Stratum theory, also known as the Cattell-Horn-Carroll theory of cognitive abilities (or simply [[CHC Theory]]).<ref>{{cite book |author=Carroll, John J. |title=Human cognitive abilities: a survey of factor-analytic studies |publisher=Cambridge University Press |location=Cambridge, UK |year=1993 |pages= |isbn=0521387124 |oclc= |doi=}}</ref>
Intelligence, as measured by IQ and other aptitude tests, is widely used in educational, business, and military settings due to its efficacy in predicting behavior. ''G'' is highly correlated with many important social outcomes - individuals with low IQs are more likely to be divorced, have a child out of marriage, be incarcerated, and need long term welfare support, while individuals with high IQs are associated with more years of education, higher status jobs and higher income.<ref name="isbn1591471818 ">{{cite book |author=Geary, David M. |title=The Origin Of The Mind: Evolution Of Brain, Cognition, And General Intelligence |publisher=American Psychological Association (APA) |location= |year= |pages= |isbn=1591471818 |oclc= |doi=}}</ref>
Intelligence is significantly correlated with successful training and performance outcomes, and ''g'' is the single best predictor of successful job performance.<ref name=Ree1992>{{cite journal | author = Ree, M.J. | coauthors = Earles, J.A. | year = 1992 | title = Intelligence Is the Best Predictor of Job Performance | journal = Current Directions in Psychological Science | volume = 1 | issue = 3 | pages = 86–89 | doi = 10.1111/1467-8721.ep10768746}}</ref>
==== Controversies ====
{{Refimprovesect|date=April 2008}}
IQ tests were originally devised specifically to predict educational achievement.{{Fact|date=January 2008}} The inventors of the IQ did not believe they were measuring fixed intelligence.{{Fact|date=January 2008}} Despite this, critics argue that intelligence tests have been used to support nativistic theories in which intelligence is viewed as a qualitatively unique faculty with a relatively fixed quantity.<ref name=Schlinger2003>{{cite journal | author = Schlinger, H.D. | year = 2003 | title = The Myth of Intelligence | journal = The Psychological Record | volume = 53 | issue = 1 | pages = 15–33 | url = http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&se=gglsc&d=5001903843 | accessdate = 2008-03-18}}</ref>
Critics of the psychometric approach point out that people in the general population have a somewhat different and broader conception of intelligence than what is measured in IQ tests. In turn, they argue that the psychometric approach measures only a part of what is commonly understood as intelligence. Furthermore, skeptics argue that even though tests of mental abilities are correlated, people still have unique strengths and weaknesses in specific areas. Consequently they argue that psychometric theorists over-emphasize ''g''.
Researchers in the field of human intelligence have encountered a considerable amount of public concern and criticism-- much more than scientists in other areas normally receive. A number of critics have challenged the relevance of psychometric intelligence in the context of everyday life. There have also been controversies over [[Genetics|genetic]] factors in intelligence, particularly questions regarding the relationship between [[race and intelligence]] and [[sex and intelligence]]. Another controversy in the field is how to interpret the increases in test scores that have occurred over time, the so-called [[Flynn effect]].
[[Stephen Jay Gould]] was one of the most vocal critics of intelligence testing. In his book, ''[[The Mismeasure of Man]]'', Gould argued that intelligence is not truly measurable, and also challenged the [[hereditarian]] viewpoint on intelligence. Many of Gould's criticisms were aimed at [[Arthur Jensen]], who responded that his work had been misrepresented,<ref name=Jensen1982>{{cite journal | authorlink = Arthur Jensen | author = Jensen, A.R. | year = 1982 | title = The debunking of scientific fossils and straw persons | journal = Contemporary Education Review | volume = 1 | issue = 2 | pages = 121–135| url = http://www.debunker.com/texts/jensen.html | accessdate = 2008-03-18 }}</ref> also stating that making conclusions about modern IQ tests by criticizing the flaws of early intelligence research is like condemning the auto industry by criticizing the performance of the [[Model T]].
=== Multiple intelligences ===
{{main|Theory of multiple intelligences}}
[[Howard Gardner]]'s [[theory of multiple intelligences]] is based on studies not only on normal children and adults but also by studies of gifted individuals (including so-called "[[savant]]s"), of persons who have suffered brain damage, of experts and [[virtuoso]]s, and of individuals from diverse cultures. This led Gardner to break intelligence down into at least eight different components: [[logical]], [[linguistic]], [[spatial]], [[music]]al, [[kinesthetic]], [[naturalist]], [[intrapersonal]] and [[interpersonal]] intelligences. He argues that psychometric tests address only linguistic and logical plus some aspects of spatial intelligence; other forms have been entirely ignored. Moreover, the paper and-pencil format of most tests rules out many kinds of intelligent performance that matter in everyday life, as [[social intelligence]].<ref name="isbn0465026117 ">{{cite book |author=Gardner, Howard |title=Intelligence reframed: multiple intelligences for the 21st century |publisher=BasicBooks |location=New York |year=1999 |pages= |isbn=0465026117 |oclc= |doi=}}</ref>
Most of theories of multiple intelligences are relatively recent in origin, though it should be noted that [[Louis Thurstone]] proposed a theory of multiple "primary abilities" in the early 20th Century.
===Triarchic theory of intelligence===
{{main|triarchic theory of intelligence}}
[[Robert Sternberg]]'s [[triarchic theory of intelligence]] proposes three fundamental aspects of intelligence-analytic, creative, and practical--of which only the first is measured to any significant extent by mainstream tests. His investigations suggest the need for a balance between analytic intelligence, on the one hand, and creative and especially practical intelligence on the other.
===Emotional intelligence===
{{main|emotional intelligence}}
Daniel Goleman and several other researchers have developed the concept of [[emotional intelligence]] and claim it is at least as "important" as more traditional sorts of intelligence. These theories grew from observations of human development and of brain injury victims who demonstrate an acute loss of a particular cognitive function -- e.g. the ability to think numerically, or the ability to understand written language -- without showing any loss in other cognitive areas.
===Empirical evidence===
IQ proponents have pointed out that IQ's [[predictive validity]] has been repeatedly demonstrated, for example in predicting important non-academic outcomes such as job performance (see [[Intelligence quotient#Practical importance|IQ]]), whereas the various multiple intelligence theories have little or no such support. Meanwhile, the relevance and even the existence of multiple intelligences have not been borne out when actually tested. A set of ability tests that do not correlate together would support the claim that multiple intelligences are independent of each other. However, thus far no one has developed such a set of tests.{{Fact|date=February 2008}}
==Evolution of intelligence==
{{main|Hominid intelligence|primate cognition}}
Our [[hominidae|hominid]] and [[Homo (genus)|human]] ancestors evolved large and complex brains exhibiting an ever-increasing intelligence through a long and mostly unknown evolutionary process. This process was either driven by the direct adaptive benefits of intelligence<ref name=flinn>{{cite web| url=http://web.missouri.edu/~gearyd/Flinnetal2005.pdf| title=Flinn, M. V., Geary, D. C., & Ward, C. V. (2005). Ecological dominance, social competition, and coalitionary arms races: Why humans evolved extraordinary intelligence| accessdate=2007-05-05}}</ref>, or − alternatively − driven by its indirect benefits within the context of [[sexual selection]] as a reliable signal of genetic resistance against pathogens<ref name=Rozsa>{{cite web| url=http://www.zoologia.hu/list/clever.pdf|title=Rozsa L 2008. The rise of non-adaptive intelligence in humans under pathogen pressure. ''Medical Hypotheses,'' '''70,''' 685-690. |accessdate=2008-05-26}}</ref>.
==Factors affecting intelligence==
Intelligence is an ill-defined, difficult to quantify concept. Accordingly, the IQ tests used to measure intelligence provide only approximations of the posited 'real' intelligence. In addition, a number of theoretically unrelated properties are known to correlate with IQ such as [[Race and intelligence|race]], [[Sex and intelligence|gender]] and [[Height and intelligence|height]] but since [[correlation does not imply causation]] the true relationship between these factors is uncertain. Factors affecting IQ may be divided into biological and environmental.
===Biological===
{{main|Heritability of IQ}}
Evidence suggests that [[Genetics|genetic]] variation has a significant impact on IQ, accounting for three fourths in adults. Despite the high heritability of IQ, few [[gene]]s have been found to have a substantial effect on IQ, suggesting that IQ is the product of interaction between multiple genes.
Other biological factors correlating with IQ include [[Neuroscience and intelligence#Brain size|ratio of brain weight to body weight]] and the [[Neuroscience and intelligence#Neuroanatomy|volume and location of gray matter tissue in the brain]].
Because intelligence appears to be at least partly dependent on brain structure and the genes shaping brain development, it has been proposed that [[genetic engineering]] could be used to enhance the intelligence of animals, a process sometimes called [[biological uplift]] in [[science fiction]]. Experiments on mice have demonstrated superior ability in learning and memory in various behavioural tasks.<ref name="pmid10485705">{{cite journal |author=Tang YP, Shimizu E, Dube GR, ''et al'' |title=Genetic enhancement of learning and memory in mice |journal=Nature |volume=401 |issue=6748 |pages=63–9 |year=1999 |pmid=10485705 |doi=10.1038/43432}}</ref>
===Environmental===
{{main|Environment and intelligence}}
Evidence suggests that family environmental factors may have an effect upon childhood IQ, accounting for up to a quarter of the variance. On the other hand, by late adolescence this correlation disappears, such that adoptive siblings are no more similar in IQ than strangers.<ref>{{cite book | author = Plomin, R., DeFries, J. C., McClearn, G. E. and McGuffin, P. | authorlink = | coauthors = | year = 2001 | month = | title = Behavioral Genetics (4th Ed.) | chapter = | editor = | others = | edition = | pages = | publisher = Freeman | location = New York | isbn = 0-7167-5159-3 | url = }}</ref> Moreover, adoption studies indicate that, by adulthood, adoptive siblings are no more similar in IQ than strangers, while twins and full siblings show an IQ correlation.
Consequently, in the context of the [[nature versus nurture]] debate, the "nature" component appears to be much more important than the "nurture" component in explaining IQ variance in the general population.
Cultural factors also play a role in intelligence. For example, on a sorting task to measure intelligence, Westerners tend to take a taxonomic approach while the [[Kpelle people]] take a more functional approach. For example, instead of grouping food and tools into separate categories, a [[Kpelle]] participant stated "the knife goes with the orange because it cuts it"<ref>Glick (1975) reported in Resnick, L. (1976). The Nature of Intelligence. Hillsdale, New Jersey: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.</ref>
===Ethical issues===
{{main|Transhumanism|Eugenics|Neuroethics|Intelligence and public policy}}
Since intelligence is susceptible to modification through the manipulation of environment, the ability to influence intelligence raises ethical issues. [[Transhumanism|Transhumanist]] theorists study the possibilities and consequences of developing and using techniques to enhance human abilities and aptitudes, and ameliorate what it regards as undesirable and unnecessary aspects of the human condition; [[eugenics]] is a social philosophy which advocates the improvement of human hereditary traits through various forms of intervention.<ref name="Osborn1937">{{cite journal | author = Osborn, F.| authorlink = Frederick Osborn | year = 1937 | title = Development of a Eugenic Philosophy | journal = [[American Sociological Review]] | volume = 2 | issue = 3 | pages = 389–397 | url = http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0003-1224(193706)2%3A3%3C389%3ADOAEP%3E2.0.CO%3B2-L | accessdate = 2008-03-20 | doi = 10.2307/2084871}}</ref> The perception of eugenics has varied throughout history, from a [[social responsibility]] required of society, to an immoral, racist stance.
[[Neuroethics]] considers the ethical, legal and social implications of neuroscience, and deals with issues such as difference between treating a human [[Neurology|neurological]] disease and enhancing the human brain, and how wealth impacts access to neurotechnology. Neuroethical issues interact with the ethics of [[human genetic engineering]].
== Other species ==
{{Expand-section|date=May 2008}}
{{main|Animal cognition}}
Although humans have been the primary focus of intelligence researchers, scientists have also attempted to investigate animal intelligence, or more broadly, animal cognition. These researchers are interested in studying both mental ability in a particular species, and comparing abilities between species. They study various measures of problem solving, as well as mathematical and language abilities. Some challenges in this area are defining intelligence so that it means the same thing across species (eg. comparing intelligence between literate humans and illiterate animals), and then [[operational definition|operationalizing]] a measure that accurately compares mental ability across different species and contexts.
[[Wolfgang Köhler]]'s pioneering research on the intelligence of apes is a classic example of research in this area. Stanley Coren's book, ''[[The Intelligence of Dogs]]''{{Verify credibility|date=June 2008}} is a notable popular book on the topic.<ref>{{cite book | last=Coren | first=Stanley | title=The Intelligence of Dogs | publisher=Bantam Books | id=ISBN 0-553-37452-4 | year=1995 }}</ref> Nonhuman animals particularly noted and studied for their intelligence include [[chimpanzee]]s, [[bonobo]]s (notably the language-using [[Kanzi]]) and other [[great ape]]s, [[dolphin]]s, [[elephant]]s and to some extent [[parrot]]s and [[raven]]s. Controversy exists over the extent to which these judgments of intelligence are accurate.
==Artificial intelligence==
<!-- Commented out: [[Image:P11 kasparov breakout.jpg|thumb|right|280px|[[Garry Kasparov]] playing against [[IBM Deep Blue|Deep Blue]], the first machine to win a chess match against a reigning world champion.]] -->
{{main|Artificial intelligence}}
Artificial intelligence (or AI) is both the intelligence of machines and the branch of [[computer science]] which aims to create it, through "the study and design of [[intelligent agents]]"<ref name=Poole>{{cite book |author=Goebel, Randy; Poole, David L.; Mackworth, Alan K. |title=Computational intelligence: a logical approach |publisher=Oxford University Press |location=Oxford [Oxfordshire] |year=1997 |pages= |isbn=0195102703 |oclc= |doi=| url = http://www.cs.ubc.ca/spider/poole/ci/ch1.pdf | pages = 1 | format = pdf}}</ref> or "rational agents", where an [[intelligent agent]] is a system that perceives its environment and takes actions which maximize its chances of success.<ref name=Russell>{{cite book |author=Canny, John; Russell, Stuart J.; Norvig, Peter |title=Artificial intelligence: a modern approach |publisher=Prentice Hall |location=Englewood Cliffs, N.J |year=2003 |pages= |isbn=0137903952 |oclc= |doi=}}</ref> General intelligence or [[strong AI]] has not yet been achieved and is a long-term goal of AI research.
Among the traits that researchers hope machines will exhibit are [[Artificial intelligence#Deduction, reasoning, problem solving|reasoning]], [[Artificial intelligence#Knowledge representation|knowledge]], [[Artificial intelligence#Planning|planning]], [[Artificial intelligence#Learning|learning]], [[Artificial intelligence#Natural language processing|communication]], [[Artificial intelligence#Perception|perception]] and the ability to [[Artificial intelligence#Motion and manipulation|move]] and manipulate objects.<ref name=Russell/><ref name = Poole/>
== See also ==
* [[Active intellect]]
* [[Educational psychology]]
* [[Individual differences psychology]]
* [[Passive intellect]]
* [[Systems intelligence]]
* [[Fertility and intelligence]]
* [[Race and intelligence]]
== References ==
{{reflist}}
==Further reading==
* {{cite book | author = [[Alfred Binet|Binet A]] | coauthors = Simon T | year = 1916/2007| isbn = 0548307520 | title = The development of intelligence in children | location = Baltimore | publisher = Williams & Wilkins (original); Kessinger Publishing (reprint)}}
*{{cite book |author=Wake, Warren K.; Gardner, Howard; Kornhaber, Mindy L. |title=Intelligence: multiple perspectives |publisher=Harcourt Brace College Publishers |location=Fort Worth, TX |year=1996 |pages= |isbn=0030726298 |oclc= |doi=}}
*{{cite book |author=Blakeslee, Sandra; [[Jeff Hawkins|Hawkins, Jeff]] |title=On intelligence |publisher=Times Books |location=New York |year=2004 |pages= |isbn=0-8050-7456-2 |oclc= |doi=}}
*{{cite book |author=Jensen, Arthur |title=The g factor: the science of mental ability |publisher=Praeger |location=New York |year=1998 |pages= |isbn=0275961036 |oclc= |doi=|authorlink = Arthur Jensen}}
* {{cite book | author = [[Lewis Terman|Terman, L]] | year = 1916| url = http://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Terman/terman1.htm | title = The measurement of intelligence | publisher = Houghton Mifflin | location = Boston}} [[Amazon Standard Identification Number|ASIN]] B000H5DEOM
== External links ==
{{wiktionary}}
{{wikiquote}}
* [http://web.archive.org/web/20041130090438/http://www.apa.org/releases/intell.html APA Task Force Examines the Knowns and Unknowns of Intelligence] - ''American Psychological Association'', Press release
* [http://www.wjh.harvard.edu/~cfc/Chabris1998a.html IQ Since "The Bell Curve" by Christopher F. Chabris] - ''Commentary'' magazine
* [http://www.americanscientist.org/template/AssetDetail/assetid/24538/page/1 The cognitive-psychology approach vs. psychometric approach to intelligence] - ''American Scientist'' magazine
* [http://www.indiana.edu/%7Eintell/map.shtml History of Influences in the Development of Intelligence Theory and Testing] - Indiana University
'''Scholarly journals and societies'''
*[http://www.elsevier.com/locate/intell The Journal Intelligence]
*[http://www.isironline.org/ International Society for Intelligence Research]
[[Category:Intelligence| ]]
[[Category:Educational psychology]]
[[Category:Developmental psychology]]
[[Category:Psychological testing]]
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