International Computers Limited 515789 225754459 2008-07-15T06:48:51Z Gadfium 54381 /* New Range */ fix link '''International Computers Ltd''', or '''ICL''', was a large British [[computer hardware]], [[computer software]] and [[computer services]] company that operated from 1968 until 2002, when it was renamed [[Fujitsu Services]] Limited after its parent company, [[Fujitsu]]. The company's most successful product line was the [[ICL 2900 Series]] range of mainframe computers. In later years ICL attempted to diversify its product line, but the bulk of its profits always depended on the mainframe customer base. New ventures included marketing a range of powerful IBM clones made by Fujitsu, various minicomputer and personal computer ranges, and (more successfully) a range of retail point-of-sale equipment and back-office software. ICL was always dependent on large contracts from the UK public sector. Significant customers included [[Post Office Ltd]], the [[Inland Revenue]], the [[Department for Work and Pensions]], and the [[Ministry of Defence (United Kingdom)|Ministry of Defence]]. [[Image:ICL-Building.jpg|thumb|right|360px|''Vacant former ICL offices at Amsinckstraße 45, Hamburg, Germany'']] == Origins of ICL == International Computers Ltd was formed in 1968 as a part of the Industrial Expansion Act of the [[Harold Wilson|Wilson]] [[Labour Party (UK)|Labour]] Government. ICL was an initiative of [[Tony Benn]], the Minister of Technology, to create a British computer industry that could compete with major world manufacturers like [[IBM]]. ICL represented the last step in a series of mergers that had taken place in the industry since the late 1950s. The main portions of ICL were formed by merging [[International Computers and Tabulators]] (ICT) with [[English Electric Computers]], the latter itself a recent merger of [[Elliott Automation]] with English Electric Leo Marconi computers. EELM was itself a merger of the computer divisions of [[English Electric]], [[LEO computer|LEO]] and [[Marconi Company|Marconi]]. On its formation the company inherited two main product lines: from ICT the [[ICT 1900]] Series of [[Mainframe computer|mainframes]], and from English Electric Computers (EEC) the System 4, a range of IBM-compatible mainframe clones, based on the [[RCA Spectra 70]]. === International Computers and Tabulators (ICT) === {{main|International Computers and Tabulators}} ICT was itself the result of a merger of two [[United Kingdom|UK]] companies that had competed with each other throughout the 1930s and 1940s during the [[punch card]] era: [[British Tabulating Machine Company]] (BTM) and [[Powers-Samas]]. ICT had thus emerged with equipment that would process data encoded on punched cards - 40, 80 or 160 column cards in the case of ICT, compared to the 64 or 80 column cards used by IBM and its predecessors. In 1962 ICT delivered the first ICT 1300 series computer which was its first transistor machine and also the first to use core memory. In 1964 ICT purchased the computer division of [[Ferranti]] in another government-forced merger. Ferranti had been building a small number of scientific machines based on various university designs since the 1950s. None of these could be considered commercially successful, however, and Ferranti always seemed to be slow bringing its designs to market. In 1962 a small team from Ferranti's Canadian subsidiary, [[Ferranti-Packard]], visited the various Ferranti computer labs and saw their work on a next-generation machine. On their return home they produced the [[Ferranti-Packard 6000]] in an astonishingly short period of time, developing the machine, [[compiler]]s and an [[operating system]] (before these were common) and putting it on the market by 1963. A feature of the Executive operating system was its ability to multi task, using dynamic memory allocation enabled with a magnetic drum as an intermediate random access device. The machine went on to have some success and sold in small numbers in Canada (Saskatchewan Power Corporation retired serial number 0001 in the early 1980s) and the United States. Meanwhile ICT management in England was looking to rejuvenate their lineup; their latest developments, the ones used to develop the FP 6000, were still not on the market. Management looked at the FP 6000 as well as licensing the [[RCA Spectra 70]], an [[IBM System/360]]-clone. In the end it was decided to go with the FP 6000 as the basis for a small line of small-to-midrange machines. The result was the [[ICT 1900]] series, which would eventually go on to sell into the thousands. The 1900 Series, which derived from the Canadian [[Ferranti-Packard 6000]], competed successfully in the UK with the [[IBM]] [[System/360]] range from the mid 1960s to the mid 1970s. The basic design was based on a 24 bit word, divided up into 6 bit characters. Lower case and control characters were provided for by "shift" characters. The early machines (1904/1905 with hardware floating point)) were only 15 bit addressing. Later machines (1904E, 1905E, 1906A) had extended addressing modes up to 22 bits. The operating systems (Executives) were *E4BM - the original for the FP 6000 (known internally as the FP1) *E4RM - a significantly rewritten version of E4BM, with parts of the operating system overlaid to save space. *E6BM - A rewritten version of E4BM for the later machines with 22 bit addressing. *E6RM - A rewritten version of E4RM overlay software for the later machines with 22 bit addressing. A later development was [[GEORGE (operating system)|GEORGE3]], remembered with great affection by a generation of British programmers. A series of smaller machines were developed by the ICL Stevenage operation, consisting initially of the 1901 / 1902 / 1903 systems running E3 series executives (e.g. E3RM) and versions of the GEORGE operating system (initially GEORGE1). Later developments were the 1901A / 1902A / 1903A with their own Executives and GEORGE2. At a time (in the 1960s and 1970s) when IBM/360 series programs had to be recompiled to run in different machine and/or operating system environments, one significant feature of the 1900 series was that programs would function unaltered on any 1900 system, i.e. without the need for recompilation. Unfortunately ICT, and later ICL, was unable to capitalise on this major advantage to make significant inroads into IBM's customer base. === English Electric LEO Marconi (EELM) === During the same period of time, LEO was struggling to produce its own machines that would be able to compete with IBM. Its parent company, [[J. Lyons and Co.]], simply didn't have the financial might to develop a new line of machines. Not wanting to see its work go to waste, it sold its computer division to [[English Electric]]. English Electric had developed a series of machines over the years, notably the famous [[English Electric KDF9|KDF9]] and the commercially-oriented [[KDF8]], but never had much commercial success. Now with serious financial backing at its disposal, the new company nevertheless decided not to come up with its own design, and instead licensed the RCA Spectra 70 (the design ICT rejected). The result was the [[English Electric|System 4]] series. While there were a number of models in the range, the smaller 4/10 and 4/30 were seen as underpowered, and the more successful variants were the larger 4/50 and 4/70 models. A model 4/75 was also supplied to the EELM (later Baric) Bureau subsidiary and installed at Winsford, Cheshire as the hardware for a bureau-developed commercial system for interactive use by bureau customers. Although several multi-user commercial packages e.g. sales and purchase ledger systems were developed and trialed with customers, this was not commercially successful, and the service was soon withdrawn. The System 4 series ran the J (for Job) operating system. This was a batch operating system, although there was a variant that allowed interactive access called MultiJob. Programming languages used were assembler and [[COBOL]]. The system was controlled from a console comprised of a mechanical printer and keyboard &ndash; very like a Teletype. The assembly language non-privileged instruction set was identical to IBM System 360 Assembly Language; in privileged mode there were a few extras. System 4's compatibility with the IBM 360 made it particularly attractive to customers in [[Eastern Europe]] and the [[Soviet Union]], as the sale and installation of IBM computers (and other American technologies) there was politically sensitive and commercially restricted during the [[Cold War]]. === Leo computers === * [[LEO computer]] Leo 3 - origins in [[J. Lyons and Co.]] === Elliott computers === * [[Elliott 4100]] * [[Elliott 503]] * [[Elliott 803]] * [[Elliott 901 / 920A]] * [[Elliott 903 / 920B]] * [[Elliott 905 / 920C]] * [[Elliott 920ATC]] The last four were 18 bit binary computers. The 900 series were commercial machines and the 920 series were built to military specification and were used in military aircraft and tanks. == ICL Locations == ICL's corporate headquarters were in [[Putney]], London. At the time of the original merger, the company inherited extensive engineering and manufacturing facilities in West [[Gorton]] and [[Stevenage]] from ICT, and from English Electric in [[Kidsgrove|Kidsgrove (Staffordshire)]] and [[Winsford|Winsford (Cheshire)]]. The company had a large research, operating system and superstructure development and support centre in [[Bracknell]], application development in [[Reading, Berkshire|Reading]], and training centres at Moor Hall ([[Cookham]]), [[Beaumont College]] ([[Old Windsor]]) (sales, support and software) and [[Letchworth|Letchworth (Hertfordshire)]] (field engineering). For some years ICL maintained a training and presentation facility for senior management at [[Hedsor]] House, near [[Taplow]], Berkshire. ICL and its customers often referred to these locations by the Site Code, especially where multiple sites may exist in a town, with for instance with the Putney Headquarters being LON15 (London 15), the training college at Beaumont being WSR01 (Windsor 01) and the southern System Support Centre (SCC) at Bracknell being BRA05 (Bracknell 05). == New Range == {{seealso|ICL 2900 Series|ICL VME}} Even before the merger that created ICL was complete, a working party had recommended that the new company should develop a new range of machines offering "acceptable compatibility with the current ranges of both companies". This was also seen as a way to help "achieve company unity" for the newly-formed organization. The resulting 2900 Series was launched on [[9 October]] [[1974]]. Its design drew on many sources, one being the Manchester University MU5, and it is still available in the guise of the Fujitsu Trimetra. It ran the [[ICL VME|VME]] [[operating system]]s, and supported emulation of both the earlier architectures (1900 Series and System 4), either standalone (DME, Direct Machine Environment) or concurrently with [[native-mode]] operation (CME, Concurrent Machine Environment). In the early 1980s ICL struck a deal to acquire semiconductor technology from Fujitsu, on whom they became increasingly dependent as the years progressed. Eventually Fujitsu acquired ICL, and in 2002 the residue of the company was rebranded as Fujitsu's [[Europe]]an services arm. The term "New Range" was used during development for the product line that was eventually launched as the [[ICL 2900 Series|2900 Series]], the operating system being known initially as VME/B and later simply as [[ICL VME|VME]]. The computer hardware included: {{col-begin}} {{col-2}} *[[ICL2956|2950]] *[[ICL2956|2955]] *[[ICL2956|2956]] *[[ICL2960|2960]] *[[ICL2966|2966]] {{col-2}} *[[ICL2970|2970]] *[[ICL2972|2972]] *[[ICL2980|2980]] *[[ICL2982|2982]] *[[ICL2988|2988]] {{col-end}} These ran the [[ICL VME|VME]] and [[Direct Machine Environment|DME]] (emulation) operating systems, and were available in both single and multi-processor configurations, the later being known as Duals and SuperDuals ([[ICL2966|2966]] and [[ICL2988|2988]] only). === Series 39 === {{seealso|ICL Series 39}} [[ICL Series 39|Series 39]] followed the same essential architecture as 2900 series, but was a dramatic step forward in hardware technology. It was the first commercial mainframe to exploit optical fibres for central interconnect, and also introduced a multi-CPU (multinode) architecture transparent to the applications. The series included: *Level 30 *Level 50 *Level 60 *Level 80 The training video for the series 39 featured the famous comedy duo ''[[House (TV Series)|House]]'' star [[Hugh Laurie]] and comedian [[Stephen Fry]]. ICL received the [[Queen's Award for Enterprise|Queen's Award for Technological Achievement]] for the Series 39 in 1988. === Operating systems === At the inception of New Range development, two operating systems were planned: System B for the large processors, and System D for the mid-range. System B was subsequently renamed [[ICL VME|VME/B]]. A third operating system, System T, was subsequently targeted at small machines. System D was dropped in order to focus efforts on VME/B and System T, renamed to [[VME/K]] (Confusingly, VME/B was developed in [[Kidsgrove]], VME/K in [[Bracknell]].) The first large machines (the 2980 and 2970) were launched with VME/B. VME/K first saw service on the 2960. The chief architect of VME/B was [[Brian Warboys]], who subsequently became professor of software engineering at the [[University of Manchester]]. VME/K development continued independently for several reasons. Early VME/B customers suffered significant performance and reliability problems, and the existence of an alternative product provided a safety net. Perhaps more significantly, VME/K was the brainchild of Ed Mack, who had been brought in by managing director Geoff Cross as ICL's head of research and development. Despite his wide responsibilities, Mack took a detailed personal interest in every aspect of VME/K design. To quote historian Martin Campbell-Kelly, "Mack had a good deal more autonomy than was good for the company." Not only was too much resource going into VME/K at the expense of the VME/B system that ICL's biggest customers were actually using, but the development of mainframe systems was also diverting expenditure from small business systems such as the 2903, whose sales were growing much more rapidly. ICL's finances deteriorated during the late 1970s, leading to the appointment of a new management team led by Robb Wilmot and Peter Bonfield. One of their first actions was to end VME/K development. This happened just at the time that VME/K had finally reached a level of performance and reliability that made it saleable; however, the customer base was very small, and by this time VME/B (which was renamed VME 2900) had also matured sufficiently to give confidence that it would meet the future requirements for the entire mainframe range. VME 2900 subsequently became simply VME and then Open VME, and continued to evolve. In 1980 it was marketed as "Your system for the 80s", and indeed that decade proved to be its heyday. It continued (and continues) to give service to many loyal and demanding users, but has attracted few new users since 1990 or so. ==== Superstructure Software ==== ICL used the term ''Superstructure'' to refer to the compilers, data management tools, and transaction processing software sitting above the operating system but below the user application -- a category now often labelled ''Middleware''. {| |valign="top" width="15%"|'''IDMS(X)''' |width="85%"|Integrated Data Management System - a [[Codasyl]] database, ported from the [[IDMS]] system developed by Cullinane (later [[Cullinet]]). |- |valign="top"|'''TPMS(X)''' |Transaction Processing Management System - a Transaction Processing monitor |- |valign="top"|'''DDS (X)''' |Data Dictionary System |- |valign="top"|'''QuickBuild''' |A package of tools for building applications for [[ICL Series 39|Series 39]] mainframes built around the Data Dictionary System (DDS). [http://www.pcmag.com/encyclopedia_term/0,2542,t=QuickBuild&i=50086,00.asp]. |- |valign="top"|'''Querymaster''' |An interactive command-based query language for IDMS databases and indexed-sequential files, offering a relational view of the underlying data sources. Querymaster was based on a Ph.D research project undertaken by Andrew Hutt of ICL during a secondment to [[Southampton University]] in 1976. |} ==== Languages ==== {| |valign="top" width="15%"|'''[[S3 (programming language)|S3]]''' |width="85%"|a [[system programming language]] derived from Algol 68, but with data types and operators aligned to those offered by the 2900 Primitive Level Interface (that is, the order code). This was used to write the VME/B operating system and much of the superstructure, such as compilers and utilities. S3 was not generally used for application-level programming. |- |'''[[ICL VME#SCL|SCL]]''' |System Control Language, VME's equivalent of a job control or shell scripting language |- |'''[[COBOL]]''' |for most business applications |- |'''[[Fortran]]''' | |- |'''[[Pascal (programming language)|Pascal]]''' | |- |'''SFL''' |System Function Language - an assembly language. Used to write VME/K, and 2900 IDMS. Assembly language programming was positively discouraged and the assembler was not available to customers as a standard product, though it could be obtained if there were good reasons. |- |'''[[C (programming language)|C]]''' |C compilers only became available on VME in the mid 1980s, being needed to port relational database products such as [[Ingres]] and [[Oracle Database|Oracle]]. Portability of C applications suffered from the assumptions made by many C programmers that characters would be encoded in ASCII and that short integers would always be 16 bits long (the 2900 architecture allows 32-bit, 64-bit, and 128-bit arithmetic, but 16-bit arithmetic has to be implemented in software and is therefore inefficient). |- |'''Application Master''' (AM) |valign="top"|Batch and TP application generation from the Data Dictionary System |- |} == 2903 range == A rapid development to produce a small business computer from, as far as possible, existing hardware and software. It was urgently needed to generate a cash flow that would support continuing 2900 development. The hardware was the 2900 DFC (Disk File Controller) installed in an L-shaped piece of furniture. This contained the system, operator's console, integral printer and disk storage. The 2903 used microcode to emulate 1900 hardware. The operating system was George 1* (a modification of George 1S batch operating system) running on top of the UDAS Executive. In consequence, all the normal 1900 compilers and utilities ran on the 290x range without any changes or recompilation. One major new facility provided on this range was [[Direct Data Entry]], a system comprising up to eight dedicated VDU data entry stations, with which card image files could be created; these could be assigned to a program's card reader and processed accordingly. There were three models in the range: * [[ICL2903|2903]] * [[ICL2904|2904]] * [[ICL2905|2905]] (limited and was replaced by the [[ICL2950|2950]]) 290x computers would run in an office environment, still quite an innovation for this class of machine, and were a runaway success. Roughly 3000 systems were sold. This was ten times as many as ICL had anticipated. * ME29 The smaller machines in the 290x family were replaced in about 1982 by the ME29 system. === Operating systems and Software === * Executive The 290x operating system, known as 'Executive', allowed the machines to be operated 'manually' via a video console. GEORGE1* ran on top of Executive to control batch processes by means of JCL (Job Control Language), which was based very closely upon the macro language of the 1900 GEORGE1S operating system. * TME (Transaction Machine Environment) TME was the operating system on the ME29 and required CL (Control Language) to run jobs - 'manual' operation being discouraged. Practically all the software packages available on the 1900 range ran on the 290x and ME29 systems. == Departmental Systems == === DRS Range === For many years ICL marketed departmental computers under the 'DRS' brand, standing originally for Distributed Resource System. During the mid 80s separate Office Systems business units had produced a disparate range of products including IBM-compatible PCs such as the PWS (an [[PC_AT|AT]] Clone), small servers branded DRS, and various larger Unix servers sold under the Clan range. A rebranding in late 1988 pulled these together under the DRS brand, with a consistent grey and green livery. * DRS 20/100/200 The original DRS was the DRS 20 produced in [[Utica, New York|Utica]] and launched in 1982. This ran the proprietary DRX (Distributed Resource Executive) operating system. The basic 'intelligent terminal' (model 10/110/210) used 8-bit [[8085]] processors (workstation, application and network processors), each with between 32K and 128K of memory. The Model 210 also had an [[80188]] application processor with 512K to run [[CP/M]]. The larger models 20 and 40 had floppy disk drives. The floor-standing models 50, 150, and 250 had hard disks, from which disk-less models booted. In early models these were 8" floppy disks, and later 5¼" disks. The final Model 310 (styled like a DRS 300 module) had a second [[80186]] application processor with 1MB RAM to run Concurrent DOS, emulating an IBM PC with a Hercules screen display. * DRS 300 In the mid 1980s ICL developed the DRS 300 in [[Kidsgrove]], and ran down [[Utica, New York|Utica]]. Launched in 1986, DRS 300 was a modular system consisting of A4-sized units designed to be placed on an office bookshelf. Modules containing a power supply (Kx), processor (Ax), hard and floppy disks (Dx), streamer tape (Sx) etc were connected by [[SCSI]]. Initial models used an 8MHz [[80286]] processor (A2 module) or 80286 with [[80287]] (A3) and ran [[Concurrent DOS]].<ref>Steve Malone, ''ICL DRS-300 Multi-User by Stages'', Practical Computing July 1986 PP48-51</ref> Although this could run code developed under [[CP/M]], [[PC-DOS]] or [[MS-DOS]], in practice available applications were limited because many shrink-wrapped packages developed for the [[IBM PC]] made use of direct access to the (IBM) hardware. This was addressed through use of softclone technology to intercept such calls<ref>Steve Malone, ''Softcloning'', Practical Computing July 1986 P73</ref>. However this required the continual release of patches for new application versions. The initial DRS 300 also ran ICL's implementation of Unix System V Release 2, DRS/NX V2. Later an [[80386]] (A4) module was added, to run a 32-bit DRS/NX V3, based on System V Release 3. * DRS 400, DRS 500 These brand names were applied to bought-in Unix boxes. The DRS 400 originated as the Clan 4, based on the [[Motorola 68020]] running [[UniSoft]]'s Uniplus [[Unix]]. This was later replaced by the DRS 400E, based on the [[Motorola 68030]] running DRS/NX V3. DRS 500 originated as the Clan 5, 6 and 7 based on the [[Computer Consoles Inc.|CCI]] Power 6/32. This was built in [[Irvine, California|Irvine]] by [[Computer Consoles Inc.|CCI]], which had been taken over by ICL's parent [[STC PLC]]. [[Computer Consoles Inc.|CCI]] was also the source of what became ICL's flagship OfficePower office application suite across the DRS range. * DRS 3000 The successor to DRS 300, the DRS 3000 was an IBM-compatible, [[80486]]-based, floor-standing model running [[SVR4]]. The [[Pentium]]-based Level 656 was launched in September 1993.<ref>''New Pentium Processor System for Unix'', Product Matters Issue 3 September 1993, International Computers Ltd, Bracknell</ref> * DRS 6000 The in-house (Irvine/Bracknell) developed DRS 6000 was launched in January 1990 as a washing machine-sized [[SPARC]]-based server, running ICL's implementation of Unix System V Release 4 ([[SVR4]]). It also had a 68020-based Central Service Module board (CSM), leading to sarcastic comments in the press that it was a DRS 400 in disguise. By 1992 there were desktop, slimline and full sized models, ranging from a single-processor desktop model rated at 29 MIPS (L240) to a 4-processor model rated at 116 MIPS (L644). Some models were sold by Fujitsu as the DS/90. ICL received the [[Queen's Award for Enterprise|Queen's Award for Export Achievement]] for DRS 6000 in 1993. The DRS 6000 competed directly with IBM's [[IBM_System_p|RS/6000]], which was launched a few weeks later; the similarity of the names appears to be a pure coincidence. In 1994 the DRS range was superseded by the SuperServer and TeamServer ranges of SPARC and Intel-based machines, running Unix or Microsoft operating systems. * DRS 6000 Level 200 Series <ref> Model 240: Cabinet type: Compact Desktop Processor 1 x 40Mhz SCSI Channels 1 Floppy disk (fmt) 720Kbyte & 1.44Mbyte Disk 1 x 520Mbyte Specifications: Processor - Type SPARC/RISC - Word Length 32 bits - Cache 64 Kbytes - Cache configuration 64k (2k x 32) direct mapped Memory - Size (module) 8Mbyte, 16Mbyte - Size (max) 96Mbyte - Access time 80ns Mbus - Cycle time 25ns - Data path width 64bits - Memory slots 6 pairs - Transfer rate 320Mbyte/sec Sbus - Slots 5 - Cycle time 40ns - Data path width 32bits - Transfer rate 100Mbyte/sec </ref> * DRS 6000 Level 600 Series<ref> Model 630: Cabinet Type: Midi Processor: 1 x 33Mhz Performance: 23 MIPS SCSI Channels: 2 Disks: 1 x 660Mbyte Model 632: Cabinet Type: Midi Processor: 2 x 33Mhz Performance: 46 MIPS SCSI Channels: 2 Disks: 1 x 660Mbyte Model 640: Cabinet Type: Midi Processor: 1 x 40Mhz Performance: 29 MIPS SCSI Channels: 2 Disks: 1 x 660Mbyte Model 642: Cabinet Type: Midi Processor: 2 x 40Mhz Performance: 58 MIPS SCSI Channels: 2 Disks: 1 x 660Mbyte Model 644: Cabinet Type: Midi Processor: 4 x 40Mhz Performance: 116 MIPS SCSI Channels: 2 Disks: 1 x 660Mbyte Specifications: Processor - Type SPARC/RISC - Word Length 32 bits - Cache 128 Kbytes - Cache configuration 16k x 64 direct mapped Memory - Size (module) 16Mbyte, 32Mbyte, 64Mbyte, 128Mbyte - Size (max) 512Mbyte - Transfer rate 66Mbyte/sec (reads) 88Mbyte/sec (writes) Disk - Size 5.25" - Max 8Gbyte (main cabinet) 29Gbyte (with expansion cabinets) HSPbus - Cycle time 60ns - Data Path Width 64 bits - Slots 9 - Transfer rate 133Mbytes/sec VMEbus - Slots 11 (main cabinet) 31 (with 2 expansion cabinets) - Throughput 40Mbyte/sec (Sources: Product description glossy's) </ref> ==== Development Software ==== Languages on DRS20 under DRX included [[Microsoft BASIC]], CIS-COBOL and [[Pascal]], and application building packages including Userbuild and the Demon suite. Languages on DRS300 Concurrent DOS included [[Lattice C]], CBASIC, Level II [[COBOL]] and [[Digital Research]] languages including [[FORTRAN]] and [[Pascal]]. Development software on the Unix-based DRS ranges (300 to 6000) included [[C (programming language)|C]], Micro Focus and RM [[COBOL]], EPC [[C++]], [[FORTRAN]] and [[Pascal]], and relational databases including [[Ingres]], [[Informix]] and [[Oracle Database|Oracle]]. == Subsidiaries == === Dataskil === Dataskil Ltd or ICL Dataskil was a software house that developed commercial programs and some utility software for the ICL marketplace. Dataskil software products included: {{col-begin}} {{col-2}} * 1900 Datadrive * 1900 Datafeed * 1900 Dataview * 1900 IDMS * 1900 Filan {{col-2}} * 2900 IDH (Interactive Data Handler) * 2900 LP (Linear Programming) * 2900 OMAC * 2900 [[Program Evaluation and Review Technique|PERT]] * Applications Manager {{col-end}} Dataskil also provided Consultants to work on ICL's or direct client's projects - there were several divisions within Dataskil one of which was Consultancy Services. The ICL 1900 Filan manual (1st edition January 1973) describes Filan as <blockquote>"a totally integrated system for the analysis of large quantities of complex data such as that collected in censuses and other surveys".</blockquote> It was used to process the 1971 Indonesian Population Census (see http://www.disc.wisc.edu/INDO/indo_report.html). In the UK, Filan was used during the 1970s by OPCS (Office of Population Censuses and Surveys) to process the General Household Survey data. As there was only a small user community, ICL decided not to convert the software to run on its 2900 range of computers in the 1980s. === BARIC === This was a joint venture of International Computer Services Ltd (ICSL), a division of ICL, and [[Barclays Bank]], that provided computer services. In the early days of computing many organizations avoided the capital costs of purchasing their own equipment and the recruitment of technical specialists by putting their work out to service companies which were then known as computer bureaux such as BARIC. This kind of business diminished during the 1980s, only to reappear in the 1990s under a new name &ndash; [[outsourcing]]. BARIC also ran special groups such as the Advanced [[Videotext]] team which looked into how new technologies such as [[Prestel]] could be leveraged. This team was based in Feltham, Middlesex. === ICIM === ICL had established a presence in India in its earliest days, through a partly-owned subsidiary International Computers India Manufacturing (ICIM). As the name implies, ICIM took on some of the manufacturing of ICL-designed equipment, generally for overseas markets. In later years ICIM, from its offices in [[Pune]], started to establish a presence in the market for offshore software development and eventually [[outsourcing]] of the operation of computer services. ICIM subsequently became a joint operation with Fujitsu, establishing links to Japan that were as strong as its traditional links to the UK. Reflecting the shift in its business, the company was renamed ICIL (International Computers India Limited), and is now [http://www.zensar.com Zensar]. === DESC === DESC Ltd (subsequently ICL DESC Ltd.) was a subsidiary focused on defence systems spun out from ICL at the time of the Fujitsu takeover to avoid concerns about defence systems ownership by the Japanese firm. These qualms were overcome and eventually it was merged back into the parent company. <!-- deleted this section because it really doesn't fit in anywhere, and I can't see that it gives any real information about ICL === Compatibility === A major factor in the improvement of computer services was in ensuring compatibility with existing hardware, software and operating systems. The significant investment in the development of systems, which were usually proprietary in nature, resulted in exceptional costs being incurred if a change of supplier was contemplated. This was a form of supplier lock-in that fuelled the demand for common programming languages such as [[COBOL]] and the move to lower costs of ownership afforded by open systems. --> == Corporate history == This section describes the various takeovers of and by ICL that followed the formation of ICL in 1969. === Singer Business Machines === Early in 1976 ICL acquired the international (that is, non-US) part of [[Singer Corporation|Singer]] Business Machines. Subsequently ICL also took on the development and manufacturing plant at Utica, New York. The Singer group (best known for their sewing machines) had diversified into computers and in 1970 launched the System Ten, a small business minicomputer. The acquisition shifted the geographical balance of ICL's sales away from the UK, and also gave a presence in industry markets such as retail and manufacturing. ICL subsequently developed the System Ten into the System 25, and used the product to spearhead the growth of its Retail Systems business during the 1980s.<ref> [http://www.computermuseum.org.uk/machines/icl_system25.html The Jim Austin Computer Collection]</ref> === STC === On [[26 July]] [[1984]] a takeover bid for ICL arrived from Sir [[Kenneth Corfield]], head of [[Standard Telephones and Cables]]. The stated rationale was the predicted convergence of computers and telecommunications. To the bemusement of many ICL staff, Corfield also announced that he thought ICL's marketing skills would complement STC's technical strengths. The ICL board recommended acceptance of the bid, and the takeover was completed on [[10 September]] [[1984]]. [[Sir Michael Edwardes]], who had been chairman for just six months, resigned; Christopher Laidlaw became Chairman, [[Robb Wilmot]] became Managing Director at the age of only 36, and [[Peter Bonfield]] Marketing director. The merger was soon followed by a financial crisis in STC, leading to Corfield's replacement by Lord Keith as chairman, and Arthur Walsh as chief executive. Wilmot resigned, and Peter Bonfield was appointed chairman and managing director of ICL. Within a few years ICL was contributing 60% of the profits and turnover of the combined group. Bonfield was created a [[Order of the British Empire|CBE]] for his role in turning the company around. === Datachecker === In 1988 STC acquired US retail systems specialist Datachecker Systems from National Semiconductor Corporation. At the time this was the second largest supplier in the US retail market, and greatly expanded ICL's US presence. === Regnecentralen === In 1989, ICL acquired [[Regnecentralen]] of Denmark, a company with a distinguished history and reputation in that country, but which was best known internationally for its front-end communications handling equipment. === Computer Consoles Inc === Also in 1989 STC acquired [[Computer Consoles Inc.|CCI]], suppliers of ICL's Clan 5, 6 and 7 ranges (later DRS 500) and originator of OfficePower. By 1990 CCI's Computer Products Division in Irvine, California and Office Products Centre in Reston, Virginia had been transferred to ICL.<ref>''Irvine signs on'', STC Gazette February 1990, STC PLC</ref> === Nokia Data === In 1991 ICL acquired Nokia Data, part of the Finnish [[Nokia|Nokia Group]]. Nokia Data was itself the result of Nokia's mid-1980s acquisition of Ericsson Information Systems, whose origins lay in the purchase by [[Ericsson]] of the computer business of [[Saab]], known as [[Datasaab]]. ICL's acquisition (at a price of around £250m) added 9500 employees to the company (7000 of them in [[Finland]] and [[Sweden]]), and brought with it a [[Personal Computer|PC]] manufacturing capability, a suite of desktop software products, and more importantly a strong presence in the [[Nordic countries|Nordic]] market and an awareness of the high-volume end of the IT market. === Fujitsu === ICL's relationship with Fujitsu started in 1981, when ICL needed a cheaper source of technology to develop lower-end machines in the 2900 range to compete with the [[IBM 4300 series]]. At this stage ICL was developing its own LSI technology for use in the higher-end machines, designed as a successor to the highly-successful 2966 processor (known internally as S3). ICL had visited a number of companies during 1980 including Fujitsu and [[Hitachi, Ltd.|Hitachi]] to identify potential suppliers. In early 1981 ICL ran into a financial crisis, leading to a full takeover bid from [[Univac]]; but the British Government stepped in with a loan guarantee, enabling the company to stay independent. As part of this rescue agreement, Robb Wilmot arrived as CEO in May 1981. Wilmot cancelled ICL in-house [[LSI]] technology development, and negotiated an agreement that gave access to Fujitsu's LSI and packaging technologies, which, when combined with ICL's in-house CAD capability, enabled ICL to design and manufacture the DM1 and Estriel machines, later marketed very profitably as Series 39 level 30 and 80. Initially the collaboration with Fujitsu was presented as being an arm's length one, to avoid diluting ICL's credentials as a European and British company. However, Fujitsu's involvement with ICL at both the financial and the technical level steadily increased over the subsequent two decades, leading first to 100% ownership and subsequently to the full integration of ICL into the Fujitsu company and the dropping of the ICL brand. In 1990 Fujitsu acquired 80% of ICL plc from the parent STC plc, paying USD 1.29 billion. == See also == *[[ICL 2900 Series]] *[[ICL Series 39]] *[[ICL VME]] *[[Content Addressable File Store|CAFS]] *[[Distributed Array Processor|DAP]] *[[One Per Desk]] *[[PERQ]] *[[Odra (computer)]] The Polish Odra 1300 series computers used ICL software * ICL: A Business and Technical History. Martin Campbell-Kelly, Clarendon Press, 1989. ISBN 0-19-853918-5 * ICL and Europe. Virgilio Pasquali. In ''Resurrection'', the Bulletin of the Computer Conservation Society, Summer 2005 ==References== {{reflist}} == External links == <!--===========================({{NoMoreLinks}})===============================--> <!--| DO NOT ADD MORE LINKS TO THIS ARTICLE. WIKIPEDIA IS NOT A COLLECTION OF |--> <!--| LINKS. 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