International Space Station 15043 225992061 2008-07-16T10:32:41Z TheDJ 244887 /* Altitude control */ the requested ref is at the end of the line. {{Redirect|ISS}} {{Infobox Space station | station = International Space Station | station_image = ISS_after_STS-124_06_2008.jpg | station_image_size = | station_image_caption = | extra_image =ISS_from_STS-124_009968.jpg | extra_image_size = | extra_image_caption = The International Space Station as seen from the departing {{OV|103}} on [[STS-124]] | insignia = ISS insignia.svg | insignia_size = 120px | insignia_caption = ISS Insignia | sign = ''Alpha'' <small>(only by [[NASA]])</small> | crew = 3 | launch = 1998-Present | launch_pad = [[Kennedy Space Center|KSC]] [[Kennedy Space Center Launch Complex 39|LC-39]],<br> [[Baikonur Cosmodrome|Baikonur]] [[Gagarin's Start|LC-1/5]] & 81/23 | reentry = | mass = 277,598 kg <br/> (612,000[[pound (mass)| lb]]) <br/> <small>([[2008-06-14]])</small> <br/> 419,600 kg (925,000 lb) <small>upon completion</small><ref name="NASA ISS Specs">{{cite web | url = http://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/station/news/ISS_Reference_Guide.html | title = NASA - Reference Guide to the International Space Station| date = Unknown| accessdate = 2008-06-14 | publisher = NASA}}</ref> | length = 58.2 m (191 ft) <br/> <small>along truss</small> <br/> <small>([[2007-02-22]])</small> | width = 44.5 m (146 ft) <br/> <small>from Destiny to Zvezda</small> <br/> 73.15 m (240 ft) <br/> <small>span of solar arrays</small> <br/> <small>([[2007-02-22]])</small> | height = 27.4 m (90 ft) <br/> <small>([[2007-02-22]])</small> | volume = 424.75 [[cubic metre|m³]] <br/> (15,000 [[cubic foot|ft³]]) | pressure = 1013 [[pascal (unit)|hPa]] (29.91 [[inch of mercury|inHg]]) | perigee = 331.0 km (183.2 [[nautical mile|nmi]])<br/> <small>([[2008-02-15]])</small> | apogee = 341.9 km (184.6 nmi)<br/> <small>([[2008-02-15]])</small> | inclination = 51.6410 [[degree (angle)|degree]]s<br/> <small>([[2008-02-15]])</small> | altitude = 340.5 km (183.86 nmi) | speed = 27,743.8 [[kilometres per hour|km/h]] <br/> (17,239.2 [[miles per hour|mi/h]], 7706.6 [[m/s]]) | period = 91.34 minutes | orbits_day = 15.78224218<br/> <small>([[2008-02-15]])</small> | in_orbit = {{age in days|1998|11|20}} <small>({{date}})</small> <!--Self-updating--> | occupied = {{age in days|2000|10|31}} <small>({{date}})</small> <!--Self-updating--> | orbits = {{rounddown|{{#expr: {{age in days|1998|11|20}} * 15.78224218}}}} <small>({{date}})</small> <!--Self-updating--> | distance = 2,000,000,000 km <br/> (1,100,000,000 nmi) | as_of = [[November 20]] [[2007]] (unless noted otherwise) | stats_ref =<ref>{{cite web |url=http://spaceflight.nasa.gov/station/isstodate.html |title=The ISS to Date |work=NASA.gov |date=[[2007-02-22]] |accessdate=2007-06-24}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://spaceflight.nasa.gov/spacenews/reports/issreports/2006/iss06-7.html |title=International Space Station Status Report #06-7 |work=NASA.gov |date=[[2006-02-17]] |accessdate=2007-06-24}}</ref> | configuration_image = ISS after STS-124 departure.jpg | configuration_size = | configuration_caption = International Space Station current elements }} The '''International Space Station''' ('''ISS''') is a research facility being [[Assembly of the International Space Station|assembled]] in [[Outer space| space]]. Its on-orbit assembly began in 1998. The [[space station]] is in a [[low Earth orbit]] and [[International Space Station#Sightings|can be seen from Earth]] with the [[Naked eye#Naked eye in astronomy|naked eye]]: it has an altitude of about 350&nbsp;km (217&nbsp;mi)<ref name="NASA ISS Specs" /> above the surface of the [[Earth]], and travels at an [[velocity|average speed]] of 27,700&nbsp;km (17,210&nbsp;statute miles) per hour, completing 15.77&nbsp;[[orbits]] per day. The ISS is a joint project among the space agencies of the [[United States]] ([[NASA]]), [[Russia]] ([[Russian Federal Space Agency|RKA]]), [[Japan]] ([[Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency|JAXA]]), [[Canada]] ([[Canadian Space Agency|CSA]]) and eleven [[Europe]]an countries ([[European Space Agency|ESA]]).<ref>10 of its member states are currently participating; [[Austria]], [[Finland]], [[Republic of Ireland|Ireland]], [[Portugal]], and the [[United Kingdom]] chose not to participate; [[Greece]] and [[Luxembourg]] joined ESA later. {{cite web|url=http://www.esa.int/esaHS/partstates.html|title=ESA - Human Spaceflight and Exploration - European Participating States|accessdate=2005-07-03|publisher=ESA|language=English}}</ref> The [[Brazilian Space Agency]] (AEB, [[Brazil]]) participates through a separate contract with NASA. The [[Italian Space Agency]] similarly has separate contracts for various activities not done in the framework of ESA's ISS works (where [[Italy]] also fully participates). [[China]] has reportedly expressed interest in the project,<ref name="china">{{citeweb|title= China wants role in space station|url=http://www.cnn.com/2007/TECH/space/10/16/china.space.ap/index.html|publisher=[[CNN]]|accessdate=2008-03-20}}</ref> especially if it is able to work with the [[Russian Federal Space Agency|RKA]],<ref>{{cite web | url = http://www.spacedaily.com/news/china-01zd.html | title = China Eyes Entry to ISS Project| date = [[May 1]], [[2001]] | accessdate = 2007-06-26 | publisher = Space Daily}}</ref> though it is not currently involved.<ref name="china"/> The ISS is a continuation of several other previously planned space stations: Russia's [[Mir-2|Mir 2]], the U.S. [[Space Station Freedom]], the European [[Columbus (ISS module)|Columbus]], and Kibo, the [[Japanese Experiment Module]]. The projected completion date is 2010, with the station remaining in operation until around 2016. As of 2008, the ISS is larger than any previous space station. The ISS has been continuously staffed since [[Expedition 1|the first resident crew]] entered the station on [[November 2]] [[2000]], thereby providing a permanent human presence in space. The crew of [[Expedition 17]] are currently aboard. At present the station has a capacity for a crew of three. In order to fulfill an active research program it will eventually hold 6 crew members.<ref>{{citeweb|title=International Space Station Approaches Key Turning Point|url=http://www.space.com/missionlaunches/iss_update_010831.html|publisher=space.com|accessdate=2008-03-16}}</ref> Early crew members all came from the Russian and U.S. space programs. German ESA astronaut [[Thomas Reiter]] joined the [[Expedition 13]] crew in July 2006, becoming the first crew member from another [[List of space agencies|space agency]]. The station has, however, been visited by [[List of International Space Station visitors|astronauts from 16 countries]]. The ISS was also the destination of the first five [[Space tourism|space tourist]]s. The station is serviced primarily by Russian [[Soyuz spacecraft|Soyuz]] and [[Progress spacecraft]] and by U.S. [[Space Shuttle]] orbiters. On [[March 9]] [[2008]], the European Space Agency [[ESA]] launched an [[Ariane 5]] with the first [[Automated Transfer Vehicle]], [[Jules Verne ATV|''Jules Verne'']], toward the ISS carrying over 8,000 kilograms of cargo. Successful docking took place at 14:40&nbsp;GMT on [[April 3]] [[2008]]. {{TOClimit|limit=3}} ==Origins== [[Image:Unity-Zarya-Zvezda STS-106.jpg|thumb|left|ISS configuration in 2000: from top to bottom, the Unity, Zarya, and Zvezda modules.]] In the early 1980s, NASA planned [[Space Station Freedom]] as a counterpart to the Soviet [[Salyut]] and [[Mir]] space stations. It never left the drawing board and, with the end of the [[Soviet Union]] and the [[Cold War]], it was cancelled. The end of the [[space race]] prompted the U.S. administration officials to start negotiations with international partners Europe, Russia, Japan and Canada in the early 1990s in order to build a truly international space station. This project was first announced in 1993 and was called Space Station Alpha.<ref name="gao">{{cite web |url=http://archive.gao.gov/t2pbat3/151975.pdf |title=''Space Station: Impact of the Expanded Russian Role on Funding and Research''|accessdate=2006-11-03 |author=GAO |authorlink= |coauthors= |date= |year=1994 |month=June |format=PDF |work= |publisher=GAO |pages= |language= |archiveurl= |archivedate= |quote= }}</ref> It was planned to combine the proposed space stations of all participating space agencies: NASA's [[Space Station Freedom]], Russia's [[Mir-2]] (the successor to the [[Mir Space Station]], the core of which is now [[Zvezda (ISS)|Zvezda]]) and [[European Space Agency|ESA]]'s [[Columbus (ISS module)|Columbus]] that was planned to be a stand-alone spacelab. The first section, the [[Zarya|Zarya Functional Cargo Block]], was put in orbit in November 1998 on a Russian [[Proton rocket]]. Two further pieces (the [[Unity Module]] and [[Zvezda (ISS)|Zvezda service module]]) were added before the first crew, [[Expedition 1]], was sent. [[Expedition 1]] docked to the ISS on [[November 2]], [[2000]], and consisted of two Russian cosmonauts, [[Yuri Gidzenko]] and [[Sergei Krikalev]], and U.S. [[astronaut]] [[William Shepherd]]. ==Assembly== {{main|Assembly of the International Space Station}} {{see also|ISS assembly sequence}} The [[assembly of the International Space Station]] is a major aerospace engineering endeavor. When assembly is complete the ISS will have a pressurized volume of approximately 1,000 cubic meters. Assembly began in November 1998 with the launch of ''Zarya'' &ndash; the first ISS module &ndash; on a [[Proton rocket]], and as of July 2008 assembly is about 75% complete. Two weeks after Zarya was launched, the STS-88 shuttle mission followed, bringing Unity, the first of three node modules, and connecting it to Zarya. This bare 2-module core of the ISS remained unmanned for the next one and a half years, until in July 2000 the Russian module Zvezda was added, allowing a maximum crew of three astronauts or cosmonauts to be on the ISS permanently''.'' ==Pressurized modules== The ISS is currently under construction, and will eventually consist of fourteen pressurized modules with a combined volume of around 1,000 cubic metres. These modules include laboratories, docking compartments, airlocks, nodes and living quarters, nine of which are already in orbit, with the remaining five awaiting launch on the ground. Each module is launched either by [[Space Shuttle]], [[Proton rocket]] or [[Soyuz rocket]], and is listed below along with its purpose, launch date and mass. {| id="module more info" align="center" style="text-align:center; border: {{{border-s|1}}}px solid {{{border-c|#ffc9c9}}}; background-color:{{{background|#FFFFF3}}}" |- padding:1em;padding-top:0.5em;" |''For more information about the modules, visit the module pages linked on the table below.'' |} {| border="1" cellpadding="4" align="center" cellspacing="0" style="background: #f9f9f9; color: black; border: 1px #aaa solid; border-collapse: collapse;" |- bgcolor="#efefef" ! Module ! Launch date ! Launch vehicle ! Docking date ! Mass ! Assembly flight ! Purpose ! Isolated View ! Station View |- | [[Zarya|''Zarya'']]<br/>(FGB) | [[1998-11-20]] | Proton-K | N/A | {{convert|19323|kg|lb|abbr=on}} | 1A/R | Provided electrical power, storage, propulsion, and guidance during initial assembly, now serves as a storage module (both inside the pressurized section and in the externally mounted fuel tanks). | [[Image:Zarya from STS-88.jpg|80px]] | [[Image:Zarya from STS-88.jpg|80px]] |- | [[Unity Module|''Unity'']]<br/>(Node 1) | [[1998-12-04]] | Space Shuttle [[Space Shuttle Endeavour|''Endeavour'']], [[STS-88]] | [[1998-12-07]] | {{convert|11612|kg|lb|abbr=on}} | 2A | First American node, connecting the American section of the station to the Russian section (via [[Pressurized Mating Adapter|PMA]]-1). Provides berthing locations for the Z0 truss, ''Quest'' airlock, ''Destiny'' laboratory and Node 3. | [[Image:ISS Unity module.jpg|80px]] | [[Image:Sts088-703-019e.jpg|80px]] |- | [[Zvezda (ISS)|''Zvezda'']]<br/>(Service Module) | [[2000-07-12]] | Proton-K | [[2000-07-26]] | {{convert|19051|kg|lb|abbr=on}} | 1R | Station service module, providing main living quarters for resident crews, environmental systems and attitude & orbit control, in addition to docking locations for [[Soyuz spacecraft]], [[Progress spacecraft]] and the [[Automated Transfer Vehicle]]. The addition of the module rendered the ISS permanently habitable for the first time. | [[Image:ISS Zvezda module-small.jpg|80px]] | [[Image:Unity-Zarya-Zvezda STS-106.jpg|80px]] |- | [[Destiny Laboratory Module|''Destiny'']]<br/>(US Laboratory) | [[2001-02-07]] | Space Shuttle [[Space Shuttle Atlantis|''Atlantis'']], [[STS-98]] | [[2001-02-10]] | {{convert|14515|kg|lb|abbr=on}} | 5A | Primary research facility for American payloads aboard the ISS, also providing environmental systems and living quarters to the station. | [[Image:ISS Destiny Lab.jpg|80px]] | [[Image:Sts098-312-0020.jpg|80px]] |- | [[Quest Joint Airlock|''Quest'']]<br/>(Joint Airlock) | [[2001-07-12]] | Space Shuttle ''Atlantis'', [[STS-104]] | [[2001-07-14]] | {{convert|6064|kg|lb|abbr=on}} | 7A | Primary airlock for the ISS, hosting spacewalks with both American [[Extravehicular Mobility Unit|EMU]] and Russian [[Orlan space suit|Orlan]] [[Space suit|spacesuits]]. | [[Image:ISS Quest airlock.jpg|80px]] | [[Image:ISS on 20 August 2001.jpg|80px]] |- | [[Pirs docking compartment|''Pirs'']]<br/>(Docking Compartment) | [[2001-09-14]] | Soyuz-U | [[2001-09-16]] | {{convert|3580|kg|lb|abbr=on}} | 4R | Provides the ISS with additional docking ports for Soyuz & Progress spacecraft, and allows egress and ingress for spacewalks by cosmonauts using Russian Orlan spacesuits, in addition to providing storage space for these spacesuits. | [[Image:Pirs docking module taken by STS-108.jpg|80px]] | [[Image:S108e5628.jpg|80px]] |- | [[Harmony (ISS module)|''Harmony'']]<br/>(Node 2) | [[2007-10-23]] | Space Shuttle [[Space Shuttle Discovery|''Discovery'']], [[STS-120]] | [[2007-11-14]] | {{convert|14288|kg|lb|abbr=on}} | 10A | The "utility hub" of the ISS. Node 2 contains four racks that provide electrical power, bus electronic data, and act as a central connecting point for several other components via its six Common Berthing Mechanisms (CBMs). The European ''Columbus'' and Japanese ''Kibō'' laboratories are currently berthed to ''Harmony''. In addition, the ''Harmony'' module serves as a berthing port for the [[Multi-Purpose Logistics Module]]s during space shuttle logistics flights. | [[Image:Harmony Relocation.jpg|80px]] | [[Image:211448main s122e007027 hires.jpg|80px]] |- | [[Columbus (ISS module)|''Columbus'']]<br/>(European Laboratory) | [[2008-02-07]]<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.nasaspaceflight.com/content/?cid=5327 |title=PRCB plan STS-122 for NET Feb 7 - three launches in 10-11 weeks |accessdate=2008-01-12|author= Chris Bergin |date=[[2008-01-10]] |publisher=NASASpaceflight.com}}</ref> | Space Shuttle ''Atlantis'', [[STS-122]] | [[2008-02-11]] | {{convert|12800|kg|lb|abbr=on}} | 1E | Primary research facility for European payloads aboard the ISS, providing ten [[International Standard Payload Rack]]s and mounting locations for external experiments. | [[Image:S122e007873.jpg|80px]] | [[Image:STS-122 ISS Flyaround.jpg|80px]] |- | [[Japanese Experiment Module|Experiment Logistics Module]]<br/>(JEM-ELM) | [[2008-03-11]] | Space Shuttle ''Endeavour'', [[STS-123]] | [[2008-03-12]] | {{convert|8386|kg|lb|abbr=on}}<ref>{{cite web | url = http://www.nasa.gov/pdf/215905main_sts123_press_kit_b.pdf | title = STS-123 Press Kit | publisher = NASA|format=PDF}}</ref> | 1J/A | Part of the ''Kibō'' Japanese Experiment Module laboratory, the ELM provides storage and transportation facilities to the laboratory, with a pressurized section to serve internal payloads and an unpressurized section to serve external payloads. | [[Image:Kibo ELM-PS on ISS.jpg|80px]] | [[Image:STS-123 ISS Flyaround cropped.jpg|80px]] |- | [[Japanese Experiment Module|Japanese Pressurized Module]]<br/>(JEM-PM) | [[2008-05-31]] | Space Shuttle ''Discovery'', [[STS-124]] | [[2008-06-03]] | {{convert|14800|kg|lb|abbr=on}}<ref>{{cite web | url = http://www.nasa.gov/pdf/228145main_sts124_presskit2.pdf | title = STS-124 Press Kit | publisher = NASA|format=PDF}}</ref> | 1J | Part of the ''Kibō'' Japanese Experiment Module laboratory, the PM is the core module of ''Kibō'' to which the ELM & Exposed Facility are berthed. The laboratory is the largest single ISS module, and contains ten International Standard Payload Racks. | [[Image:STS-124 Kibo.jpg|80px]] | [[Image:ISS after STS-124 06 2008.jpg|80px]] |- |colspan="9" align="center"| |- | [[Mini-Research Module 2]] | [[2009-08-15]] | Soyuz-U | TBD | | 5R | '''Not yet launched.''' The newest Russian component of the ISS, MRM2 will likely be used for docking and cargo storage aboard the station. | | |- | [[ISS node 3|Node 3]] | [[2010-03-18]] | Space Shuttle ''Discovery'', [[STS-132]] | TBD | {{convert|14311|kg|lb|abbr=on}} | 20A | '''Not yet launched.''' The last of the station's US nodes, Node 3 will contain an advanced life support system to recycle waste water for crew use and generate oxygen for the crew to breathe. The node also provides four berthing locations for more attached pressurized modules or crew transportation vehicles, in addition to the permanent berthing location for the station's Cupola. | [[Image:Iss Node 3.JPG|80px]] | |- | [[Cupola (ISS)|Cupola]] | [[2010-03-18]] | Space Shuttle ''Discovery'', [[STS-132]] | TBD | {{convert|1800|kg|lb|abbr=on}} | 20A | '''Not yet launched.''' The Cupola is an observatory module that will provide ISS crew members with a direct view of robotic operations and docked spacecraft, as well as an observation point for watching the Earth. The module will come equipped with robotic workstations for operating the SSRMS and shutters to prevent its windows from being damaged by micrometeorites. | [[Image:Cupola at KSC.jpg|80px]] | [[Image:ISSFinalConfigEnd2006.jpg|80px]] |- | [[Mini-Research Module 1 (MRM1)|Mini-Research Module 1]] | [[2010-03-18]] | Space Shuttle ''Atlantis'', [[STS-131]] | TBD | {{convert|4700|kg|lb|abbr=on}} | ULF4 | '''Not yet launched.''' MRM1 will be used for docking and cargo storage aboard the station. | |- | [[Multipurpose Laboratory Module]] | [[December]] [[2011]]<ref name="NASA.gov Consolidated Launch Manifest">{{Cite web|url=http://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/station/structure/iss_manifest.html|title=Consolidated Launch Manifest|accessyear=2008|accessmonthday=July 08|publisher=nasa.gov|year=2008|}}</ref> | Proton-K | TBD | {{convert|21300|kg|lb|abbr=on}} | 3R | '''Not yet launched.''' The MLM will be Russia's primary research module as part of the ISS, and will be used for experiments, docking and cargo logistics. It will also serve as a crew work and rest area, and will also be equipped with a backup attitude control system that can be used to control the station's attitude. | [[Image:MLM - ISS module.jpg|80px]] | [[Image:ISS 3R.jpg|80px]] |} ==Major ISS systems== [[Image:ISS on 20 August 2001.jpg|thumb|The ISS in 2001, showing solar panels.]] ===Power supply=== {{main|Electrical system of the International Space Station}} The source of [[Electric power|electrical power]] for the ISS is the [[Sun]]: light is converted into electricity through the use of [[Photovoltaic module|solar panel]]s. Before assembly flight 4A (shuttle mission [[STS-97]], [[November 30]], [[2000]]) the only power source was the Russian solar panels attached to the [[Zarya]] and [[Zvezda (ISS)|Zvezda]] modules: the Russian segment of the station uses 28 [[volt]]s [[direct current|dc]] (as does the [[Space Shuttle program|Shuttle]]). In the remainder of the station, electricity is provided by the solar cells attached to the truss at a [[voltage]] ranging from 130 to 180 volts dc. The power is then stabilized and distributed at 160 volts dc and then converted to the user-required 124 volts dc. Power can be shared between the two segments of the station using converters, and this feature is essential since the cancellation of the Russian [[Science Power Platform]]. The Russian segment will depend on the U.S. built solar arrays for power.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.boeing.com/defense-space/space/spacestation/systems/solar_arrays.htm|title=Boeing: Integrated Defense Systems - NASA Systems - International Space Station - Solar Power|accessdate=2006-06-05|publisher=Boeing|language=English}}</ref> Using a [[High voltage|high-voltage]] (130 to 160 volts) distribution line in the U.S. part of the station allows smaller power lines and less weight. The solar array normally tracks the Sun to maximize the amount of solar power. The array is about 375 m² in area and {{convert|58|m|ft|0}} long. In the fully-complete configuration, the solar arrays track the sun in each orbit by rotating the ''alpha [[gimbal]]''; while the ''beta gimbal'' adjusts for the angle of the sun from the orbital plane. (until the [[Integrated Truss Structure|main truss structure]] arrived, the arrays were in a temporary position perpendicular to the final orientation, and in this configuration, as shown in the image to the right, the beta gimbal was used for the main solar tracking.) Another slightly different tracking option, [[Night Glider mode]], can be used to reduce the drag slightly by orienting the solar arrays edgewise to the velocity vector. ===Life support=== [[Image:Cycle.gif|thumb|Environmental Control and Life Support System (ECLSS).]] The ISS [[Environmental Control and Life Support System]] provides or controls elements such as atmospheric pressure, oxygen levels, water, and fire extinguishing, among other things. The [[Elektron (ISS)|Elektron]] system generates oxygen aboard the station. The highest priority for the life support system is the ISS atmosphere, but the system also collects, processes, and stores waste and water produced and used by the crew. For example, the system recycles fluid from the sink, shower, urine, and condensation. [[Activated carbon|Activated charcoal]] filters are the primary method for removing byproducts of human metabolism from the air.<ref>[http://science.nasa.gov/headlines/y2000/ast13nov_1.htm Breathing Easy on the Space Station] science.nasa.gov, [[13 November]] [[2000]]. Retrieved [[3 January]] [[2007]].</ref> ===Attitude control=== The attitude (orientation) of the station is maintained by either of two mechanisms. Normally, a system using several [[control moment gyroscope]]s (CMGs) keeps the station oriented, i.e. with ''Destiny'' forward of ''Unity'', the P truss on the port side and ''Pirs'' on the earth-facing (nadir) side. When the CMG system becomes saturated, it can lose its ability to control station attitude. In this event, the Russian Attitude Control System is designed to take over automatically, using thrusters to maintain station attitude and allowing the CMG system to desaturate. This happened during [[Expedition 10]].<ref>{{cite web | url = http://spaceflight.nasa.gov/spacenews/reports/issreports/2005/iss05-7.html | title = International Space Station Status Report #05-7 | date = [[February 11]], [[2005]] | publisher = NASA}}</ref> When a shuttle orbiter is docked to the station, it can also be used to maintain station attitude. This procedure was used during [[STS-117]] as the S3/S4 truss was being installed. ===Altitude control=== The ISS is maintained at an orbit from a minimum altitude limit of 278 km to a maximum limit of 460 km. The normal maximum limit is 425 km to allow Soyuz rendezvous missions. Because ISS is constantly losing altitude due to minute [[atmospheric drag]] and [[gravity gradient]] effects, it needs to be boosted to a higher altitude several times each year.<ref name="nasa.gov-iss-environment">{{cite web|url=http://pdlprod3.hosc.msfc.nasa.gov/D-aboutiss/D6.html|title=ISS Environment|date=|accessdate=2007-10-15|publisher=[[Johnson Space Center]]}}</ref> A graph of altitude over time shows that it drifts down almost 2.5 km per month.<ref name="iss-height">{{cite web|url=http://www.heavens-above.com/issheight.aspx |title=ISS Height Profile|accessdate=2007-10-15|publisher=Heavens-Above.com}}</ref> The boosting can be performed by two boosters on the [[Zvezda (ISS)|Zvezda]] module, a docked Space Shuttle, a [[Progress spacecraft|Progress]] resupply vessel or by ESA's [[Automated Transfer Vehicle|ATV]] and takes approximately two orbits (three hours) in which it is boosted several kilometers higher.<ref name="nasa.gov-iss-environment" /> While it is being built the altitude is relatively low so that it is easier to fly the Space Shuttle with its big payloads to the space station. ==Scientific research== [[Image:Columbus module delivered to KSC.jpg|thumb|right|''[[Columbus (ISS module)|Columbus]]'' at Kennedy Space Center]] One of the main goals of the ISS is to provide a place to conduct experiments that require one or more of the unusual conditions present on the station. The main fields of research include [[biology]] (including [[biomedical research]] and [[biotechnology]]), [[physics]] (including [[fluid physics]], [[materials science]], and [[quantum physics]]), [[astronomy]] (including [[cosmology]]), and [[meteorology]].<ref name="NASA Fields of Research">{{cite web | url = http://pdlprod3.hosc.msfc.nasa.gov/A-fieldsresearch/index.html | title = Fields of Research | date = [[June 26]], [[2007]] | publisher = NASA}}</ref><ref name="NASA ISS Goals">{{cite web | url = http://pdlprod3.hosc.msfc.nasa.gov/B-gettingonboard/index.html | title = Getting on Board | date = [[June 26]], [[2007]] | publisher = NASA}}</ref> The [[Vision for Space Exploration|2005 NASA Authorization Act]] designated the U.S segment of the International Space Station as a national laboratory with a goal to increase the utilization of the ISS by other Federal entities and the private sector. As of 2007, little experimentation other than the study of the long-term effects of microgravity on humans has taken place. With four new research modules set to arrive at the ISS by 2010, however, more specialized research is expected to begin. ===Scientific ISS modules=== [[Image:Helms.window.jpg|thumb|[[Susan J. Helms]], Expedition Two flight engineer, looks through the nadir window in the [[Destiny Laboratory Module|Destiny lab]].]] The [[Destiny Laboratory Module]] is the main research facility currently aboard the ISS. Produced by [[NASA]] and launched in February 2001, it is a research facility for general experiments.<ref>{{cite web | url = http://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/station/structure/elements/destiny.html | title = NASA - U.S. Destiny Laboratory | date = [[March 26]], [[2007]] | accessdate = 2007-06-26 | publisher = NASA}}</ref> The [[Columbus (ISS module)|Columbus module]] is another research facility, designed by the [[European Space Agency|ESA]] for the ISS. Its purpose is to facilitate scientific experiments and was launched on February 2008. It should provide a [[European Drawer Rack|generic laboratory]] as well as ones specifically designed for [[Biolab|biology]], [[European Physiology Modules|biomedical research]] and [[Fluid Science Laboratory|fluid physics]]. There are also a number of planned expansions that will be implemented to study [[quantum physics]] and [[cosmology]]. The [[Japanese Experiment Module]], also known as ''Kibō'', was put in service during [[STS-124]] on June 3, 2008. It was developed by [[Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency|JAXA]] in order to function as an observatory and to measure various astronomical data. The [[ExPRESS Logistics Carrier]], developed by [[NASA]], is set to be launched for the ISS with the [[STS-129]] mission, which is expected to take place no earlier than [[September 11]], [[2009]].<ref>{{cite web | url = http://www.sworld.com.au/steven/space/shuttle/manifest.txt | title = Unofficial Space Shuttle Manifest | accessdate = 2007-06-26 | date = [[June 25]], [[2007]] | publisher = Small World Communications}}</ref> It will allow experiments to be deployed and conducted in the vacuum of space and will provide the necessary electricity and computing to locally process data from experiments. The [[Multipurpose Laboratory Module]], created by the [[Russian Federal Space Agency|RKA]], is expected to launch for the ISS in December 2011.<ref name="NASA.gov Consolidated Launch Manifest">{{Cite web|url=http://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/station/structure/iss_manifest.html|title=Consolidated Launch Manifest|accessyear=2008|accessmonthday=July 08|publisher=nasa.gov|year=2008|}}</ref> It will supply the proper resources for general microgravity experiments.<ref>{{cite web | url = http://www.khrunichev.ru/khrunichev_eng/live/full_mks.asp?id=13190 | title = Khrunichev State Research and Production Space Centre | accessdate = 2007-06-26 | date = 2006 | publisher = Khrunichev State Research and Production Space Center}}</ref> A couple of planned research modules have been cancelled, including the [[Centrifuge Accommodations Module]] (used to produce varying levels of [[artificial gravity]]) and the [[Russian Research Module]] (used for general experimentation). ===Areas of research=== <!-- http://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/station/science/index.html and http://www.scipoc.msfc.nasa.gov/factchron2.html have more specific data on experiments that could be added here or on another page dedicated to the different experiments done. --> There are a number of plans to study biology on the ISS. One goal is to improve understanding of the effect of long-term space exposure on the human body. Subjects such as [[muscle atrophy]], [[bone loss]], and fluid shifts are studied with the intention to utilize this data so [[space colonization]] and lengthy [[Human spaceflight| space travel]] can become feasible. The effect of near-weightlessness on [[evolution]], development and growth, and the internal processes of plants and animals are also studied. In response to recent data suggesting that microgravity enables the growth of three-dimensional human body-like tissues and that unusual protein crystals can be formed in space, NASA has indicated a desire to investigate these phenomena.<ref name="NASA Fields of Research" /> NASA would also like to study prominent problems in physics. The physics of fluids in microgravity are not completely understood, and researchers would like to be able to accurately model fluids in the future. Additionally, since fluids in space can be combined nearly completely regardless of their relative weights, there is some interest in investigating the combination of fluids that would not mix well on Earth. By examining reactions that are slowed down by low gravity and temperatures, scientists also hope to gain new insight concerning [[state of matter|states of matter]] (specifically in regards to [[superconductivity]]).<ref name="NASA Fields of Research" /> Additionally, researchers hope to examine [[combustion]] in the presence of less gravity than on Earth. Any findings involving the efficiency of the burning or the creation of byproducts could improve the process of energy production, which would be of economic and environmental interest. Scientists plan to use the ISS to examine [[aerosol]]s, [[ozone]], [[water vapor]], and [[oxide]]s in Earth's atmosphere as well as [[cosmic rays]], [[cosmic dust]], [[anti-matter]], and [[dark matter]] in the [[Universe]].<ref name="NASA Fields of Research" /> The long-term goals of this research are to develop the technology necessary for human-based space and planetary exploration and colonization (including [[life support system]]s, safety precautions, environmental monitoring in space, etc.), new ways to treat diseases, more efficient methods of producing materials, more accurate measurements that would be impossible to achieve on Earth, and a more complete understanding of the Universe.<ref name="NASA Fields of Research" /><ref name="NASA ISS Goals" /> ==Future of the ISS== [[NASA Administrator]] [[Michael D. Griffin]] says the International Space Station has a role to play as NASA moves forward with a new focus for the manned space program, which is to go out beyond Earth orbit for purposes of human exploration and scientific discovery. "The International Space Station is now a stepping stone on the way," says Griffin, "rather than being the end of the line". He says ISS crews will not only continue to learn how to live and work in space but also will learn how to build hardware that can survive and function for the years required to make the round-trip voyage from Earth to Mars. ==Major incidents== ===2003 &ndash; Columbia disaster=== The [[Space Shuttle Columbia disaster]] on [[February 1]] [[2003]], the following two-and-a-half-year suspension of the U.S. [[Space Shuttle program]], followed in turn by another one-year suspension following [[STS-114]], all resulted in some uncertainty about the future of the International Space Station. All crew exchanges between February 2003 and July 2006 were carried out solely using the Russian [[Soyuz spacecraft]] (STS-114 in July 2005 was a logistics-only visit). Starting with [[Expedition 7]], two-astronaut caretaker crews were launched in contrast to the previously launched crews of three. Because the ISS had not been visited by a shuttle for an extended period, a larger than planned amount of waste had accumulated, temporarily hindering station operations in 2004. However, [[Progress spacecraft|Progress]] transports and the [[STS-114]] shuttle flight took care of this problem. ===2006 &ndash; Smoke problem=== On [[September 18]] [[2006]], the [[Expedition 13]] crew activated a smoke alarm in the Russian segment of the International Space Station when fumes from one of the three oxygen generators triggered momentary fear about a possible fire. Flight engineer [[Jeffrey Williams]] reported an unusual smell, but officials said there was no fire and the crew was not in any danger. The crew initially reported smoke in the cabin, as well as a smell. It was later found to be caused by a leak of potassium hydroxide from an oxygen vent. The equipment was turned off. [[Potassium hydroxide]] is odorless and the smell reported by Williams more likely was associated with an overheated rubber gasket in the [[Elektron (ISS)|Elektron]] system. In any case, the station's ventilation system was shut down to prevent the spread of smoke or contaminants through the rest of the lab complex. A charcoal air filter was put in place to help scrub the atmosphere of any lingering potassium hydroxide fumes. The space station's program manager said the crew never donned gas masks, but as a precaution put on surgical gloves and masks to prevent contact with any contaminants.<ref> {{cite web | url = http://spaceflightnow.com/station/exp13/060918elektron.html| title = Oxygen Generator Problem Triggers Station Alarm | publisher = Spaceflight Now}}</ref> On [[November 2]] [[2006]] the payload brought by the Russian [[Progress spacecraft|Progress]] M-58 allowed the crew to repair the Elektron using spare parts.<ref> {{cite web | url = http://www.space-travel.com/reports/Oxygen_Regeneration_Restored_At_ISS_999.html| title = Oxygen Regeneration Restored At ISS | publisher = Space Travel}}</ref> ===2007 &ndash; Computer failure=== On [[June 14]] [[2007]] during [[Expedition 15]] and flight day 7 of [[STS-117]]'s visit to ISS, a computer malfunction on the Russian segments at 06:30 UTC left the station without thrusters, oxygen generation, carbon dioxide scrubber, and other environmental control systems, and caused the temperature on the station to rise. A successful restart of the computers resulted in a false fire alarm that woke the crew at 11:43 UTC.<ref>{{cite web | url = http://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/shuttle/shuttlemissions/sts117/news/STS-117-12.html| title = STS-117 MCC Status Report #12 | publisher = NASA|author=NASA}}</ref><ref name="space.com 070616">{{Cite web|url=http://www.space.com/missionlaunches/070616_iss_computer_prog.html|title=More Progress Made to Recover Space Station Computers |accessyear=2007|accessmonthday=November 13|publisher=Space.com|year=2007|author=Tariq Malik}}</ref> The two computer systems (command and navigation) are each composed of three computers. Each computer is referred to as a "lane".<ref name="space.com 070616"/> By [[June 15]], the primary Russian computers were back online, and talking to the US side of the station by bypassing a circuit. Secondary systems were still offline, and further work was needed.<ref name="MCCSR15">{{cite web | url = http://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/shuttle/shuttlemissions/sts117/news/STS-117-15.html| title = STS-117 MCC Status Report #15 | publisher = NASA|author=NASA}}</ref> NASA reported that without the computer that controls the oxygen levels, the station had 56 days of oxygen available.<ref name="wikinews computer failure">{{Cite web|url=http://www.abcnews.go.com/Technology/wireStory?id=3277028|title=Atlantis' Return May Be Delayed|accessyear=2007|accessmonthday=November 13|publisher=[[ABC News]]|year=2007|author=Juan A. Lozano for the [[Associated Press]]}}</ref> By the afternoon of [[June 16]], ISS Program Manager [[Michael Suffredini]] confirmed that all six computers governing command and navigation systems for Russian segments of the station, including two thought to have failed, were back online, and would be tested over several days. The cooling system was the first system brought back online. NASA suggested that the overcurrent protection circuits designed to safeguard each computer from power spikes were at fault, and may have been tripped due to increased interference, or "noise," from the station's plasma environment related to the addition of the new [[Integrated Truss Structure#P3/P4, S3/S4 truss assemblies|starboard trusses and solar arrays]].<ref name="space.com 070616" /> Troubleshooting of the failure by the ISS crew found that the root cause was condensation inside the electrical connectors, leading to a short-circuit that triggered the "power off" command line leading to all three of the redundant processing units.<ref name="oberg">{{Cite web|url=http://www.spectrum.ieee.org/print/5598|title=Space Station: Internal NASA Reports Explain Origins of June Computer Crisis|accessyear=2007|accessmonthday=November 13|publisher=IEEE Spectrum|year=2007|author=James Oberg}}</ref> This was initially a concern, because the [[European Space Agency]] uses the same computer systems, supplied by EADS [[Astrium Space Transportation]], for the [[Columbus (ISS module)|Columbus Laboratory Module]] and the [[Automated Transfer Vehicle]].<ref name="ISS computer woes concern Europe">{{Cite web|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/nature/6763173.stm|title=ISS computer woes concern Europe|accessyear=2007|accessmonthday=November 13|publisher=[[BBC]]|year=2007|author=Irene Klotz for [[Reuters]]}}</ref> Once the root cause was understood, plans were implemented to avoid the problem in the future. ===2007 &ndash; Torn solar panel=== On [[October 30]], [[2007]] during [[Expedition 16]] and flight day 7 of [[STS-120]]'s visit to ISS, following the reposition of the P6 truss segment, ISS and [[Space Shuttle Discovery]] crew members began the deployment of the trusses' two solar arrays. The first array deployed without incident, and the second array deployed approximately 80% before astronauts noticed a {{convert|76|cm|ft|1}} tear. The arrays had been deployed in earlier phases of the space station's construction, and the retraction necessary to move the truss to its final position had gone less smoothly than planned.<ref name="Astronauts notice tear in solar panel">{{Cite web|url=http://www.newsweek.com/id/67099|title=Astronauts notice tear in solar panel|accessyear=2007|accessmonthday=October 30|publisher=[[Newsweek]]|year=2007|author=Liz Austin Peterson for [[Associated Press]]}}</ref> A second, smaller tear was noticed upon further inspection, and the mission's planned spacewalks were completely replanned in mere days to devise a repair. On Saturday [[November 3]], spacewalker [[Scott Parazynski]] assisted by [[Douglas Wheelock]] fixed the torn panels using makeshift "cufflinks" and riding on the end of the space shuttle's boom inspection arm; the first ever spacewalker to do so. The spacewalk was regarded as significantly more dangerous than most due to the possibility of shock from the electricity generating solar arrays, the unprecedented usage of the shuttle boom arm, and the lack of spacewalk planning and training for the impromptu procedure. Parazynski was, however, able to repair the damage as planned and the repaired array was fully deployed.<ref name="Space Station's Damaged Panel Is Fixed">{{Cite web|url=http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2007/11/03/AR2007110300227.html|title=Space Station's Damaged Panel Is Fixed|accessyear=2007|accessmonthday=November 3|publisher=[[Washington Post]]|year=2007|author=Rob Stein for [[Washington Post]]}}</ref> === 2007 &ndash; Damaged starboard Solar Alpha Rotary Joint=== The starboard Solar Alpha Rotary Joint (SARJ) malfunctioned during the [[STS-120]] mission. This and the port SARJ rotate the large solar arrays to keep them facing the Sun while the ISS's main body axis remains horizontal, pointing forward in the direction of orbital motion. Excessive vibration and high current spikes in the array drive motor resulted in a decision to substantially curtail motion of the starboard SARJ until the cause is understood. Inspections during EVAs have shown metallic shavings and debris in the large drive gear.<ref>{{cite web | url= http://spaceflightnow.com/shuttle/sts123/080325sarj/index.html | title= Station chief gives detailed update on joint problem}}</ref> More recent inspections have confirmed damage to the large metallic race ring at the heart of the joint. As of the [[STS-123]] mission, the cause is still not fully understood, and therefore no permanent fix has been identified. The station appears to have sufficient operating power to carry out its near-term science program with only modest impact on operations. On [[January 30]] [[2008]], NASA believes another problem, also on the starboard array side, was rectified with the replacement of the Bearing Motor Roll Ring Module (BMRRM) in the Beta Gimbal Assembly (BGA) 1A.<ref name="Spacewalkers Replace Solar Wing Motor">{{Cite web|url=http://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/station/expeditions/expedition16/exp16_eva_013008.html|title=Spacewalkers Replace Solar Wing Motor|accessyear=2008|accessmonthday=January 30|publisher=[[NASA]]|year=2008|}}</ref> On July 10, 2008 NASA announced a revised Shuttle flight manifest,<ref> [http://spaceflightnow.com/shuttle/sts125/080707manifest/] ''NASA sets schedule for remaining shuttle flights''&nbsp;, in "Spaceflight Now", July 7, 2008</ref> with [[STS-126]] (''Endeavor''&nbsp;) to visit ISS, launching on November 10, 2008, immediately following the [[Hubble Space Telescope]] servicing mission No. 4, now scheduled for launch on October 8. STS-126 will be a 15-day mission with four EVAs, largely dedicated to servicing and repair of the Solar Alpha Rotary Joints, plus station logistics and resupply. Both the starboard and port SARJs will be serviced.<ref> [http://spaceflightnow.com/shuttle/sts125/080707manifest/manifest.html] ''Summaries of remaining space shuttle flights''&nbsp;, "Spaceflight Now" July 7, 2008]</ref> In addition to lubricating both bearings, the remaining 11 Trundle Bearings in the right SARJ will be replaced.<ref> [http://www.aviationweek.com/aw/generic/story.jsp?id=news/Pyro070908.xml&headline=Crew%20To%20Pull%20Pyro%20Bolt%20On%20Soyuz%20%20%20%20&channel=space ] Frank Morring, Jr. for Aerospace Daily & Defense Report. July 9, 2008, ''Aviation Week and Space Technology''</ref> ==Visiting spacecraft== [[Image:Kistler-COTS.jpg|thumb|Computer rendering of [[Rocketplane]]-[[Kistler K-1]] approaching the ISS]] * American (NASA) [[Space Shuttle]] - resupply vehicle, assembly and logistics flights and crew rotation (to be retired in 2010) * Russian (Roskosmos) [[Soyuz spacecraft]] - crew rotation and emergency evacuation, replaced every 6 months * Russian (Roskosmos) [[Progress spacecraft]] - resupply vehicle * European (ESA) [[Automated Transfer Vehicle]] (ATV) - resupply vehicle === Currently docked === As of [[2008-06-11]]: * [[Soyuz TMA-12]] is at the [[Pirs docking compartment|''Pirs'']] nadir port * [[Jules Verne ATV|''Jules Verne'']] is at the [[Zvezda (ISS)|''Zvezda'']] aft port<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.planet4589.org/space/jsr/back/news.596 |title=Jonathan's Space Report No. 596 |date=2008-05-27}}</ref> * Progress M-64 is at the [[Zarya (ISS)|''Zarya'']] nadir port ===Planned=== * Japanese (JAXA) [[H-II Transfer Vehicle]] (HTV) resupply vehicle for Kibo module (scheduled for 2009)<ref name="launch manifest">{{cite web |url=http://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/station/structure/iss_manifest.html |title= Consolidated Launch Manifest: Space Shuttle Flights and ISS Assembly Sequence |publisher=[[National Aeronautics and Space Administration]] |date=[[September 10]], [[2007]] |accessdate=2007-09-27}}</ref> * American (NASA) [[Orion (spacecraft)|Orion]] for possible crew rotation and as resupply transporter (officially scheduled for 2014) ===Proposed=== * [[SpaceX Dragon]] for NASA [[Commercial Orbital Transportation Services]] (Scheduled for 2009) * Russian (Roskosmos) Space Shuttle [[Kliper]] for possible crew rotation and as resupply transporter (cancelled) * European-Russian [[CSTS|Crew Space Transportation System]] (Soyuz-derived) crew rotation and resupply spacecraft (scheduled for 2014) An additional spacecraft, the [[K-1 Vehicle]] manufactured by [[Rocketplane Kistler]], was proposed as part of the NASA [[Commercial Orbital Transportation Services]] program, and was scheduled to fly in 2009. On [[October 18]] [[2007]], NASA discontinued its agreement with Rocketplane Kistler after the company couldn't secure further financing and didn't meet a critical design review for the pressurized cargo module.<ref>[http://www.flightglobal.com/articles/2007/09/10/216710/nasa-warns-rocketplane-kistler-on-cots-cancellation.html FlightGlobal.com - NASA warns Rocketplane Kistler on COTS cancellation]</ref> NASA then announced that the remaining $175 million commitment to the project would be made available to other companies.<ref>{{cite web | url = http://www.space.com/businesstechnology/071022-sn-cotsappeal.html | title = Rocketplane Kistler Appeals NASA Decision to Terminate COTS Agreement | publisher = space.com | accessdate = 2007-10-23}}</ref> On [[19 February]] [[2008]], NASA awarded [[Orbital Sciences Corporation]] with the remaining $170 million to develop its [[Cygnus spacecraft]] for the COTS program.<ref>[http://www.orbital.com/NewsInfo/release.asp?prid=644 Orbital Sciences Corporation press release - NASA Selects Orbital To Demonstrate New Commercial Cargo Delivery System For The International Space Station]</ref> ==Expeditions== {{see also|List of International Space Station Expeditions}} All permanent station crews are named {{nowrap|"Expedition ''n''"}}, where ''n'' is sequentially increased after each expedition. Expeditions have an average duration of half a year and are often considered synonymous with "Increments." However, "Increments" are distinguished from Expeditions as the program planning period for activities that are to occur during a particular Expedition's residence on ISS. The start of both an Expedition and an Increment is defined by the departure of the previous Expedition crew on a [[Soyuz spacecraft]]. The definition of the Increment is in flux in preparation for 6-person crews that will be broken up into 3-person crews which overlap in their 6-month missions on ISS. The International Space Station is the most-visited spacecraft in the history of space flight. As of [[April 11]], [[2008]], it has had 213 (non-distinct) visitors. [[Mir]] had 137 (non-distinct) visitors (See [[Space station#List of occupied space stations, with statistics|Space station]]). The number of distinct visitors of the ISS is 158 (see [[list of International Space Station visitors]]). {{International Space Station}} ==Legal aspects== ===Agreement=== [[Image:ISS Agreements.jpg|thumb|Cover page of the Space Station Intergovernmental Agreement signed on January 28, 1998.]] The legal structure that regulates the space station is multi-layered. The primary layer establishing obligations and rights between the ISS partners is the Space Station Intergovernmental Agreement (IGA), an international treaty signed on [[January 28]] [[1998]] by fifteen governments involved in the Space Station project. The ISS consists of the United States, Canada, Japan, the Russian Federation, and eleven Member States of the European Space Agency (Belgium, Denmark, France, Germany, Italy, The Netherlands, Norway, Spain, Sweden, Switzerland and the United Kingdom). Article 1 outlines its purpose: ''This Agreement is a long term international co-operative framework on the basis of genuine partnership, for the detailed design, development, operation, and utilisation of a permanently inhabited civil Space Station for peaceful purposes, in accordance with international law''.<ref name = "legal framework">{{cite web | last = | first = | authorlink = | coauthors = | date = [[20 July]] [[2001]] | url = http://www.esa.int/esaHS/ESAH7O0VMOC_iss_0.html | title = International Space Station Legal Framework | format = | work = International Space Station | publisher = European Space Agency | accessmonthday = 16 September | accessyear = 2006}}</ref> The IGA sets the stage for a second layer of agreements between the partners referred to as 'Memoranda of Understanding' (MOUs), of which four exist between NASA and each of the four other partners. There are no MOUs between ESA, Roskosmos, CSA and JAXA due to the fact that NASA is the designated ''manager'' of the ISS. The MOUs are used to describe the roles and responsibilities of the partners in more detail. A third layer consists of bartered contractual agreements or the trading of the partners' rights and duties, including the 2005 commercial framework agreement between NASA and [[Roskosmos]] that sets forth the terms and conditions under which NASA purchases seats on Soyuz crew transporters and cargo capacity on unmanned [[Progress spacecraft|Progress]] transporters. A fourth legal layer of agreements implements and supplements the four MOUs further. Notably among them is the ISS code of conduct, setting out [[criminal jurisdiction]], anti-harassment and certain other behavior rules for ISS crewmembers.<ref>{{cite web | last = Farand | first = Andre | authorlink = | coauthors = | year = | url = http://portal.unesco.org/shs/en/file_download.php/785db0eec4e0cdfc43e1923624154cccFarand.pdf| title = Astronauts’ behaviour onboard the International Space Station: regulatory framework | format = pdf | work = International Space Station | publisher = UNESCO | accessmonthday = 16 September | accessyear = 2006}}</ref> ===Utilization=== [[Image:Interior of Zarya ISS mudule.jpg|thumb|The interior of the [[Zarya]] module.]] There is no fixed percentage of ownership for the whole space station. Rather, Article 5 of the IGA sets forth that ''each partner shall retain jurisdiction and control over the elements it registers and over personnel in or on the Space Station who are its nationals''.<ref name = "legal framework"/> Therefore, for each ISS module only one partner retains sole ownership. Still, the agreements to use the space station facilities are more complex. The three planned Russian segments [[Zvezda (ISS)|Zvezda]], the [[Multipurpose Laboratory Module]] and the [[Docking Cargo Module|Docking and Cargo Modules]] are made and owned by Russia, which, as of today, also retains its current and prospective usage ([[Zarya]], although constructed and launched by Russia, has been paid for and is officially owned by NASA). In order to use the Russian parts of the station, the partners use bilateral agreements (third and fourth layer of the above outlined legal structure). The rest of the station, (the U.S., the European and Japanese pressurized modules as well as the truss and solar panel structure and the two robotic arms) has been agreed to be utilized as follows (% refers to time that each structure may be used by each partner): # [[Columbus (ISS module)|Columbus]]: 51% for ESA, 49% for NASA and [[Canadian Space Agency|CSA]] (CSA has agreed with NASA to use 2.3% of all non-Russian ISS structure) # [[Japanese Experiment Module|Kibo]]: 51% for [[JAXA]], 49% for NASA and CSA (2.3%) # [[Destiny Laboratory Module|Destiny Lab]]: 100% for NASA and CSA (2.3%) as well as 100% of the truss payload accommodation # Crew time and power from the solar panel structure, as well as rights to purchase supporting services (upload/download and communication services) 76.6% for NASA, 12.8% for JAXA, 8.3% for ESA and 2.3% for CSA ==Costs== {{Original research|table|date=June 2008}} Giving a precise cost estimate for a project on that scale is not an exact science; it is, for instance, hard to determine which costs should actually be attributed to the ISS program or how the Russian contribution should be measured, as the Russian space agency runs at considerably lower USD costs than the other partners.{{Facts|date=June 2008}} ===NASA=== ====Overview==== [[Image:NASA-Main budget chart 14-01-2004.svg|thumb|NASA's current budget projections see an end to ISS funding in 2017, in order to free funds for the [[Vision for Space Exploration]].]] The overall majority of costs for NASA are incurred by flight operations and expenses for the overall management of the ISS. Costs for initially building the U.S. portion of the ISS modules and external structure on the ground and construction in space as well as crew and supply flights to the ISS do account for far less than the general operating costs ''(see [[#2005 ISS budget allocation|annual budget allocation below]])''. NASA does not include the basic Space Shuttle program costs in the expenses incurred for the ISS program, despite the fact that the Space Shuttle has been nearly exclusively used for ISS construction and supply flights since December 1998. NASA's 2007 budget request lists costs for the ISS (without Shuttle costs) as $25.6 billion for the years 1994 to 2005.<ref>{{cite web | last = | first = | authorlink = | coauthors = | year = 2006 | url = http://www.nasa.gov/about/budget/index.html | title = NASA 2007 Budget and 2006 Strategic Plan | format = | work = International Space Station | publisher = NASA | accessmonthday = 16 September | accessyear = 2006}}</ref> For each of 2005 and 2006 about $1.7 to 1.8 billion are allocated to the ISS program. The annual expenses will increase until 2010 when they will reach $2.3 billion and should then stay at the same level, however inflation-adjusted, until 2016, the defined end of the program. NASA has allocated between $300 and 500 million for program shutdown costs in 2017. ====2005 ISS budget allocation==== [[Image:STS-114 Steve Robinson on Canadarm2.jpg|thumb|NASA allocates about 125 million US dollars ([[USD]]) annually to [[Extra-vehicular activity|EVA]]s.]] The $1.8 billion expensed in 2005 consisted of:<ref>{{cite web | last = | first = | authorlink = | coauthors = | year = 2005 | url = http://www.nasa.gov/pdf/55411main_28%20ISS.pdf | title = International Space Station Major Events FY 2005 | format = | work = International Space Station | publisher = NASA | accessmonthday = 16 September | accessyear = 2006}}</ref> *'''Development of new hardware''': $70 million were allocated to core development, for instance development of systems like navigation, data support or environmental. *'''Spacecraft Operations''': $800 million consisting of $125 million for each of software, extravehicular activity systems, and logistics and maintenance. An additional $150 million is spent on flight, avionics and crew systems. The rest of $250 million goes to overall ISS management. *'''Launch and Mission operations''': Although the Shuttle launch costs are not considered part of the ISS budget, mission and mission integration ($300 million), medical support ($25 million) and Shuttle launch site processing ($125 million) is within the ISS budget. *'''Operations Program Integration''': $350 million was spent on maintaining and sustaining U.S. flight and ground hardware and software to ensure integrity of the ISS design and the continuous, safe operability. *'''ISS cargo/crew''': $140 million was spent for purchase of supplies, cargo and crew capability for [[Progress spacecraft|Progress]] and [[Soyuz spacecraft|Soyuz]] flights. ====Shuttle costs as part of ISS costs==== [[Image:Upgrading Hubble during SM1.jpg|thumb|The only non-ISS related Shuttle flight between 2005 and 2010 is a [[Hubble Space Telescope]] servicing mission on [[STS-125]].]] Only costs for mission and mission integration and launch site processing for the 33 ISS-related Shuttle flights are included in NASA's ISS program costs. Basic costs of the Shuttle program are, as mentioned above, not considered part of the overall ISS costs by NASA, because the Shuttle program is considered an independent program aside from the ISS. Since December 1998 the Shuttle has, however, been used nearly exclusively for ISS flights (since the first ISS flight in December 1998, until October 2007 only 5 flights out of 28 flights have not been to the ISS, and only the planned [[Hubble Space Telescope]] servicing mission in 2008 will not be ISS-related out of 13 planned missions until the end of the Space Shuttle program in 2010). Shuttle program costs during ISS operations from 1999 to 2005 (disregarding the first ISS flight in December 1998) have amounted to approximately $24 billion (1999: $3,028.0 million, 2000: $3,011.2 million, 2001: $3,125.7 million, 2002: $3,278.8 million, 2003: $3,252.8 million, 2004: $3,945.0 million, 2005: $4,319.2 million). In order to derive the ISS-related costs, expenses for non-ISS flights need to be subtracted, which amount to 20% of the total or about $5 billion. For the years 2006-2011 NASA projects another $20.5 billion in Space Shuttle program costs (2006: $4,777.5 million, 2007: $4,056.7 million, 2008: $4,087.3 million, 2009: $3,794.8 million, 2010: $3,651.1 million and 2011: $146.7 million). If the Hubble servicing mission is excluded from those costs, ISS-related costs will be approximately $19 billion for Shuttle flights from 2006 until 2011. In total, ISS-related Space Shuttle program costs will therefore be approximately $38 billion.{{Facts|date=June 2008}} ====Overall ISS costs for NASA==== {{Original research|table|date=June 2008}} Assuming NASA's projections of average costs of $2.5 billion from 2011 to 2016 and the end of spending money on the ISS in 2017 (about $300-500 million) after shutdown in 2016 are correct{{Facts|date=June 2008}}, the overall ISS project costs for NASA from the announcement of the program in 1993 to its end will be about $53 billion (25.6 billion for the years 1994-2005 and about 27 to 28 billion for the years 2006-2017).{{Facts|date=June 2008}} There have also been considerable costs for designing [[Space Station Freedom]] in the 1980s and early 1990s, before the ISS program started in 1993. Plans of Space Station Freedom were reused for the International Space Station.{{Facts|date=June 2008}} To sum up, although the actual costs NASA views as connected to the ISS are only half of the $100 billion figure often cited in the media, if combined with basic program costs for the Shuttle and the design of the ISS' precursor project Space Station Freedom, the costs reach $100 billion for NASA alone.{{Facts|date=June 2008}} ===ESA=== ESA calculates that its contribution over the 15 year lifetime of the project will be €9 billion.<ref> [http://www.space.com/news/0712050-sts122-esa-columbus.html European Hopes Ride on New Space Lab, Cargo Ship] </ref> Just the costs for the Columbus Laboratory tops more than €1.4 billion (about $2.1 billion), including the money spent on the ground control infrastructure known as [[Columbus Control Center]] to operate it. The total development costs for [[Automated Transfer Vehicle|ATV]] amount to approximately €1.35 billion<ref> [http://www.dlr.de/iss/en/desktopdefault.aspx/tabid-4609//7588_read-11385/ Europe sets a course for the ISS] </ref> and considering that each [[Ariane 5]] launch costs around €150 million, each ATV launch will incur considerable costs as well. The ISS has been far more expensive than originally anticipated. The [[ESA]] estimates the overall cost from the start of the project in the early 1990s to the prospective end in 2017 to be in the region of [[Euro|€]]100 billion ([[United States dollar|$]]157 billion or [[U.K.|£]]65.3 billion).<ref name = "costs">{{cite web | url = http://www.esa.int/esaHS/ESAQHA0VMOC_iss_0.html | title = How Much Does It Cost? | publisher = [[European Space Agency|ESA]] | accessdate = 2008-03-27}}</ref> ===JAXA=== The development of the [[Japanese Experiment Module]], [[JAXA]]'s main contribution to the ISS, has cost about 325 billion yen (about $2.8 billion).<ref>{{citeweb|title=Japan Prepares Space Station's Largest Laboratory for Flight |url=http://www.space.com/businesstechnology/070502_techwed_kibo.html|publisher=''[[space.com]]''|accessdate=2008-05-28}}</ref> In the year 2005, JAXA allocated about 40 billion yen (about 350 million USD) to the ISS program.<ref>{{citeweb|title=Japan Seeking 13 Percent Budget Hike for Space Activities |url=http://www.space.com/spacenews/archive04/budgetarch_090704.html|publisher=''[[space.com]]''|accessdate=2008-05-28}}</ref> The annual running costs for Japanese Experiment Module will total around $350 to 400 million. In addition JAXA has committed itself to develop and launch the [[H-II Transfer Vehicle]], for which development costs total nearly $1 billion. In total, over the 24 year lifespan of the ISS program, JAXA will contribute well over $10 billion to the ISS program. ===Roskosmos=== A considerable part of the [[Russian Space Agency]]'s budget is used for the ISS. Since 1998 there have been over two dozen Soyuz and Progress flights, the primary crew and cargo transporters since 2003. The question of how much Russia spends on the station (measured in [[United States dollar|USD]]), is, however, not easy to answer. The two modules currently in orbit are derivatives of the [[Mir]] program and therefore development costs are much lower than for other modules. In addition, the exchange rate between ruble and USD is not adequately giving a real comparison to what the costs for Russia really are. ===CSA=== Canada, whose three main contributions to the ISS are the [[Canadarm2]], the mobile base system, and [[Dextre]] (the Special Purpose Dexterous Manipulator, also known as the Canada Hand), estimates that through the last 20 years it has contributed about [[Canadian dollar|C$]]1.4 billion to the ISS. Canada has continued to be a vital member of ISS through the past ten years and continues to play a major role in the ISS.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.space.gc.ca/asc/eng/iss/facts.asp |title= International Space Station facts and figures |accessdate=2007-01-28 |format= |work= }}</ref> ==Criticism== [[Image:ISS Centrifuge Accommodations Module.jpg|thumb|The (cancelled) ISS Centrifuge Accommodations Module.]] The ISS and NASA have been the targets of varied criticism over the years. Critics contend that the time and money spent on the ISS could be better spent on [[human versus robotic spaceflight|other projects]]—whether they be [[robotic spacecraft]] missions, [[space exploration]], investigations of problems here on Earth, or just tax savings.<ref>{{cite news |title=A waste of space |url=http://www.mg.co.za/articlePage.aspx?articleid=262429&area=/breaking_news/breaking_news__international_news/ |publisher= Mail & Guardian|author=Mail & Guardian |accessdate=2007-01-28 }}</ref> Some critics, like [[Robert L. Park]], argue that very little [[Scientific method|scientific]] [[research]] was convincingly planned for the ISS in the first place.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://bobpark.physics.umd.edu/WN04/wn092404.html |title=Space Station: Maybe They Could Use It to Test Missile Defense|accessdate=2007-01-28 |last=Park |first=Bob}}</ref> They also argue that the primary feature of a space-based laboratory is its [[microgravity environment]], which can usually be studied more cheaply with a "[[Vomit Comet|vomit comet]]" (that is, an [[aircraft]] which flies in [[parabolic]] arcs.)<ref>{{cite web |url=http://bobpark.physics.umd.edu/WN06/wn091506.html |title=Space: International Space Station Unfurls New Solar Panels|accessdate=2007-06-15 |last=Park |first=Bob}}</ref> Two of the most ambitious ISS projects to date&mdash;the [[Alpha Magnetic Spectrometer]] and the [[Centrifuge Accommodations Module]]&mdash;have been cancelled or delayed due to the prohibitive costs NASA faces in simply completing the ISS. As a result, the research done on the ISS is generally limited to experiments which do not require any specialized apparatus. For example, in the first half of 2007, ISS research dealt primarily with human biological responses to being in space, covering topics like [[kidney stones]], [[circadian rhythm]], and the effects of [[cosmic rays]] on the [[nervous system]].<ref name="renal">{{Cite web|url=http://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/station/science/experiments/Renal-Stone.html|title=Renal Stone Risk During Spaceflight: Assessment and Countermeasure Validation (Renal Stone)|accessyear=2007|accessmonthday=November 13|publisher=NASA|year=2007|author=NASA}}</ref><ref name="sleep">{{Cite web|url=http://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/station/science/experiments/Sleep-Long.html|title=Sleep-Wake Actigraphy and Light Exposure During Spaceflight-Long (Sleep-Long)|accessyear=2007|accessmonthday=November 13|publisher=NASA|year=2007|author=NASA}}</ref><ref name="CNS">{{Cite web|url=http://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/station/science/experiments/ALTEA.html|title=Anomalous Long Term Effects in Astronauts' Central Nervous System (ALTEA)|accessyear=2007|accessmonthday=November 13|publisher=NASA|year=2007|author=NASA}}</ref> Critics argue that this research has little practical value, since space exploration is today almost universally done by robots. Other critics have attacked the ISS on some technical design grounds: # [[Jeff Foust]] argued that the ISS requires too much maintenance, especially by risky, expensive [[Extra-vehicular activity|EVAs]];<ref name="foust">{{Cite web|url=http://www.thespacereview.com/article/453/1|title=The trouble with space stations|accessyear=2007|accessmonthday=November 13|publisher=[[The Space Review]]|year=2005|author=[[Jeff Foust]]}}</ref> # The Astronomical Society of the Pacific has mentioned that its orbit is rather highly inclined, which makes Russian launches cheaper, but US launches more expensive.<ref name="astrosoc">{{Cite web|url=http://www.astrosociety.org/education/publications/tnl/34/space2.html|title=Up, Up, and Away|accessyear=2006|accessmonthday=September 10|publisher=Astronomical Society of the Pacific|year=1996|author=James J. Secosky, George Musser}}</ref> This was intended as a design point, to encourage Russian involvement with the ISS&mdash;and Russian involvement saved the project from abandonment in the wake of the [[Space Shuttle Columbia disaster]]&mdash;but the choice may have increased the costs of completing the ISS substantially. In response to some of these criticisms, advocates of manned space exploration say that criticism of the ISS project is short-sighted, and that manned space research and exploration have produced billions of dollars' worth of tangible benefits to people on Earth. Jerome Schnee estimated that the indirect economic return from spin-offs of [[human spaceflight|human space exploration]] has been many times the initial public investment.<ref name="Schnee">{{Cite web|url=http://ntrs.nasa.gov/search.jsp?R=640676&id=1&qs=Ntt%3DSchnee%26Ntk%3Dall%26Ntx%3Dmode%2520matchall%26N%3D0%26Ns%3DPublicationYear%257C0|title=Economic impact of large public programs The NASA experience|accessyear=2007|accessmonthday=November 13|publisher=NASA Technical Reports Server (NTRS)|year=1976|author=Ginzburg, E.; Kuhn, J. W.; Schnee, J.; Yavitz, B.}}</ref> A review of the claims by the Federation of American Scientists argued that NASA's rate of return from spin-offs is actually very low, except for aeronautics work that has led to aircraft sales.<ref name="fas">{{Cite web|url=http://www.fas.org/spp/eprint/jp_950525.htm|title=NASA Technological Spinoff Fables|accessyear=2006|accessmonthday=September 17|publisher=Federation of American Scientists|author=Federation of American Scientists}}</ref> Critics also say that NASA is often casually credited with "spin-offs" (such as [[Velcro]] and portable computers) that were developed independently for other reasons.<ref>{{cite news |first=Robert |last=Park |title=The Virtual Astronaut |url=http://www.thenewatlantis.com/archive/4/park.htm |work= |publisher=The New Atlantis |date= |accessdate=2007-01-28 }}</ref> NASA maintains a list of spin-offs from the construction of the ISS, as well as from work performed on the ISS.<ref name="spinoff">{{Cite web|url=http://www.sti.nasa.gov/tto/|title=NASA Spinoff|accessyear=2007|accessmonthday=November 13|publisher=NASA Scientific and Technical Information (STI)|year=2007|author=NASA}}</ref><ref>{{cite web| url = http://www.sti.nasa.gov/tto/ISSspin.html| title = International Space Station Spinoffs| accessdate = 2006-09-14| author = NASA Center for AeroSpace Information (CASI) | date = | year = | month = [[2005-21-05]]| format = HTML| publisher = NASA| language = English}}</ref> However, NASA's official list is much narrower and more arcane than dramatic narratives of billions of dollars of spin-offs. It is therefore debatable whether the ISS, as distinct from the wider space program, will be a major contributor to society. Some advocates argue that apart from its scientific value, it is an important example of international cooperation.<ref name="thirdanniv">{{Cite web|url=http://www.spacetoday.org/SpcStns/FirstAnnivOccupy.html|title=International Space Station: Human Residency Third Anniversary|accessyear=2006|accessmonthday=September 17|publisher=Space Today Online|year=2003|author=Space Today Online}}</ref> Others claim that the ISS is an asset that, if properly leveraged, could allow more economical manned Lunar and Mars missions.<ref name="marstoday">{{Cite web|url=http://www.marstoday.com/news/viewpr.html?pid=18482|title=Interview with Niolai <small>(sic)</small> Sevostianov, President, RSC Energia: The mission to Mars is to be international|accessyear=2007|accessmonthday=January 16|publisher=Mars Today.com/SpaceRef Interactive Inc|year=2005|author=[[S.P. Korolev Rocket and Space Corporation Energia|RSC Energia]]}}</ref> Either way, advocates argue that it misses the point to expect a hard financial return from the ISS; rather, it is intended as part of a general expansion of spaceflight capabilities. ==Sightings== Due to the size of the International Space Station, which is the size of an [[American football#Field and players|American football field]], and particularly due to the large reflective area offered by its [[Solar panels on spacecraft|solar panels]], ground based observation of the station is possible with the [[Naked eye#Naked eye in astronomy|naked eye]] if one is within 63 degrees latitude. In many cases the station is one of the brightest naked-eye objects in the sky, though it is only visible for brief periods of time. This is because the station is in low earth orbit, and the sun angle and observer locations need to coincide.<ref name="see">{{Cite web|url=http://spaceflight.nasa.gov/realdata/sightings/index.html|title=International Space Station Sighting Opportunities|accessyear=2007|accessmonthday=November 13|publisher=NASA|year=2007|author=NASA}}</ref> NASA provides data on forthcoming opportunities for viewing the ISS (and other objects) on the [http://spaceflight.nasa.gov/realdata/sightings/index.html Station Sightings] web page, as do the [[European Space Agency]] and the independent site [[Heavens-Above]].<ref name="see" /><ref name="ESAsee">{{Cite web|url=http://www.esa.int/esaHS/ESA0I6KE43D_iss_0.html|title=See the ISS from your home town|accessyear=2007|accessmonthday=November 13|publisher=European Space Agency|year=2007|author=European Space Agency}}</ref> ==Miscellany== [[Image:YuriMalenchenko.jpg|thumb|[[Yuri Malenchenko]] was the first person to be married in space.]] ===Space tourism and a wedding=== As of 2007 there have been five [[Space tourism#List of flown space tourists|space tourists]] to the ISS, each spending around US $25 million; they all went there aboard Russian supply missions. There has also been a space wedding when cosmonaut [[Yuri Malenchenko]] on the station married Ekaterina Dmitrieva, who was in Texas. ===ISS golf event=== ''[[Expedition 14#EVA 1|Golf Shot Around The World]]'' was an event in which, on an [[Extra-vehicular activity|EVA]], a special golf ball, equipped with a tracking device, was hit from the station and sent into its own [[low Earth orbit]] for a fee paid by a Canadian golf equipment manufacturer to the Russian Space Agency. The task was supposed to be performed on [[Expedition 13]], but the event was postponed, and took place on [[Expedition 14]].<ref name="golf">{{Cite web|url=http://www.spaceref.com/news/viewnews.html?id=1093|title=Golf or Science: What is NASA's Plan for the Space Station?|accessyear=2007|accessmonthday=November 13|publisher=Space Ref.com|year=2006|author=Keith Cowing}}</ref> ===Microgravity=== At the station's orbital altitude, the gravity from the Earth is 88% of that at sea level. The state of [[weightlessness]] is due to the constant free fall of the ISS, which according to the [[equivalence principle]], is indiscernible from being in a state of zero gravity. The environment on the station is often described instead as [[microgravity]], due to four effects: *The drag resulting from the residual atmosphere. *Vibratory acceleration due to mechanical systems and the crew on board the ISS. *Orbital corrections by the on-board gyroscopes (or thrusters). *The spatial separation from the real [[center of mass]] of the ISS, with a level of gravity on the order of 2 to 1,000 millionths of one ''[[Standard gravity|g]]'' (the value varies with the frequency of the disturbance<!-- of what? -->, with the low value occurring at frequencies below 0.1 [[Hertz|Hz]], and the higher value at frequencies of 100 Hz or more).<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.spaceflight.esa.int/users/downloads/userguides/physenv.pdf|title=European Users Guide to Low Gravity Platforms|accessdate=2006-05-16|format=PDF|publisher=European Space Agency|language=English}}</ref> ===Time zone=== The ISS uses [[Coordinated Universal Time]] (UTC, sometimes informally called [[GMT]]) to regulate its onboard day. This is roughly equidistant between its two control centres in Houston and Moscow. The windows are covered at "night" to give the impression of darkness since it experiences 16 sunrises/sunsets a day. The crew typically wakes up at around 7:00 UTC; they work for about ten hours each weekday and five hours each Saturday.<ref>[http://spaceflight.nasa.gov/station/crew/exp7/luletters/lu_letter9.html Ed's Musings from Space] Expedition 7 astronaut Ed Lu, Updated: 09/08/2003 Accessed August 2007</ref> During visiting shuttle missions, the ISS crew will mostly follow the shuttle's [[Mission Elapsed Time]] (MET), which is a flexible timezone based solely on the launchtime of the shuttle mission.<ref name="MET">{{cite web|url=http://science.nasa.gov/Realtime/Rocket_Sci/clocks/time-met.html|title=Mission Elapsed Time explained|accessdate=2007-11-09|date=1995-09-13}}</ref><ref name="STS-113-interview">{{cite web|url=http://spaceflight.nasa.gov/feedback/expert/answer/crew/sts-113/index_2.html|title=Ask the STS-113 crew: Question 14|accessdate=2007-11-09|date=2002-12-07}}</ref> Because the sleeping periods between the UTC timezone and the MET usually differ, the ISS crew often has to adjust their sleeping pattern before the shuttle arrives and after it leaves to shift from one timezone to the other, therefore this is called ''sleepshifting''. ===Atmosphere=== The [[atmosphere]] on board the ISS is maintained to have a composition similar to that of the [[Earth's atmosphere]].<ref>[http://science.howstuffworks.com/space-station2.htm How Space Stations Work] by Craig Freudenrich, Ph.D. at Howstuffworks. Accessed January 2008</ref> Normal [[Atmospheric pressure|air pressure]] on the Space Station is 101.3 [[kilopascal|kPa]] (14.7 [[Pounds per square inch|psi]]),<ref>[http://nasaexplores.com/show2_5_8a.php?id=04-032&gl=58 The Air Up There] NASAexplores: April 29, 2004. Accessed January 2008.</ref> the same as at sea level on Earth. This does not match the atmosphere on the shuttle, so adjustments are performed during visits. ==See also== {{commons|International Space Station}} {{Wikinewscat|International Space Station}} * [[List of International Space Station visitors]] * [[List of ISS spacewalks]] performed from the ISS or visiting spacecraft * [[List of manned spaceflights to the ISS]] for a comprehensive chronological list of all manned spacecraft that have visited the ISS, including the spacecraft's respective crews * [[List of unmanned spaceflights to the ISS]] &mdash; Progress supply flights and unmanned automatic docking space station modules <!-- Maybe someone can add (make) a list of respective unmanned craft as well? --> *[[South Atlantic Anomaly]] == References == <div class="reflist4" style="height: 220px; overflow: auto; padding: 3px" > {{reflist|3}} </div> ==External links== ;Official ISS pages at the participating space agencies' websites: {{USA}} :*[http://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/station/main/index.html International Space Station &mdash; NASA site] :*[http://www.jsc.nasa.gov/history/iss.htm International Space Station &mdash; NASA History Portal] {{RUS}} :*[http://www.roscosmos.ru/MIOP1file.asp International Space Station &mdash; Roskosmos] (in Russian) :*[http://www.mcc.rsa.ru/mks.htm International Space Station &mdash; Roskosmos Mission Control Centre] (in Russian) :*[http://www.energia.ru/eng/iss/iss.html International Space Station &mdash; RKK Energia] (in English) {{CAN}} :*[http://www.space.gc.ca/asc/eng/iss/default.asp International Space Station &mdash; CSA Site] [[Image:Flag of Europe.svg|22px]] [[Europe]] :*[http://www.esa.int/esaHS/iss.html International Space Station &mdash; ESA site] {{JPN}} :*[http://www.jaxa.jp/missions/projects/iss_human/index_e.html International Space Station &mdash; JAXA site] {{BRA}} :*[http://www.aeb.gov.br/conteudo.php?ida=28&idc=118 International Space Station &mdash; AEB site] {{ITA}} :*[http://www.asi.it/SiteEN/ContentSite.aspx?Area=Abitare+lo+spazio International Space Station &mdash; ASI site] ==Interactive/Multimedia== * [http://www.nasa.gov/externalflash/ISSRG/index.html NASA's International Space Station Interactive Reference Guide - Flash Multimedia] * [http://spaceflight.nasa.gov/gallery/images/station/ NASA's ISS Image gallery Search page] ;ISS pages of major ISS contractors: * [http://www.energia.ru/eng/iss/iss.html International Space Station &mdash; Energia site] * [http://www.boeing.com/defense-space/space/spacestation/index.html International Space Station &mdash; Boeing site] ;Other ISS links: * [http://www.zarya.info/Frequencies/FrequenciesISS.php Listen to the ISS - transmission frequencies] * [http://www.cnn.com/SPECIALS/cold.war/experience/technology/space.timeline/us/iss/index.html CNN page with 3D model] * [http://hosted.ap.org/specials/interactives/_science/space_station/ Associated Press International Space Station Timeline - Interactive] * [http://www.spaceflight.nasa.gov/station/isstodate.html Current ISS Vital Statistics] * [http://www.heavens-above.com/ Heavens-Above.com - Real-time ISS and satellite/shuttle sighting opportunities.] * [http://www.issfanclub.com ISS Fan Club] devoted to ham radio communications with the ISS * [http://www.tietronix.com/anim/pao/s1A1.html Build-up of the ISS (simulation) at tietronix.com] * [http://www.space.gs/iss/ International Space Station] Full coverage of all ISS activities, includes all Status Reports issued since January 2003 * [http://www.astronautix.com/craft/intation.htm International Space Station] from [[Encyclopedia Astronautica]] (out of date) * [http://www.n2yo.com/ Live real time tracking] * [http://spaceweather.com/flybys/ ISS flybys by SpaceWeather] now also times for international locations {{ISS modules}} {{Space stations}} {{US manned space programs}} {{Russian manned space programs}} [[Category:Current spaceflights]] [[Category:Human spaceflight]] [[Category:International Space Station| ]] [[Category:Space stations]] [[Category:Manned spacecraft]] [[Category:Artificial satellites currently orbiting Earth]] {{Link FA|bg}} {{Link FA|fa}} {{Link FA|pt}} {{Link FA|vi}} [[ar:محطة الفضاء الدولية]] [[bn:আন্তর্জাতিক মহাকাশ স্টেশন]] [[zh-min-nan:Kok-chè Thài-khong-chām]] [[bs:Međunarodna svemirska stanica]] [[bg:Международна космическа станция]] [[ca:Estació Espacial Internacional]] [[cs:Mezinárodní vesmírná stanice]] [[da:Den Internationale Rumstation]] [[de:Internationale Raumstation]] [[et:Rahvusvaheline kosmosejaam]] [[el:Διεθνής Διαστημικός Σταθμός]] [[es:Estación Espacial Internacional]] [[eo:Internacia Kosmostacio]] [[fa:ایستگاه فضایی بین‌المللی]] [[fr:Station spatiale internationale]] [[fy:Ynternasjonaal Romtestasjon]] [[gl:Estación Espacial Internacional]] [[ko:국제 우주 정거장]] [[hi:अन्तरराष्ट्रीय अन्तरिक्ष स्टेशन]] [[hr:Međunarodna svemirska postaja]] [[id:Stasiun Luar Angkasa Internasional]] [[is:Alþjóðlega geimstöðin]] [[it:Stazione Spaziale Internazionale]] [[he:תחנת החלל הבינלאומית]] [[ka:საერთაშორისო კოსმოსური სადგური]] [[lv:Starptautiskā kosmiskā stacija]] [[lb:International Raumstatioun ISS]] [[lt:Tarptautinė Kosminė Stotis]] [[hu:Nemzetközi Űrállomás]] [[mk:Меѓународна Вселенска Станица]] [[ms:Stesen Angkasa Antarabangsa]] [[mn:Олон Улсын Сансрын Станц]] [[nl:Internationaal ruimtestation ISS]] [[ja:国際宇宙ステーション]] [[no:Den internasjonale romstasjonen]] [[nn:Den internasjonale romstasjonen]] [[pl:Międzynarodowa Stacja Kosmiczna]] [[pt:Estação Espacial Internacional]] [[ro:Staţia Spaţială Internaţională]] [[ru:Международная космическая станция]] [[sco:International Space Station]] [[sq:Stacioni Hapësinor Ndërkombëtar]] [[scn:Stazzioni spazziali ntirnazziunali]] [[si:ජාත්‍යන්තර අභ්‍යවකාශ මධ්‍යස්ථානය]] [[simple:International Space Station]] [[sk:Medzinárodná vesmírna stanica]] [[sl:Mednarodna vesoljska postaja]] [[sr:Међународна свемирска станица]] [[sh:Međunarodna svemirska stanica]] [[stq:ISS]] [[fi:Kansainvälinen avaruusasema]] [[sv:Internationella rymdstationen]] [[ta:அனைத்துலக விண்வெளி நிலையம்]] [[th:สถานีอวกาศนานาชาติ]] [[vi:Trạm vũ trụ Quốc tế]] [[tr:Uluslararası Uzay İstasyonu]] [[uk:Міжнародна космічна станція]] [[yi:אינטערנאציאנאלע ספעיס סטאנציע]] [[zh:國際太空站]]